Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.25 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 0 10 4095584 4052612 2022-08-23T23:00:06Z Innerstream 3345774 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes|<< Haloalkanes]] |'''Alkenes'''| [[Organic Chemistry/Alkynes|Alkynes >>]] Alkenes are [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#A|aliphatic]] [[Organic Chemistry/Glossary#H|hydrocarbons]] containing carbon-carbon double bonds and general formula C_nH_2n. =Naming Alkenes= Alkenes are named as if they were alkanes, but the "-ane" suffix is changed to "-ene". If the alkene contains only one double bond and that double bond is terminal (the double bond is at one end of the molecule or another) then it is not necessary to place any number in front of the name. <blockquote> '''butane:''' C₄H₁₀ (CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₃)<br> '''butene:''' C₄H₈ (CH₂=CHCH₂CH₃) </blockquote> If the double bond is not terminal (if it is on a carbon somewhere in the center of the chain) then the carbons should be numbered in such a way as to give the first of the two double-bonded carbons the lowest possible number, and that number should precede the "ene" suffix with a dash, as shown below. <blockquote> '''correct:''' pent-2-ene (CH₃CH=CHCH₂CH₃)<br> '''incorrect:''' pent-3-ene (CH₃CH₂CH=CHCH₃)<br> ''The second one is incorrect because flipping the formula horizontally results in a lower number for the alkene.'' </blockquote> If there is more than one double bond in an alkene, all of the bonds should be numbered in the name of the molecule - even terminal double bonds. The numbers should go from lowest to highest, and be separated from one another by a comma. The IUPAC numerical prefixes are used to indicate the number of double bonds. <blockquote> '''octa-2,4-diene:''' CH₃CH=CHCH=CHCH₂CH₂CH₃<br> '''deca-1,5-diene:''' CH₂=CHCH₂CH₂CH=CHCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃ </blockquote> Note that the numbering of "2-4" above yields a molecule with two double bonds separated by just one single bond. Double bonds in such a condition are called "conjugated", and they represent an enhanced stability of conformation, so they are energetically favored as reactants in many situations and combinations. ==EZ Notation== Earlier in stereochemistry, we discussed cis/trans notation where cis- means same side and trans- means opposite side. Alkenes can present a unique problem, however in that the cis/trans notation sometimes breaks down. The first thing to keep in mind is that alkenes are planar and there's no rotation of the bonds, as we'll discuss later. So when a substituent is on one side of the double-bond, it stays on that side. [[Image:EZNotation3.png|thumb|400px|center|cis-but-2-ene and trans-but-2-ene]] The above example is pretty straight-forward. On the left, we have two methyl groups on the same side, so it's cis-but-2-ene. And on the right, we have them on opposite sides, so we have trans-but-2-ene. So in this situation, the cis/trans notation works and, in fact, these are the correct names. [[Image:EZNotation5.png|thumb|759px|center|(E)-3-methylpent-2-ene and (Z)-3-methylpent-2-ene]] From the example above, how would you use cis and trans? Which is the same side and which is the opposite side? Whenever an alkene has 3 or 4 differing substituents, one must use the what's called the EZ nomenclature, coming from the German words, Entgegen (opposite) and Zusammen (same). {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | '''E''': Entgegen, opposite sides of double bond<br> '''Z''': Zusammen, same sides (zame zides) of double bond |} Let's begin with (Z)-3-methylpent-2-ene. We begin by dividing our alkene into left and right halves. On each side, we assign a substituent as being either a high priority or low priority substituent. The priority is based on the atomic number of the substituents. So on the left side, hydrogen is the lowest priority because its atomic number is 1 and carbon is higher because its atomic number is 6. On the right side, we have carbon substituents on both the top and bottom, so we go out to the next bond. On to the top, there's another carbon, but on the bottom, a hydrogen. So the top gets high priority and the bottom gets low priority. Because the high priorities from both sides are on the same side, they are Zusammen (as a mnemonic, think 'Zame Zide'). Now let's look at (E)-3-methylpent-2-ene. On the left, we have the same substituents on the same sides, so the priorities are the same as in the Zusammen version. However, the substituents are reversed on the right side with the high priority substituent on the bottom and the low priority substituent on the top. Because the High and Low priorities are opposite on the left and right, these are Entgegen, or opposite. The system takes a little getting used to and it's usually easier to name an alkene than it is to write one out given its name. But with a little practice, you'll find that it's quite easy. ===Comparison of E-Z with cis-trans=== {| BORDER |- | || |- | (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-but-2-ene |- |[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]] |- | ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene |} To a certain extent, the Z configuration can be regarded as the ''cis-'' isomer and the E as the ''trans-'' isomers. This correspondence is exact only if the two carbon atoms are identically substituted. In general, cis-trans should only be used if each double-bonded carbon atom has a hydrogen atom (i.e. R-CH=CH-R'). [http://goldbook.iupac.org/C01093.html IUPAC Gold book on cis-trans notation.] [http://goldbook.iupac.org/E01882.html IUPAC Gold book on E-Z notation.] =Properties= Alkenes are molecules with carbons bonded to hydrogens which contain at least two sp² hybridized carbon atoms. That is, to say, at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond, where the carbon atoms, in addition to an electron pair shared in a ''sigma'' (&sigma;) bond, share one pair of electrons in a ''pi'' (&pi;) bond between them. The general formula for an aliphatic alkene is: C_nH_2n -- ''e.g.'' C₂H₄ ''or'' C₃H₆ ==Diastereomerism== ===Restricted rotation=== Because of the characteristics of pi-bonds, alkenes have very limited rotation around the double bonds between two atoms. In order for the alkene structure to rotate the pi-bond would first have to be broken - which would require about 60 or 70 kcal of energy per mol. For this reason alkenes have different chemical properties based on which side of the bond each atom is located. For example, but-2-ene exists as two [[Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Diastereomers|diastereomers]]: <center> {| BORDER |- | || |- | (''Z'')-but-2-ene || (''E'')-But-2-ene |- |[[Image:Cis-2-butene.svg|200px]]||[[Image:Trans-2-butene.svg|200px]] |- | ''cis''-but-2-ene || ''trans''-but-2-ene |} </center> =Relative stability= Observing the reaction of the addition of hydrogen to 1-butene, (Z)-2-butene, and (E)-2-butene, we can see that all of the products are butane. The difference between the reactions is that each reaction has a different energy: -30.3 kcal/mol for 1-butene, -28.6 kcal/mol for (Z)-2-butene and -27.6 kcal/mol for (E)-2-butene. This illustrates that there are differences in the stabilities of the three species of butene isomers, due to the difference in how much energy can be released by reducing them. The relative stability of alkenes may be estimated based on the following concepts: *An internal alkene (the double bond ''not'' on the terminal carbon) is more stable than a terminal alkene (the double bond ''is'' on a terminal carbon). Internal alkenes are more stable than terminal alkenes because they are connected to more carbons on the chain. Since a terminal alkene is located at the end of the chain, the double bond is only connected to one carbon, and is called primary (1°). Primary carbons are the least stable. In the middle of a chain, a double bond could be connected to two carbons. This is called secondary (2°). The most stable would be quaternary (4°). *In general, the more and the bulkier the alkyl groups on a sp²-hybridized carbon in the alkene, the more stable that alkene is. *A trans double bond is more stable than a cis double bond. =Reactions= ==Preparation== There are several methods for creating alkenes.<ref>IIT Chemistry by Dr.O.P.Agrawal and Avinash Agrawal</ref> Some of these methods, such as the Wittig reaction, we'll only describe briefly in this chapter and instead, cover them in more detail later in the book. For now, it's enough to know that they are ways of creating alkenes. ===Dehydrohalogenation of Haloalkanes=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydrohalogenation3.