## Language and Linguistics Vocabulary

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Last Update: 4/5/02
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#$CommunicationConvention communication convention **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of conventions used to encode and interpret things which bear information; a syntax together with a semantic mapping. Instances include natural languages like French or English, database data formats, and computer languages or idiosyncratic systems of gestures or symbols known only by a small group of people.
> guid: bd58f43f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$TemporalStuffType
> direct specialization of: #$AbstractInformationalThing
> direct generalization of: #$WritingSystem #$Language

#$Language languages (communication convention) **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of systems which use conventionalized signs or symbols. This includes dead languages, computer languages, unspoken languages, codes - anything which relates symbols to meaning.
> guid: bd58f489-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$ObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$CommunicationConvention
> direct generalization of: #$HumanLanguage #$AbstractProgrammingLanguage #$NaturalLanguage

#$NaturalLanguage natural languages

> A specialization of #$Language. Each instance of #$NaturalLanguage is a language which is used for human communication, and which has evolved naturally. Instances include dead languages such as Ancient Greek and Latin, but concocted languages such as Esperanto are not included.
> guid: bd58f37a-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$ObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$HumanLanguage
> direct generalization of: #$LivingLanguage #$DeadLanguage

#$LivingLanguage living languages

> A specialization of #$NaturalLanguage. An instance of #$NaturalLanguage is an instance of #$LivingLanguage just in case it has at least one extant native speaker.
> guid: bd58fc55-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LanguageGroupingType
> direct specialization of: #$NaturalLanguage

#$DeadLanguage dead languages **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> A subcollection of #$NaturalLanguage. Each instance of #$DeadLanguage is a natural language that is no longer spoken as a native language.
> guid: bd58a2a8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LanguageGroupingType
> direct specialization of: #$NaturalLanguage

#$SanskritLanguage Sanskrit **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> This language was originally spoken in the Indic area and is now a dead language. Its sacred literature, however, was transmitted orally and eventually written in the then-current Devanagari script
> guid: bd5892ad-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$DeadLanguage #$Individual

#$EnglishLanguage the English language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The Germanic Language native to England, now spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States, and many other countries.
> guid: bd58b700-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$SpanishLanguage the Spanish language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The indigenous language of #$Spain and, secondarily, most of Central and South America
> guid: bd58e563-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$FrenchLanguage the French language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The Romance language which is the primary language spoken in #$France.
> guid: bd58b6bf-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$GermanLanguage the German language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> In its standard version, the dominant form of High German.
> guid: bd58d018-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$MandarinChineseLanguage Mandarin Chinese **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> One of the major languages spoken in China; also the official language.
> guid: bd58a106-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$HindiLanguage Hindi **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> Language spoken in the Indic area.
> guid: bd58cbdb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$BengaliLanguage Asamiya **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> Language spoken in the Indic area.
> guid: bd58cf7c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$MalayIndonesianLanguage the Indonesian language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> A Malayan language spoken in Indonesia.
> guid: bd58b9cd-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$JapaneseLanguage the Japanese language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The language of the people of #$Japan.
> guid: bd5886ea-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$PortugueseLanguage the Portuguese language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> Indigenous language of #$Portugal and #$Brazil.
> guid: bd590836-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$RussianLanguage the Russian language **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> Dominant language of #$Russia.
> guid: bd58b38e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$ArabicLanguage Arabic **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> A Semitic language spoken by a large number of people in North Africa and the Middle East.
> guid: bd588730-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LivingLanguage #$Individual

#$AbstractProgrammingLanguage programming languages **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> A specialization of #$ComputerLanguage, #$AbstractProgrammingLanguage is the collection of languages invented for the purpose of issuing commands (in the form of #$ComputerProgram-CWs) to computers.
> guid: bd58c2ea-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$ObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$Language #$ProgramSpecification

#$orthography orthography (binary predicate) **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$orthography LANG WRIT) means that the #$WritingSystem WRIT is the usual mode of writing used to encode the #$Language LANG; that is, WRIT is used by most of the people who customarily engage in writing LANG.
> guid: bd58f1d5-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate

#$hasCommConvention has comm convention **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$hasCommConvention AGENT CONV) means that the agent AGENT knows the #$CommunicationConvention CONV and can use it to encode or decode information.
> guid: bd58f9a9-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate