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydrohalogenation]] Alkyl halides are converted into alkenes by dehydrohalogenation: elimination of the elements of hydrogen halide. Dehydrohalogenation involves removal of the halogen atom together with a hydrogen atom from a carbon adjacent to the one bearing the halogen. It uses the E2 elimination mechanism that we'll discuss in detail at the end of this chapter The haloalkane must have a hydrogen and halide 180° from each other on neighboring carbons. If there is no hydrogen 180° from the halogen on a neighboring carbon, the reaction will not take place. It is not surprising that the reagent required for the elimination of what amounts to a molecule of acid is a strong base for example: alcholic KOH. In some cases this reaction yields a single alkene. and in other cases yield a mixture. n-Butyl chloride, for example, can eliminate hydrogen only from C-2 and hence yields only 1-butene. sec-Butyl chloride, on the other hand, can eliminate hydrogen from either C-l or C-3 and hence yields both 1-butene and 2-butene. Where the two alkenes can be formed, 2-butene is the chief product. ===Dehalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_from_vicinal_dihalides2.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via debromination of vicinal dihalides using Sodium Iodide]] [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_from_vicinal_dihalides1.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via debromination of vicinal dihalides using Zinc]] The dehalogenation of vicinal dihalides (halides on two neighboring carbons, think "vicinity") is another method for synthesizing alkenes. The reaction can take place using either sodium iodide in a solution of acetone, or it can be performed using zinc dust in a solution of either heated ethanol or acetic acid. This reaction can also be performed with magnesium in ether, though the mechanism is different as this actually produces, as an intermediate, a Grignard reagent that reacts with itself and causes an elimination, resulting in the alkene.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} ===Dehydration of alcohols=== [[Image:Synthesis_of_alkenes_-_Dehydration_of_alcohol.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene by dehydration of an alcohol]] An alcohol is converted into an alkene by dehydration: elimination of a molecule of water. Dehydration requires the presence of an acid and the application of heat. It is generally carried out in either of two ways, heating the alcohol with sulfuric or phosphoric acid to temperatures as high as 200, or passing the alcohol vapor over alumina, Al₂O₃ , at 350-400, alumina here serving as a Lewis acid. Ease of dehydration of alcohols : 3° > 2° > 1° Where isomeric alkenes can be formed, we again find the tendency for one isomer to predominate. Thus, sec-butyl alcohol, which might yield both 2-butene and 1-butene, actually yields almost exclusively the 2-isomer The formation of 2-butene from n-butyl alcohol illustrates a characteristic of dehydration that is not shared by dehydrohalogenalion: the double bond can be formed at a position remote from the carbon originally holding the -OH group. This characteristic is accounted for later. It is chiefly because of the greater certainty as to where the double bond will appear that dehydrohalogeation is often preferred over dehydration as a method of making alkenes. ===Reduction of Alkynes=== Reduction of an alkyne to the double-bond stage can yield either a cis-alkene or a trans-alkene, unless the triple bond is at the end of a chain. Just which isomer predominates depends upon the choice of reducing agent. Predominantly trans-alkene is obtained by reduction of alkynes with sodium or lithium in liquid ammonia. Almost entirely cis-alkene (as high as 98%) is obtained by hydrogenation of alkynes with several different catalysts : a specially prepared palladium called Lindlar's catalyst; or a nickel boride called P-2 catalyst. Each of these reactions is, then, highly stereoselective. The stereoselectivity in the cis-reduction of alkynes is attributed, in a general way, to the attachment of two hydrogens to the same side of an alkyne sitting on the catalyst surface; presumably this same stereochemistry holds for the hydrogenation of terminal alkynes which cannot yield cis- and trans-alkenes. ===Wittig Reaction=== [[Image:Wittig_reactions.png|thumb|400px|center|Synthesis of alkene via Wittig reaction]] ==Markovnikov's Rule== Before we continue discussing reactions, we need to take a detour and discuss a subject that's very important in Alkene reactions, "Markovnikov's Rule." This is a simple rule stated by the Russian Vladmir Markovnikov in 1869, as he was showing the orientation of addition of HBr to alkenes. His rule states:"When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the halogen to the carbon of the alkene with the fewer number of hydrogen substituents" (This rule is often compared to the phrase: "The rich get richer and the poor get poorer." Aka, the Carbon with the most Hydrogens gets another Hydrogen and the one with the least Hydrogens gets the halogen) This means that the nucleophile of the electophile-nucleophile pair is bonded to the position most stable for a carbocation, or partial positive charge in the case of a transition state. ===Examples=== <math> CH_2=CH-CH_3 + H-Br -> CH3-CHBr-CH_3 </math> Here the Br attaches to the middle carbon over the terminal carbon, because of Markovnikov's rule, and this is called a Markovnikov product. ===Markovnikov product=== The product of a reaction that follows Markovnikov's rule is called a Markovnikov product. ===Markovnikov addition=== Markovnikov addition is an addition reaction which follows Markovnikov's rule, producing a Markovnikov product. ===Anti-Markovnikov addition=== Certain reactions produce the opposite of the Markovnikov product, yielding what is called anti-Markovnikov product. That is, hydrogen ends up on the more substituted carbon of the double bond. The hydroboration/oxidation reaction that we'll discuss shortly, is an example of this, as are reactions that are conducted in peroxides. A modernized version of Markovnikov's rule often explains the "anti-Markovnikov" behavior. The original Markovnikov rule predicts that the hydrogen (an electrophile) being added across a double bond will end up on the carbon with more hydrogens. Generalizing to all electrophiles, it is really the electrophile which ends up on the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogens. Usually hydrogen plays the role of the electrophile; however, hydrogen can also act as an nucleophile in some reactions. The following expansion of Markovnikov's rule is more versatile: "When an alkene undergoes electrophilic addition, the electrophile adds to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogen substituents. The nucleophile adds to the more highly substituated carbon." Or more simply: "The species that adds first adds to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogens." The fact that some reactions reliably produce anti-Markovnikov products is actually a powerful tool in organic chemistry. For example, in the reactions we discuss below, we'll show two different ways of creating alcohols from alkenes: Oxymercuration-Reduction and Hydroboration/Oxidation. Oxymercuration produces a Markovnikov product while Hydroboration produces an anti-Markovnikov product. This gives the organic chemist a choice in products without having to be stuck with a single product that might not be the most desired. ===Why it works=== Markovnikov's rule works because of the stability of [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Carbocations|carbocation intermediates]]. Experiments tend to reveal that carbocations are planar molecules, with a carbon that has three substituents at 120° to each other and a vacant <i>p</i> orbital that is perpendicular to it in the 3rd plane. The <i>p</i> orbital extends above and below the trisubstituent plane. This leads to a stabilizing effect called hyperconjugation. Hyperconjugation is what happens when there is an unfilled (antibonding or vacant) C-C &pi; orbital and a filled C-H &sigma; bond orbital next to each other. The result is that the filled C-H &sigma; orbital interacts with the unfilled C-C &pi; orbital and stabilizes the molecule. The more highly substituted the molecule, the more chances there are for hyperconjugation and thus the more stable the molecule is. Another stabilizing effect is an [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Inductive effect|inductive effect]]. ===Exceptions to the Rule=== There are a few exceptions to the Markovnikov rule, and these are of tremendous importance to organic synthesis. # HBr in Hydrogen Peroxide: Due to formation of free radicals, and the mechanism in which it reacts, the alkyl free radical forms at the middle atom, where it is most stable, and a hydrogen attaches itself here. Note here hydrogen addition is the second step, unlike in the above example. ==Addition reactions== ===Hydroboration=== Hydroboration is a very useful reaction in Alkenes, not as an end product so much as an intermediate product for further reactions. The primary one we'll discuss below is the Hydroboration/Oxidation reaction which is actually a hydroboration reaction followed by a completely separate oxidation reaction. [[Image:Hydroboration_mechanism_in_alkene.png|759px|thumb|center|Hydroboration mechanism]] The addition of BH₃ is a concerted reaction in that several bonds are broken and formed at the same time. Hydroboration happens in what's called [[Organic_Chemistry/Glossary#S|syn-addition]] because the boron and one of its hydrogens attach to the same side of the alkene at the same time. As you can see from the transition state in the center of the image, this produces a sort of box between the two alkene carbons and the boron and its hydrogen. In the final step, the boron, along with its other two hydrogens, remains attached to one carbon and the other hydrogen attaches to the adjacent carbon. This description is fairly adequate, however, the reaction actually continues to happen and the -BH₂ continue to react with other alkenes giving an R₂BH and then again, until you end up with a complex of the boron atom attached to 3 alkyl groups, or R₃B. This trialkyl-boron complex is then used in other reactions to produce various products. <center> {| |[[Image:Borane-state.png|150px|thumb|B₂H₆ complex]]||[[Image:Bh3-thf-complex.png|150px|thumb|BH₃-THF complex]] |} </center> Borane, in reality, is not stable as BH₃. Boron, in this configuration has only 6 electrons and wants 8, so in its natural state it actually creates the B₂H₆ complex shown on the left. Furthermore, instead of using B₂H₆ itself, BH₃ is often used in a complex with tetrahydrofuran (THF) as shown in the image on the right.In either situation, the result of the reactions are the same. ===Hydroboration/Oxidation=== <ref name=McMurry>Organic Chemistry, John McMurry</ref> [[Image:Hydroboration_oxdation_of_alkene.png|500px|thumb|center|Hydroboration/Oxidation reaction]] With the reagent diborane, (BH₃)₂, alkenes undergo hydroboration to yield alkylboranes, R₃B, which on oxidation give alcohols.The reaction procedure is simple and convenient, the yields are exceedingly high, and the products are ones difficult to obtain from alkenes in anyother way. Diborane is the dimer of the hypothetical BH3 (borane) and, in the reactions that concern us, acts much as though it were BH₃ . Indeed, in tetrahydrofuran, one of the solvents used for hydroboration, the reagent exists as the monomer, in the form of an acid-base complex with the solvent. Hydroboration involves addition to the double bond of BH₃ (or, in following stages, BH₂R and BHR₂), with hydrogen becoming attached to one doubly-bonded carbon, and boron to the other. The alkylborane can then undergo oxidation, in which the boron is replaced by -OH. Thus, the two-stage reaction process of hydroboration-oxidation permits, in effect, the addition to the carbon-carbon double bond of the elements of H-OH. Reaction is carried out in an ether, commonly tetrahydrofuran or "diglyme" (diethylene glycol methyl ether, CH₃OCH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OCH₃). Diborane is commercially available in tetrahydrofuran solution. The alkylboranes are not isolated, but are simply treated in situ with alkaline hydrogen peroxide. =====Stereochemistry and Orientation===== Hydroboration-oxidation, then, converts alkenes into alcohols. Addition is highly regiospecific; the preferred product here, however, is exactly opposite to the one formed by oxymercuration-demercuration or by direct acid-catalyzed hydration. The hydroboration-oxidation process gives products corresponding to <b>anti-Markovnikov</b> addition of water to the carbon-carbon double bond. The reaction of 3,3-dimethyl-l -butene illustrates a particular advantage of the method. Rearrangement does not occur in hydroboration evidently because carbonium ions are not intermediates and hence the method can be used without the complications that often accompany other addition reactions. The reaction of 1,2-dimethylcyclopentene illustrates the stereochemistry of the synthesis: hydroboration-oxidation involves overall<b> syn addition</b>. ===Oxymercuration/Reduction=== <ref name=McMurry/> [[Image:Oxymercuration_reduction.png|500px|thumb|center|Oxymercuration/Reduction of 1-propene]] Alkenes react with mercuric acetate in the presence of water to give hydroxymercurial compounds which on reduction yield alcohols. The first stage, oxymercuration, involves addition to the carbon-carbon double bond of -OH and -HgOAc. Then, in reduction, the -HgOAc is replaced by -H. The reaction sequence amounts to hydration of the alkene, but is much more widely applicable than direct hydration. The two-stage process of oxymercuration/reduction is fast and convenient, takes place under mild conditions, and gives excellent yields often over 90%. The alkene is added at room temperature to an aqueous solution of mercuric acetate diluted with the solvent tetrahydrofuran. Reaction is generally complete within minutes. The organomercurial compound is not isolated but is simply reduced in situ by sodium borohydride, NaBH₄. (The mercury is recovered as a ball of elemental mercury.) Oxymercuration/reduction is highly regiospecific, and gives alcohols corresponding to Markovnikov addition of water to the carbon-carbon double bond. Oxymercuration involves electrophilic addition to the carbon-carbon double bond, with the mercuric ion acting as electrophile. The absence of rearrangement and the high degree of stereospecificity (typically anti) in the oxymercuration step argues against an open carbonium ion as intermediate. Instead, it has been proposed, there is formed a cyclic mercurinium ion, analogous to the bromonium and chloronium ions involved in the addition of halogens. In 1971, Olah reported spectroscopic evidence for the preparation of stable solutions of such mercurinium ions. The mercurinium ion is attacked by the nucleophilic solvent water, in the present case to yield the addition product. This attack is back-side (unless prevented by some structural feature) and the net result is anti addition, as in the addition of halogens. Attack is thus of the S_N2 type; yet the orientation of addition shows that the nucleophile becomes attached to the more highly substituted carbon as though there were a free carbonium ion intermediate. As we shall see, the transition state in reactions of such unstable threemembered rings has much S_N1 character. Reduction is generally not stereospecific and can, in certain special cases, be accompanied by rearrangement. Despite the stereospecificity of the first stage, then, the overall process is not,in general, stereospecific. Rearrangements can occur, but are not common. The reaction of 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene illustrates the absence of the rearrangements that are typical of intermediate carbonium ions. ===Diels-Alder Reaction=== The Diels–Alder reaction is a reaction (specifically, a cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene, commonly termed the dienophile, to form a substituted cyclohexene system. The reaction can proceed even if some of the atoms in the newly formed ring are not carbon. Some of the Diels–Alder reactions are reversible; the decomposition reaction of the cyclic system is then called the retro-Diels–Alder. [[Image: Diels-Alder (1,3-butadiene + ethylene) red.svg|400px|thumb|center|Diels-alder for 1,3-butadiene-Ethylene]] The Diels–Alder reaction is generally considered one of the more useful reactions in organic chemistry since it requires very little energy to create a cyclohexene ring, which is useful in many other organic reactions A concerted, single-step mechanism is almost certainly involved; both new carbon-carbon bonds are partly formed in the same transition state, although not necessarily to the same extent. The Diels-Alder reaction is the most important example of cycloaddition. Since reaction involves a system of 4 π electrons (the diene) and a system of 2 π it electrons (the dienophile), it is known as a [4 + 2] cycloaddition. ===Catalytic addition of hydrogen=== Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes produce the corresponding alkanes. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic catalyst. Common industrial catalysts are based on platinum, nickel or palladium, but for laboratory syntheses, [[w:Raney nickel|Raney nickel]] (formed from an alloy of nickel and aluminium) is often employed. The catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene to yield ethane proceeds thusly: :CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ + catalyst → CH₃-CH₃ ===Electrophilic addition=== Most addition reactions to alkenes follow the mechanism of electrophilic addition. An example is the [[w:Prins reaction|Prins reaction]], where the electrophile is a carbonyl group. ====Halogenation==== Addition of elementary bromine or chlorine in the presence of an organic solvent to alkenes yield vicinal dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes: CH₂=CH₂ + Br₂ → BrCH₂-CH₂Br The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile. ====Hydrohalogenation==== Addition of hydrohalic acids like HCl or HBr to alkenes yield the corresponding haloalkanes. :an example of this type of reaction is: CH₃CH=CH₂ + HBr → CH₃-CHBr-CH₃ If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with less hydrogen substituents (Markovnikov's rule). Addition of a carbene or carbenoid yields the corresponding cyclopropane ===Oxidation=== Alkenes are oxidized with a large number of oxidizing agents. In the presence of oxygen, alkenes burn with a bright flame to form carbon dioxide and water. Catalytic oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with percarboxylic acids yields epoxides. Reaction with ozone in ozonolysis leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two aldehydes or ketones: R₁-CH=CH-R₂ + O₃ → R₁-CHO + R₂-CHO + H₂O This reaction can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene. ===Polymerization=== Polymerization of alkenes is an economically important reaction which yields polymers of high industrial value, such as the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymerization can either proceed via a free-radical or an ionic mechanism. =Substitution and Elimination Reaction Mechanisms= ==Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions== Nucleophilic substitution reactions ('''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''') are very closely related to the '''E1''' and '''E2''' elimination reactions, discussed later in this section, and it is generally a good idea to learn the reactions together, as there are parallels in reaction mechanism, preferred substrates, and the reactions sometimes compete with each other. It's important to understand that substitution and elimination reactions are not associated with a specific compound or mixture so much as they're a representation of how certain reactions take place. At times, combinations of these mechanisms may occur together in the same reaction or may compete against each other, with influences such as solvent or nucleophile choice being the determining factor as to which reaction will dominate. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Note</H3> In the notation '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2, ''' :'''S''' stands for ''substitution'' (something takes the place of something else)<br> :'''N''': stands for ''nucleophilic'' (a '''nucleophile''' displaces another nucleophile)<br> :'''1''': stands for ''unimolecular'' (the concentration of only one kind of molecule determines the rate of the reaction)<br> :'''2''': stands for ''bimolecular'' (the concentration of two types of molecules determine the rate of the reaction) |} In nucleophilic substitution, a '''nucleophile''' attacks a molecule and takes the place of another nucleophile, which then leaves. The nucleophile that leaves is called the '''leaving group'''. Nucleophilic substitutions ''require '' #a '''nucleophile''' (such as a Lewis base) #an '''electrophile''' with a '''leaving group''' A '''leaving group''' is a charged or neutral moiety (group) which breaks free. ===S_N1 vs S_N2=== One of the main differences between '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' is that the '''S_N1''' reaction is a 2-step reaction, initiated by disassociation of the leaving group. The '''S_N2''' reaction, on the other hand, is a 1-step reaction where the attacking nucleophile, because of its higher affinity for and stronger bonding with the carbon, forces the leaving group to leave. These two things happen in a single step. These two different mechanisms explain the difference in reaction rates between '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions. '''S_N1''' reactions are dependent on the leaving group disassociating itself from the carbon. It is the rate-limiting step and thus, the reaction rate is a first-order reaction whose rate depends solely on that step. :<math>Rate = k[RX]</math> Alternatively, in '''S_N2''' reactions, the single step of the nucleophile coming together with the reactant from the opposite side of the leaving group, is the key to its rate. Because of this, the rate is dependent on both the concentration of the nucleophile as well as the concentration of the reactant. The higher these two concentrations, the more frequent the collisions. Thus the reaction rate is a second-order reaction: :<math>Rate = k[Nu:][RX]</math> (where Nu: is the attacking nucleophile) ===S_N2 Reactions=== There are primarily 3 things that affect whether an '''S_N2''' reaction will take place or not. The most important is structure. That is whether the alkyl halide is on a methyl, primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. The other two components that determine whether an '''S_N2''' reaction will take place or not, are the nucleophilicity of the nucleophile and the solvent used in the reaction. {| WIDTH="99%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of S_N2</H3> CH₃X > RCH₂X > R₂CHX >> R₃CX |} The structure of the alkyl halide has a great effect on mechanism. CH₃X & RCH₂X are the preferred structures for '''S_N2'''. R₂CHX can undergo the '''S_N2''' under the proper conditions (see below), and R₃CX rarely, if ever, is involved in '''S_N2''' reactions. [[Image:SN2CompleteReactionMechanism3.png|frame|center|S_N2 nucleophilic substitution of bromine with a generic nucleophile]] The reaction takes place by the nucleophile attacking from the opposite side of the bromine atom. Notice that the other 3 bonds are all pointed away from the bromine and towards the attacking nucleophile. When these 3 bonds are hydrogen bonds, there's very little steric hinderance of the approaching nucleophile. However, as the number of R groups increases, so does the steric hinderance, making it more difficult for the nucleophile to get close enough to the [[w:alpha carbon|α-carbon]], to expel the bromine atom. In fact, tertiary carbons (R₃CX) are so sterically hindered as to prevent the '''S_N2''' mechanism from taking place at all. In the case of this example, a secondary α-carbon, there is still a great deal of steric hinderance and whether the '''S_N2''' mechanism will happen will depend entirely on what the nucleophile and solvent are. '''S_N2''' reactions are preferred for methyl halides and primary halides. Another important point to keep in mind, and this can be seen clearly in the example above, during an '''S_N2''' reaction, the molecule undergoes an inversion. The bonds attached to the α-carbon are pushed away as the nucleophile approaches. During the transition state, these bonds become planar with the carbon and, as the bromine leaves and the nucleophile bonds to the α-carbon, the other bonds fold back away from the nucleophile. This is particularly important in [[Organic_Chemistry/Chirality|chiral]] or pro-chiral molecules, where an R configuration will be converted into an S configuration and vice versa. As you'll see below, this is in contrast to the results of '''S_N1''' reactions. '''Examples:''' :OH^- + CH₃—Cl → HO—CH₃ + Cl^- OH- is the nucleophile, Cl is the electrophile, HOCH3 is the product, and Cl- is the leaving group. or, :Na⁺I^- + CH₃-Br → I-CH₃ + Na⁺Br^- The above reaction, taking place in acetone as the solvent, sodium and iodide disassociate almost completely in the acetone, leaving the iodide ions free to attack the CH-Br molecules. The negatively charged iodide ion, a nucleophile, attacks the methyl bromide molecule, forcing off the negatively charged bromide ion and taking its place. The bromide ion is the leaving group. ====Nucleophilicity==== Nucleophilicity is the rate at which a nucleophile displaces the leaving group in a reaction. Generally, nucleophilicity is stronger, the larger, more polarizable, and/or the less stable the nucleophile. No specific number or unit of measure is used. All other things being equal, nucleophiles are generally compared to each other in terms of relative reactivity. For example, a particular strong nucleophile might have a relative reactivity of 10,000 that of a particular weak nucleophile. These relationships are generalities as things like solvent and substrate can affect the relative rates, but they are generally good guidelines for which species make the best nucleophiles. All nucleophiles are [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Acids