#$usesCommConventionForInfo uses comm convention for info **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$usesCommConventionForInfo INFO CC IBT) means that the #$InformationBearingThing IBT contains the information INFO, and INFO was encoded using the #$CommunicationConvention CC. INFO need not be propositional (see also #$PropositionalInformationThing).
> guid: bd588095-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$TernaryPredicate

#$languageSpoken language spoken **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$languageSpoken AGENT NATLANG) means that the #$IntelligentAgent AGENT speaks the natural human language NATLANG at least somewhat fluently. The language must be speakable by humans, as are English, Latin, or Japanese, but not LISP, C or LINCOS. See also #$NaturalLanguage.
> guid: bd58b67e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$knowsAbout #$hasCommConvention

#$languagesSpokenHere languages spoken here **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$languagesSpokenHere REG LANG) means that LANG is a language spoken in geographical region REG.
> guid: bd58a992-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate

#$nationalLanguage national language

> (#$nationalLanguage NAT LANG) means that LANG is officially recognized by the political region NAT as a national language. A country may have more than one nationalLanguage.
> guid: bd58dc3e-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$IntangibleObjectPredicate #$BinaryPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$languagesSpokenHere

#$nativeLanguage native language

> (#$nativeLanguage PERSON LANG) means that the #$Person PERSON is fluent in the #$NaturalLanguage LANG, and that LANG was (one of the) first language(s) spoken by PERSON. The #$arg2Format for this predicate is #$SetTheFormat, to cover cases in which a person has two or more first languages (as might be the case when a child is raised in a bilingual household).
> guid: bd58d9e2-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$BinaryPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$languageSpoken

#$LinguisticObject linguistic objects

> A specialization of #$AbstractInformationalThing. Each instance of #$LinguisticObject is an intangible object that is part of some language or other, in a broad sense of part whereby #$LinguisticObject's specializations include such diverse collections as #$Title, #$WordSense, #$SententialConstituent, #$NonlexicalLinguisticObject, and #$LinguisticAttribute.
> guid: bd58d0fb-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LinguisticObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$AbstractInformationalThing
> direct generalization of: #$Sentence #$ProperNamePredicate-General #$LexicalItem #$Title #$NonlexicalLinguisticObject #$SententialConstituent #$ELSentence-Assertible #$ParsingTemplateCategory #$TemplateMarkerObject #$Phoneme #$NLWord-Phonological #$LinguisticRuleElement #$LinguisticRule

#$LinguisticObjectType types of linguistic object **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> A collection of collections. Each instance of #$LinguisticObjectType is a specialization of #$LinguisticObject (q.v.).
> guid: bd5900f4-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SecondOrderCollection
> direct specialization of: #$ObjectType
> direct generalization of: #$SententialConstituentType #$NLPhraseType #$SpeechPart #$AffixCategory #$LexicalWordTypeByLanguage #$LexicalWordType

#$LexicalItem lexical item

> A subcollection of #$LinguisticObject (q.v.). #$LexicalItem is the collection of linguistic objects that are part of the lexicon of some natural language or other. Instances of #$LexicalItem include words as well as constituents of words, such as affixes (see #$LexicalWord, #$WordConstituent, and #$LexicalAffix).
> guid: be1903ee-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LinguisticObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$LinguisticObject #$AbstractInformationStructure
> direct generalization of: #$LexicalWord #$WordConstituent #$BaseWordForm

#$LexicalWord words (AIT)

> A subcollection of #$LexicalItem. #$LexicalWord is the collection of all natural language words. A lexical word is a free morpheme: it can appear in a phrase without being bound to (i.e. concatenated with) another lexical item. (Cf. #$LexicalAffix.) Note that different inflectional forms of a given word do not constitute distinct lexical words. Instances of #$LexicalWord include #$Aluminum-TheWord, #$Confetti-TheWord, #$To-TheWord, #$Confetti-TheWord, #$Hang-Glide-MWW.
> guid: bd58e4ae-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LexicalWordType
> direct specialization of: #$BaseWordForm
> direct generalization of: #$InherentlyVulgarWord #$EnglishWord #$SimpleWord #$ComplexWord

#$EnglishWord English words **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all lexical words in English; a subcollection of #$LexicalWord. Different inflectional forms of a word do not count as different words; for example, #$Eat-TheWord encompasses the strings 'eat', 'eating', 'ate', etc.
> guid: bd588075-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LexicalWordTypeByLanguage
> direct specialization of: #$LexicalWord