and bases|Lewis bases]]. In '''S_N2''' reactions, the preferred nucleophile is a strong nucleophile that is a weak base. Examples of these are N₃^-, RS^-, I^-, Br^-, and CN^-. Alternatively, a strong nucleophile that's also a strong base can also work. However, as mentioned earlier in the text, sometimes reaction mechanisms compete and in the case of a strong nucleophile that's a strong base, the '''S_N2''' mechanism will compete with the '''E2''' mechanism. Examples of strong nucleophiles that are also strong bases, include RO^- and OH^-. {| WIDTH="99%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>List of descending nucleophilicities</H3> I^- > Br^- > Cl^- >> F^- > -SeH > -OH > H₂O |} ====Leaving Group==== Leaving group is the group on the substrate that leaves. In the case of an alkyl halide, this is the halide ion that leaves the carbon atom when the nucleophile attacks. The tendency of the nucleophile to leave is {| WIDTH="25%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Relative Reactivity of Leaving Groups</H3> I^- > Br^- > Cl^- >> F^- |} Fluoride ions are very poor leaving groups because they bond very strongly and are very rarely used in alkyl halide substitution reactions. Reactivity of a leaving group is related to its basicity with stronger bases being poorer leaving groups. ====Solvent==== The solvent can play an important role in '''S_N2''' reactions, particularly in '''S_N2''' involving secondary alkyl halide substrates, where it can be the determining factor in mechanism. Solvent can also have a great effect on reaction rate of '''S_N2''' reactions. The '''S_N2''' mechanism is preferred when the solvent is an aprotic, [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Electronegativity|polar]] solvent. That is, a solvent that is polar, but without a polar hydrogen. Polar, protic solvents would include water, alcohols, and generally, solvents with polar NH or OH bonds. Good aprotic, polar solvents are [[w:Hexamethylphosphoramide|HMPA]], CH₃CN, [[w:Dimethyl sulfoxide|DMSO]], and [[w:Dimethylformamide|DMF]]. A polar solvent is preferred because it better allows the dissociation of the halide from the alkyl group. A protic solvent with a polar hydrogen, however, forms a 'cage' of hydrogen-bonded solvent around the nucleophile, hindering its approach to the substrate. {| WIDTH="58%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="bottom" | <H3>Relative Reactivity of Solvents</H3> HMPA > CH₃CN > DMF > DMSO >> H₂O |} ===S_N1 Reactions=== The '''S_N1''' mechanism is very different from the '''S_N2''' mechanism. In some of its preferences, its exactly the opposite and, in some cases, the results of the reaction can be significantly different. Like the '''S_N2''' mechanism, structure plays an important role in the '''S_N1''' mechanism. The role of structure in the '''S_N1''' mechanism, however, is quite different and because of this, the reactivity of structures is more or less reversed. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of S_N1</H3> CH₃X < RCH₂X << R₂CHX < R₃CX |} The '''S_N1''' mechanism is preferred for tertiary alkyl halides and, depending on the solvent, may be preferred in secondary alkyl halides. The '''S_N1''' mechanism does not operate on primary alkyl halides or methyl halides. To understand why this is so, let's take a look at how the '''S_N1''' mechanism works. [[Image:SN1CompleteMechanism2.png|frame|center|S_N1 nucleophilic substitution of a generic halide with a water molecule to produce an alcohol.]] At the top of the diagram, the first step is the spontaneous dissociation of the halide from the alkyl halide. Unlike the '''S_N2''' mechanism, where the attacking nucleophile causes the halide to leave, the '''S_N1''' mechanism depends on the ability of the halide to leave on its own. This requires certain conditions. In particular, the stability of the [[Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Carbocations|carbocation]] is crucial to the ability of the halide to leave. Since we know tertiary carbocations are the most stable, they are the best candidates for the '''S_N1''' mechanism. And with appropriate conditions, secondary carbocations will also operate by the '''S_N1''' mechanism. Primary and methyl carbocations however, are not stable enough to allow this mechanism to happen. Once the halide has dissociated, the water acts as a nucleophile to bond to the carbocation. In the'''S_N2''' reactions, there is an inversion caused by the nucleophile attacking from the opposite side while the halide is still bonded to the carbon. In the '''S_N1''' mechanism, since the halide has left, and the bonds off of the α-carbon have become planar, the water molecule is free to attack from either side. This results in, primarily, a [[w:Racemic|racemic]] mixture. In the final step, one of the hydrogens of the bonded water molecule is attacked by another water molecule, leaving an alcohol. ''Note: Racemic mixtures imply entirely equal amounts of mixture, however this is rarely the case in '''S_N1'''. There is a slight tendency towards attack from the opposite side of the halide. This is the result some steric hinderence from the leaving halide which is sometimes close enough to the leaving side to block the nucleophile's approach from that side.'' ====Solvent==== Like the '''S_N2''' mechanism, the '''S_N1''' is affected by solvent as well. As with structure, however, the reasons differ. In the '''S_N1''' mechanism, a polar, protic solvent is used. The polarity of the solvent is associated with the dielectric constant of the solvent and solutions with high dielectric constants are better able to support separated ions in solution. In '''S_N2''' reactions, we were concerned about polar hydrogen atoms "caging" our nucleophile. This still happens with a polar protic solvent in '''S_N1''' reactions, so why don't we worry about it? You have to keep in mind the mechanism of the reaction. The first step, and more importantly, the rate-limiting step, of the '''S_N1''' reaction, is the ability to create a stable carbocation by getting the halide anion to leave. With a polar protic solvent, just as with a polar aprotic solvent,we're creating a stable cation, however it's the polar hydrogens that stabilize the halide anion and make it better able to leave. Improving the rate-limiting step is always the goal. The "caging" of the nucleophile is unrelated to the rate-limiting step and even in its "caged" state, the second step, the attack of the nucleophile, is so much faster than the first step, that the "caging" can simply be ignored. ===Summary=== '''S_N1''', '''S_N2''', '''E1''', and '''E2''', are all reaction mechanisms, not reactions themselves. They are mechanisms used by a number of different reactions. Usually in organic chemistry, the goal is to synthesize a product. In cases where you have possibly competing mechanisms, and this is particularly the case where an '''S_N1''' and an '''E1''' reaction are competing, the dominating mechanism is going to decide what your product is, so knowing the mechanisms and which conditions favor one over the other, will determine your product. In other cases, knowing the mechanism allows you to set up an environment favorable to that mechanism. This can mean the difference between having your product in a few minutes, or sometime around the next ice age. So when you're designing a synthesis for a product, you need to consider, I want to get product Y, so what are my options to get to Y? Once you know your options and you've decided on a reaction, then you need to consider the mechanism of the reaction and ask yourself, how do I create conditions that are going to make this happen correctly and happen quickly? ==Elimination Reactions== Nucleophilic substitution reactions and Elimination reactions share a lot of common characteristics, on top of which, the '''E1''' and '''S_N1''' as well as '''E2''' and '''S_N2''' reactions can sometimes compete and, since their products are different, it's important to understand them both. Without understanding both kinds of mechanisms, it would be difficult to get the product you desire from a reaction. In addition, the '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions will be referenced quite a bit by way of comparison and contrast, so it's probably best to read that section first and then continue here. Elimination reactions are the mechanisms for creating alkene products from [[Organic_Chemistry/Haloalkanes|haloalkane]] reactants. '''E1''' and '''E2''' elimination, unlike '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' substitution, mechanisms do not occur with methyl halides because the reaction creates a double bond between two carbon atoms and methylhalides have only one carbon. {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Note</H3> In the notation '''E1''' and '''E2''', :'''E''' stands for ''elimination''<br> :'''1''': stands for ''unimolecular'' (the concentration of only one kind of molecule determines the rate of the reaction)<br> :'''2''': stands for ''bimolecular'' (the concentration of two types of molecules determine the rate of the reaction) |} ===E1 vs E2=== ==== Reaction rates ==== '''E1''' and '''E2''' are two different pathways to creating alkenes from haloalkanes. As with '''S_N1''' and '''S_N2''' reactions, one of the key differences is in the reaction rate, as it provides great insight into the mechanisms. '''E1''' reactions, like '''S_N1''' reactions are 2-step reactions. Also like '''S_N1''' reactions, the rate-limiting step is the dissociation of the halide from its alkane, making it a first-order reaction, depending on the concentration of the haloalkane, with a reaction rate of: :<math>Rate = k[RX]</math> On the other hand, '''E2''' reactions, like '''S_N2''' reactions are 1-step reactions. And again, as with '''S_N2''' reactions, the rate limiting step is the ability of a nucleophile to attach to the alkane and displace the halide. Thus it is a second-order reaction that depends on the concentrations of both the nucleophile and haloalkane, with a reaction rate of: :<math>Rate = k[Nu:][RX]</math> (where Nu: is the attacking nucleophile) ==== Zaitsev's Rule ==== [[Organic_Chemistry/Glossary#W, X, Y, Z|Zaitsev's rule]] (sometimes spelled "Saytzeff") states that in an elimination reaction, when multiple products are possible, the most stable alkene is the major product. That is to say, the most highly substituted alkene (the alkene with the most non-hydrogen substituents) is the major product. Both '''E1''' and '''E2''' reactions produce a mixture of products, when possible, but generally follow Zaitsev's rule. We'll see below why '''E1''' reactions follow Zaitsev's rule more reliably and tend to produce a purer product. [[Image:Dehydrohalogenation_of_(S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane_small.png|frame|center|'''Dehydrohalogenation reaction of (S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane''']] The above image represents two possible pathways for the dehydrohalogenation of (S)-2-bromo-3-methylbutane. The two potential products are 2-methylbut-2-ene and 3-methylbut-1-ene. The images on the right are simplified drawings of the molecular product shown in the images in the center. As you can see on the left, the bromine is on the second carbon and in an '''E1''' or '''E2''' reaction, the hydrogen could be removed from either the 1st or the 3rd carbon. Zaitsev's rule says that the hydrogen will be removed predominantly from the 3rd carbon. In reality, there will be a mixture, but most of the product will be 2-methylbut-2-ene by the '''E1''' mechanism. By the '''E2''' reaction, as we'll see later, this might not necessarily be the case. ===E2=== {| WIDTH="75%" |- | style="background-color: #FFF7F7; border: solid 1px #FFBDBD; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | <H3>Reactivity Due to Structure of E2</H3> RCH₂X > R₂CHX >> R₃CX |} The '''E2''' mechanism is concerted and highly stereospecific, because it can occur only when the H and the leaving group X are in an anti-coplanar position. That is, in a Newman projection, the H and X must be 180°, or in the anti-configuration. This behaviour stems from the best overlap of the 2''p'' orbitals of the adjacent carbons when the pi bond has to be formed. If the H and the leaving group cannot be brought into this position due to the structure of the molecule, the ''E2'' mechanism will not take place. [[Image:E2-eliminationmechanism.png|frame|center|'''Mechanism of E2 elimination. Note the anti-coplanarity of the X-C-C-H atoms''']] Therefore, only molecules having accessible H-X anti-coplanar conformations can react via this route. Furthermore, the '''E2''' mechanism will operate contrary to Zaitsev's rule if the only anti-coplanar hydrogen from the leaving group results in the least stable alkene. A good example of how this can happen is by looking at how cyclohexane and cyclohexene derivatives might operate in '''E2''' conditions. [[Image:E2-Elimination_with_sterics_sample3.png|frame|center|'''E2''' with preferential elimination]] Let's look at the example above. The reactant we're using is 1-chloro-2-isopropylcyclohexane. The drawing at the top left is one conformation and the drawing below is after a ring flip. In the center are Newman projections of both conformations and the drawings on the right, the products. If we assume we're treating the 1-chloro-2-isopropylcyclohexane with a strong base, for example CH₃CH₂O^- (ethanolate), the mechanism that dominates is '''E2'''. There are 3 hydrogens off of the carbons adjacent to our chlorinated carbon. The red and the green ones are two of them. The third would be hard to show but is attached to the same carbon as the red hydrogen, angled a little down from the plane and towards the viewer. The red hydrogen is the only hydrogen that's 180° from the chlorine atom, so it's the only one eligible for the '''E2''' mechanism. Because of this, the product is going to be only 3-isopropylcylcohex-1-ene. Notice how this is contrary to Zaitsev's rule which says the most substituted alkene is preferred. By his rule, 1-isopropylcyclohexene should be our primary product, as that would leave the most substituted alkene. However it simply can't be produced because of the steric hindrance. The images below shows the molecule after a ring flip. In this conformation, no product is possible. As you can see from the Newman projection, there are no hydrogens 180° from the chlorine atom. So it's important, when considering the '''E2''' mechanism, to understand the geometry of the molecule. Sometimes the geometry can be used to your advantage to preferentially get a single product. Other times it will prevent you from getting the product you want, and you'll need to consider a different mechanism to get your product. ''Note: Often the word '''periplanar''' is used instead of '''coplanar'''. '''Coplanar''' implies precisely 180 degree separation and "peri-", from Greek for "near", implies near 180 degrees. Periplanar may actually be more accurate. In the case of the 1-chloro-3-isopropylcyclohexane example, because of molecular forces, the chlorine atom is actually slightly less than 180 degrees from both the hydrogen and the isopropyl group, so in this case, '''periplanar''' might be a more correct term.'' ===E1=== [[Image:E1EliminationReaction.png|frame|center|E1 elimination of an alkyl halide by a base]] The '''E1''' mechanism begins with the dissociation of the leaving group from an alkyl, producing a carbocation on the alkyl group and a leaving anion. This is the same way the '''S_N1''' reaction begins, so the same thing that helps initiate that step in '''S_N1''' reactions, help initiate the step in '''E1''' reactions. More specifically, secondary and tertiary carbocations are preferred because they're more stable than primary carbocations. The choice of solvent is the same as '''S_N1''' as well; a polar protic solvent is preferred because the polar aspect stabilizes the carbocation and the protic aspect stabilizes the anion. What makes the difference between whether the reaction takes the '''S_N1''' or '''E1''' pathway then, must depend on the second step; the action of the nucleophile. In '''S_N1''' reactions, a strong nucleophile that's a weak base is preferred. The nucleophile will then attack and bond to the carbocation. In '''E1''' reactions, a strong nucleophile is still preferred. The difference is that a strong nucleophile that's also a strong base, causes the nucleophile to attack the hydrogen at the β-carbon instead of the α-carbocation. The nucleophile/base then extracts the hydrogen causing the bonding electrons to fall in and produce a pi bond with the carbocation. Because the hydrogen and the leaving group are lost in two separate steps and the fact that it has no requirements as to geometry, the '''E1''' mechanism more reliably produces products that follow Zaitsev's rule. =References= <references/> ---- [[Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes|<< Haloalkanes]] |'''Alkenes'''| [[Organic Chemistry/Alkynes|Alkynes >>]] {{BookCat}} s4utrd99kyccq0a6u8hhjavzspowwta 0 5673 4095620 3350820 2022-08-24T03:31:28Z RogueScholar 847443 Replace deprecated <tt> tags with more semantically useful <kbd> tags and structure page using HTML definition list instead of headers, clearing linter errors wikitext text/x-wiki == VIS phase minor switches == ; <kbd>-fast</kbd> : Only calculates rough visibility data. Quick and dirty, not actually useful for VIS purposes. ; <kbd>-hint</kbd> : Will merge the bsp leaves (except for hint portals) before calculating the visibility list. ; <kbd>-merge</kbd> : Will merge the bsp leaves before calculating the visibility list. ; <kbd>-nopassage</kbd> : Disables the passage visibility algorithm. Passage VIS is a bit faster and tighter than the old algorithm. ; <kbd>-nosort</kbd> : Disables the sorting of portals by complexity. Sorting speeds up visibility calculations. ; <kbd>-passageOnly</kbd> : Will use the passage visibility algorithm only. ; <kbd>-saveprt</kbd> : Disables the automatic deletion of the .prt portal file after VIS finishes. ; <kbd>-v</kbd> : Enables verbose mode. Always use this. {{BookCat}} oj47r71xb6jx8uq7crllqmt978iz8qq 0 6663 4095621 961189 2022-08-24T03:44:32Z RogueScholar 847443 Replace deprecated <center> tags with standard wikitext and CSS3 definitions where needed wikitext text/x-wiki '''Halohydrins''' are formed in addition reactions with alkenes, and either an aqueous solution of a halogen or the corresponding hypohalous acid (eg HOBr or HOCl). [[File:Halohydrins.png|frame|center|link=|alt=Formation of a halohydrin from an alkene, using an aqueous bromine solution|<div class="center" style="font-style=italic; margin: 0 auto;">Formation of a halohydrin from an alkene, using an aqueous bromine solution</div>]] Halohydrin formation uses a cyclic bridged ion as an intermediate. Because of this, the stereochemistry of the reaction process is ''anti''. {{BookCat}} tntahzp5no6gt699kdowl2y6cegm60t 0 8696 4095624 3072825 2022-08-24T04:41:05Z RogueScholar 847443 Replace deprecated <tt> tags with more semantically useful <samp> tags, clearing linter error wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Prognav|Perl|Filehandles|Functions}}</noinclude> In addition to the basic control structures, Perl allows the use of statement modifiers. The statement modifier is placed at the end of the statement that it modifies. Note that the <kbd>do {…} until (…)</kbd> and <kbd>do {…} while (…)</kbd> loop constructs are actually statement modifiers. The complete list of modifiers is: {| style="margin-left: 4em;" | rowspan="2" | ''statement'' | rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | ⇗<br />⇘ | style="font-weight: bold; padding: 0.83em 0 0.5em; text-align: center;" | <samp>if</samp> | rowspan="2" style="padding-right: 0.5em;" | ⇘<br />⇗ | rowspan="2" | ''expression'' |- | style="font-weight: bold; padding: 0.5em 0 0.67em; text-align: center;" | <samp>while</samp> |- | rowspan="2" | ''statement'' | rowspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | ⇗<br />⇘ | style="font-weight: bold; padding: 0.67em 0 0.5em; text-align: center;" | <samp>unless</samp> | rowspan="2" style="padding-right: 0.5em;" | ⇘<br />⇗ | rowspan="2" | ''expression'' |- | style="font-weight: bold; padding: 0.5em 0 0.67em; text-align: center;" | <samp>until</samp> |- | style="font-style: italic; padding: 0.67em 0 0.83em;" | statement | style="padding: 0.67em 0.5em 0.83em;" | ⇒ | style="font-weight: bold; padding: 0.67em 0 0.83em; text-align: center;" | <samp>foreach</samp> | style="padding: 0.67em 0.5em 0.83em;" | ⇒ | style="font-style: italic; padding: 0.67em 0 0.83em;" | list |} Unlike BASIC-PLUS, statement modifiers in Perl cannot be stacked.<noinclude> {{Prognav|Perl|Filehandles|Functions}} {{BookCat}}</noinclude> l3jseu2m420crfywzl41muk3f9hg8oj 0 19168 4095699 4078595 2022-08-24T08:07:34Z 2400:1A00:B111:919F:A54F:AFFD:89A:18FC wikitext text/x-wiki [[CLS]] Let C = 0 For I = 1 to 5 C = C*10+I Print C Next I End ==Your first QBasic program: 1HELLO.BAS== ''The following paragraph requires a computer with QBasic installed'' To begin, write down everything from the program below ("PRINT "Hello World") into a text editor or into the QBasic '''IDE''' (Integrated Development Interface) itself and save it as "1HELLO.BAS". Next open the file in QBasic (unless you used QBasic IDE in which case it is already open) and press F5. ''Optionally you can use the "RUN" menu located on the menu bar at the top of the IDE window.'' This will execute (run) the program. The words "Hello World" should appear on the upper left hand side of the screen. You have just executed your first QBasic program. If you press F5 again, another line of text saying "Hello World" will appear on the upper left hand side of the screen pushing the first one down to the second row of the screen. You can follow the same procedure for the rest of the example programs in this wikibook. ==1HELLO.BAS== <syntaxhighlight lang=qbasic> PRINT "Hello World" </syntaxhighlight> ==PRINT== PRINT is QBasic's text output function. It is the command that we will be exploring through this section. PRINT is a QBasic function that requires arguments. The argument in the "Hello, World!" program we just ran were the words "Hello, World!". So, PRINT is the function and "Hello, World!" is the argument we ''pass'' to the function. PRINT [Text to screen] ''Note: For a short cut, just use a question mark "?" in place of the command "PRINT". Likewise you can use a single quote "'" in place of the key word REM to insert comments in your code'' ==2HELLO.BAS== <syntaxhighlight lang=qbasic> PRINT "This line will be erased" CLS PRINT "Hello"; PRINT " World", PRINT "Hello Jupiter" PRINT "Good Bye",,"For";" Now" PRINT 1,2,3,4,5 </syntaxhighlight> ==PRINT, Commas, Semicolons, tab (n) and CLS== This is what the program output should look like: <syntaxhighlight lang=text> Hello World Hello Jupiter Good Bye For Now 1 2 3 4 5 </syntaxhighlight> The first line of 2HELLO.BAS outputs "This line will be erased." to the screen. However, in the second line, the CLS command clears the screen immediately after. So, it will only flash momentarily. The text "Hello Jupiter" should line up with '2' under it. More than one comma can be used consecutively. In this example, after "Good Bye" two commas are used to move "For Now" over two tab columns. "For Now" should line up with '3'. My final statement on this topic is to play around with it. Try using commas and semicolons in a program. ==3HELLO.BAS== <syntaxhighlight lang=qbasic> CLS hello$ = "Hello World" number = 12 PRINT hello$, number </syntaxhighlight> ==Variables== Variables are used to store information. They are like containers. You can put information in them and later change the information to something else. In this first example they may not seem very useful but in the next section (Input) they will become very useful. In this example we use two types of variables: string variables and numeric variables. A string variable holds a string of characters, such as words. (A character is a letter, digit or symbol.) In this case, the characters are letters. A string variable is denoted by ending the name of the variable with a dollar sign. The string variable in this program is '''hello$'''. Whatever value you assign to '''hello$''' will be displayed in the '''PRINT''' statement. The numeric variable is '''number'''. Numeric variables do not have a special ending like string variables. ==4FACE.BAS== <syntaxhighlight lang=qbasic> CLS LOCATE 14, 34 'position the left eye PRINT "<=>" 'draw the left eye LOCATE 14, 43 'position the right eye PRINT "<=>" 'draw the right eye LOCATE 16, 39 'position the nose PRINT "o|o" 'draw the nose LOCATE 18, 36 'position the mouth PRINT "\_______/" 'draw the mouth LOCATE 19, 42 'the bottom PRINT "The Face by QBasic" </syntaxhighlight> ==LOCATE statement== LOCATE allows you to position the cursor for the next piece of text output. Contrary to Cartesian coordinates which read (X,Y), the locate statement is LOCATE Y,X. In this case Y is the distance down from the top of the screen and X is the distance from the left side of the screen. The reason that LOCATE does not follow the standard coordinate system is that it is not necessary to include the X portion; you can use the format LOCATE Y which just specifies the line to start on. '''LOCATE[row, column]'''<br> '''LOCATE[row]''' ==5FACE.BAS== <syntaxhighlight lang=qbasic> CLS LOCATE 14, 34 COLOR 9 PRINT "<=>" LOCATE 14, 43 PRINT "<=>" COLOR 11 LOCATE 16, 39 PRINT "o|o" COLOR 4 LOCATE 18, 36 PRINT "\_______/" COLOR 20 LOCATE 19, 42 PRINT "U" LOCATE 1, 1 COLOR 16, 1 PRINT "Hello World" </syntaxhighlight> ==COLOR statement== The program 5FACE.BAS is broken into many sections to make it easier to read. This is an example of a good programming habit. Each three-line piece of code specifies what the color, location and form of its part of the face. The order of the position and the color is unimportant. The new statement COLOR allows you to change the color of the text. Once changed, all output will be in the new color until COLOR or CLS is used. '''COLOR [foreground]'''<br> '''COLOR [foreground], [background]''' The colors are designated by numbers which will be discussed in the next section. ==Color by Number== There are 16 colors (in screen mode 0), numbered from 0 to 15. {| class="wikitable" |0 || Black ||8 || Gray |- |1 || Blue ||9 || Light Blue |- |2 || Green ||10 || Light