#$NonlexicalLinguisticObject nonlexical linguistic objects **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of linguistic objects which are not morphemes, but which nonetheless make up part of a language system; e.g., the parts of speech.
> guid: bd588258-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$LinguisticObjectType
> direct specialization of: #$LinguisticObject
> direct generalization of: #$SubcategorizationFrame

### Some Example Parts Of Speech

#$posForms pos forms **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The predicate #$posForms is used to indicate the different parts of speech that a particular English word has associated with it. (#$posForms WORD POS) means that the #$EnglishWord WORD has a form that can serve as the #$SpeechPart POS. For example, #$Dot-TheWord has forms for both #$SimpleNoun and #$Verb. Forms of a word used for different parts of speech may or may not differ from each other in sound and/or spelling. To find out, or to specify, the string that represents a particular POS form of a specific word, use #$partOfSpeech.
> guid: bd5e4f4d-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$NLSyntacticPredicate #$BinaryPredicate

#$SpeechPart parts of speech **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all parts of speech. Instances of #$SpeechPart include #$Preposition, #$Adverb, #$SimpleNoun, #$Determiner, #$QuantifyingIndexical, #$Punctuation-SP, #$Pronoun). To link a specific word with the parts of speech for which it has forms, see #$posForms; e.g., #$You-TheWord has a#$Pronoun form, #$And-TheWord has a #$CoordinatingConjunction form, #$Hit-TheWord has both #$SimpleNoun and #$Verb forms.
> guid: bd588172-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SecondOrderCollection
> direct specialization of: #$LinguisticObjectType #$TermPhrasesConstraint
> direct generalization of: #$GenericSpeechPartType

#$SimpleNoun count nouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all simple nouns, also called common nouns. Simple nouns can typically be preceded by a determiner, and in English they inflect for number. These nouns, unlike mass nouns, are countable. Example: 'dog'.
> guid: bd588078-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$CountNoun-Generic
> direct generalization of: #$SimpleNoun-Neuter #$SimpleNoun-Masculine #$SimpleNoun-Feminine #$Number-SP

#$MassNoun common mass nouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all mass nouns. Mass nouns are syntactically singular, and often they denote stufflike things. Example: 'water'.
> guid: bd652289-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$MassNoun-Generic

#$AgentiveNoun agentive nouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all nouns in the agentive form. Agentive nouns usually denote the `doer' or `performer' of some action, and often end in `-er' or `-or'. Example: `runner'.
> guid: bd588033-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$DeVerbalNoun

#$ProperCountNoun proper count nouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all proper count nouns. Proper nouns are usually capitalized, and they usually denote some particular person, place, or thing. Many proper nouns cannot be preceded by a determiner, and many have no plural form. Example: `Dallas'. Although one might think that names for languages e.g. ``Cherokee'' are #$ProperCountNouns, they are actually #$MassNouns. One test is to see if you can ``too much X'' or ``a lot of X'' without a distinct plural form. For example ``too much Crest'' vs *``too much Q-tips'' and ``a lot of Coke'' vs *``a lot of Q-tip'' suggest that ``crest'' and ``coke'' are mass nouns, whereas ``Q-tip'' is a count noun.
> guid: c0f2a028-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$CountNoun-Generic #$ProperNoun

#$ProperMassNoun proper mass nouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all proper mass nouns. Proper mass nouns are usually capitalized.
> guid: bf668bab-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$MassNoun-Generic #$ProperNoun

#$Pronoun pronouns **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all pronouns. Pronouns are indexicals which can replace nouns. Example: `she'.
> guid: c0fe02b2-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$ClosedClassWord
> direct generalization of: #$IndefinitePronoun #$ExpletivePronoun #$Number-SP #$ReciprocalPronoun #$PossessivePronoun-Post #$WHPronoun #$ReflexivePronoun #$ObjectPronoun #$SubjectPronoun #$PossessivePronoun

#$Verb verbs **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all verbs. Verbs usually denote events, states, or processes. Verbs can be conjugated. Example: `eat'.
> guid: bd58807c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$OpenClassWord
> direct generalization of: #$AuxVerb #$MainVerb #$DenominalVerb #$DeAdjectivalVerb

#$Adjective adjectives **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collecton of all adjectives. Adjectives are words which can modify nouns. Many adjectives have comparative and superlative forms. Example: `red'.
> guid: bd588031-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$OpenClassWord
> direct generalization of: #$NonIntersectiveAdjective #$AttributiveOnlyAdjective #$DeverbalAdjective #$DeAdjectivalAdjective #$DenominalAdjective #$NongradableAdjective #$PredicativeOnlyAdjective

#$Adverb adverbs **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all adverbs. Adverbs are words which can modify adverbs, verbs, or adjectives. Many adverbs are morphologically derived from adjectives. Example: `slowly'.
> guid: bd58802c-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$NLWordForm
> direct generalization of: #$WHAdverb #$ConjunctAdverb #$DenominalAdverb #$DeAdjectivalAdverb

#$Modal modal verbs **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all modal auxiliary verbs. Modals have only tensed forms, do not inflect for person and number, and can take contracted negation. Example: `should'.
> guid: bd5884c6-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$AuxVerb

#$Preposition prepositions **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> The collection of all prepositions. Prepositions are function words which usually take a noun phrase complement. They usually express temporal, spatial, or other relations. Example: `at'.
> guid: bd59095f-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPart
> direct specialization of: #$ClosedClassWord
> direct generalization of: #$Preposition-Spatial #$Preposition-Of #$Preposition-Temporal

### Examples Of Predicates Indicating Syntactic Properties Of

#$singular singular **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$singular WORD STRING) means that STRING is the singular noun form of WORD. For example, the #$singular form of #$Hit-TheWord is `hit'.
> guid: bd6757b8-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$singular-Generic #$simpleNounStrings

#$plural plural **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$plural WORD STRING) means that STRING is the plural noun form of WORD. For example, the #$plural form of #$Hit-TheWord is `hits', and the plural form of #$Goose-TheWord is `geese'.
> guid: bd5a6853-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$plural-Generic #$simpleNounStrings

#$massNumber mass number **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$massNumber WORD STRING) means that STRING is the mass noun form of WORD. For example, `paper' is the mass noun form of #$Paper-TheWord.
> guid: bd60ad01-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$massNumber-Generic

#$infinitive infinitive

> This predicate relates #$LexicalWords (q.v.) to their corresponding infinitive verb forms. (#$infinitive WORD STRING) means that STRING is an infinitive verb form of WORD. But note that for the sake of convenience STRING does _not_ include the marker `to' that is commonly given at the beginning of an (English) infinitive. For example, #$infinitive relates #$Hit-TheWord simply to the string `hit' (rather than `to hit'). Note also that, in the Knowledge Base (KB), the closed atomic sentences (i.e. GAF s) built with #$infinitive typically have #$SubLStrings (q.v.) as their second arguments, as indicated by a surrounding pair of double-quotation marks. So the above example actually appears in the KB as `(#$infinitive #$Hit-TheWord hit )'.
> guid: bd5d6824-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$untensed

#$pastTense-Universal past tense - universal

> (#$pastTense-Universal WORD STRING) means that STRING is the past tense verb form of WORD. The regular past tense form is formed from the infinitive verb form with an `-ed' suffix. Since regular forms are generated by the morphology component, verbs in the Cyc lexicon should have a #$pastTense-Universal entry only if they are irregular. Regular example: `helped'. Irregular example: `ate'.
> guid: bd5d8eb7-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$perfective-Generic

#$perfect perfect

> (#$perfect WORD STRING) means that STRING is the perfect verb form (also known as the past participle) of WORD. The regular perfect verb form is often the same as the past tense verb form. Verbs in the Cyc lexicon should have a #$perfect entry only if they are irregular, since regular forms are generated by the morphology component. Regular example: `helped'. Irregular example: `eaten'.
> guid: bd62ff40-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$untensed

#$gerund gerund **COMMENT NOT REVIEWED** **GAFs NOT REVIEWED**

> (#$gerund WORD STRING) means that STRING is the gerund form of WORD. The regular gerund is formed from the infinitive verb form with an `ing' suffix. Verbs in the Cyc lexicon will have a #$gerund entry only if they are irregular. Regular forms are generated by the morphology component.
> guid: bd67b170-9c29-11b1-9dad-c379636f7270
> direct instance of: #$SpeechPartPredicate
> direct specialization of: #$singular-Generic #$massNumber-Generic #$untensed

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