Green |- |3 || Cyan ||11 || Light Cyan |- |4 || Red ||12 || Light Red |- |5 || Purple ||13 || Light Purple |- |6 || Brown/Orange ||14 || Yellow (Light Orange) |- |7 || Light Grey (White) ||15 || White (Light White) |} If you look carefully at this chart you can see that there are 8 main colors (0 through 7) and then those colors repeat, each in a lighter shade. You may also notice that the colors act as a combination of binary values (where blue=1, green=2, red=4, etc.) This makes it much easier to memorize the color scheme. Blinking colors are also available: at 16, the colors start over again with blinking black and extend through 31 (blinking white). However, the blinking option is not available for the background, only for the text (foreground). Add 16 to the color you wish to blink. e.g.: 2+16=18 - Blinking Green, 4+16=20 - Blinking Red. It is possible to switch the blinking foreground text with an intense background, but this task is beyond the scope of this QBasic textbook, and may not work when MS Windows displays the console in a windowed mode. ==Font== On a VGA compatible video card, you can inspect and change the font used in screen mode 0. OUT &H3CE, 5: OUT &H3CF, 0 'Clear even/odd mode OUT &H3CE, 6: OUT &H3CF, 4 'Map VGA mem A0000-BFFFF OUT &H3C4, 2: OUT &H3C5, 4 'Set bit plane 2 OUT &H3C4, 4: OUT &H3C5, 6 'Clear even/odd mode again You can now use PEEK and POKE to access the character data. It starts at absolute address &HA0000 and every character is 32 bytes, each of which is a row of eight bits. The highest bit of each byte corresponds to the leftmost pixel of each row. Usually only the first 16 or 8 rows are used, depending on the WIDTH setting. When you're done, it's important to put the memory mapping back to what QBasic expects: OUT &H3CE, 6: OUT &H3CF, 14 'Map VGA mem B8000-BFFFF ==Summary== In this section we looked at several methods to manipulate text output. All centered around the PRINT statement. LOCATE and COLOR modified where the text was displayed and how it looked. We used CLS to clear the screen and gave a brief introduction to variables which will be expanded upon in later sections. {{BookCat}} 7hx93x2vvlw7wan8jt7tk7832hy6pye 0 34954 4095558 3334034 2022-08-23T21:49:17Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typo wikitext text/x-wiki Across Britain there are many accounts of phantom black dogs. The beasts are often said to be monstrous goblin-dogs with huge teeth and claws. The name for these spectre-hounds vary from place to place: * The most famous is probably the Barghest of Yorkshire, a nocturnal beast who's appearance is regarded as an omen of death. * The Demon of Tedworth, the Black Dog of Winchester and the Padfoot of Wakefield all shared the characteristics of the Barghest of York. * In Lancashire the spectre-hound is called Trash or Striker. * In Cambridgeshire and on the Norfolk coast it is known as Black Shuck or Shock. * In the Isle of Man it is styled Mauthe Dog. People believe that anyone who sees the dog clearly will die soon after the encounter. It is mentioned by Sir Walter Scott in The Lay of the Last Minstrel-- :"For he was speechless, ghastly, wan :Like him of whom the Story ran :Who spoke the spectre hound in Man." * In Jersey folklore, the Black Dog of Death is called the Tchico, but a related belief in the Tchian d'Bouôlé (Black Dog of Bouley) tells of a phantom dog whose appearance presages storms. The story is believed to have been encouraged by smugglers who wanted to discourage nocturnal movements by people who might witness the movement of contraband. * In Wales its counterpart was Gwyllgi, the Dog of Darkness, a frightful apparition of a mastiff with baleful breath and blazing red eyes. A Welsh variant is the Cwn Annwn, or dogs of hell. {{BookCat}} r6w03l35jz1lmixt1ygwgbficp9i5ej 0 38607 4095548 4086908 2022-08-23T21:32:36Z ISaveNewspapers 3328099 Wording wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Position|= |Parham Attack<br>Wayward Queen Attack| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|= |pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|= | | | | | | | | |= | | | | |pd| | |ql|= | | | | |pl| | | |= | | | | | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl|= |rl|nl|bl| |kl|bl|nl|rl|= || }} {{wikipedia|Parham Attack}} == Wayward Queen Attack, Parham Attack == ===1. e4 e5 2. Qh5?!=== The Wayward Queen Attack or Kentucky Opening is a very aggressive move. It violates an opening principle by bringing the queen out early. However, Black has to be careful, as White’s queen is placed on an aggressive square. The main purpose of 2. Qh5 is actually the resulting pressure on f7 after White plays [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|3. Bc4]]; the f7-pawn is guarded only by Black's king and is considered Black’s weakest pawn at the beginning of the game. The safest option for Black is to play [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...Nc6|'''2…Nc6''']], which guards the e-pawn and prepares [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...g6|3…g6]]. Black can also try playing [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...Nf6|2…Nf6]], the Kiddie Countergambit. Black sacrifices her e-pawn for a lead in development and many tempi against White’s queen. [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...g6|2…g6??]], attacking the queen immediately, is not recommended: it simultaneously leaves the e-pawn undefended and opens up the h8-rook, and White can win that rook by playing 3. Qxe5+! Note that this opening allows White’s quickest possible mate if Black plays [[2...Ke7]] (3. Qxe5#). ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. e4 e5 2. Qh5''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">2</th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/2...Nc6|Nc6]]</td> <td>[[/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|Bc4]]<br>g6</td> <td>Qf3<br>Nf6</td> <td>Ne2<br>Bg7</td> <td>Nbc3<br>d6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/2...g6|g6??]]</td> <td>Qxe5+<br>Ne7</td> <td>Qxh8<br></td> <td>+-</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/2...Nf6|Nf6!?]]</td> <td>Qxe5+<br>Be7</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[/2...Ke7|Ke7??]] </td> <td>[[/2...Ke7/3. Qxe5/|Qxe5#]]<br>N/A </td> <td>1-0 </td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} * Nunn's Chess Openings. 1999. John Nunn (Editor), Graham Burgess, John Emms, Joe Gallagher. {{ISBN|1-8574-4221-0}}. * Modern Chess Openings: MCO-14. 1999. Nick de Firmian, Walter Korn. {{ISBN|0-8129-3084-3}}. {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} ez7plbsfqgw3rsvdcgatd0gxog0ugex 0 56888 4095729 3969807 2022-08-24T10:22:31Z RogueScholar 847443 Fix linter error (missing closing <i> tag and replace deprecated syntax with current best practices wikitext text/x-wiki {{Featured book}} __NOTOC__ {| style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: auto;" | style="padding-right: 2.5em;" | {{Print version}} | {{PDF version}} | style="padding-left: 2.5em;" | {{Wikipediapar||Philosophy of Education}} |} <br clear="both" /><!-- this break is required for non-overlapping display in Gecko-based browsers like Firefox --> == Contents == {| style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 80%;" | style="padding-left: 2.5em; vertical-align: top; width: 45%;" | <span style="font-size: 1.25em; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline; white-space: nowrap;">Theories</span> * [[/Behavioralist Theories|Behavioralist]] * [[/Constructivist Theories|Constructivist]] * [[/Social Learning Theories|Social Learning]] * [[/Post-Modern Theories|Post-Modern]] * [[/Adult Learning Theories|Adult Learning]] | style="padding-bottom: 1em; vertical-align: top; width: 45%;" | <span style="font-size: 1.25em; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline; white-space: nowrap;">Organizational Learning</span> * [[/Organizational Learning: Contributions by Discipline|Contributions by Discipline]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Triggers|Triggers]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Influencing Factors|Influencing Factors]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Agents|Agents]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Processes|Processes]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Interorganizational|Interorganizational]] * [[/Organizational Learning: Practice|Practice]] | style="padding-right: 2.5em; vertical-align: top;" | <span style="font-size: 1.25em; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline; white-space: nowrap;">Knowledge Management</span> * [[/Knowledge Management: Challenges|Challenges]] * [[/Knowledge Management: Processes|Processes]] * [[/Knowledge Management: Leadership|Leadership]] * [[/Knowledge Management: Change|Change]] |- | colspan="3" style="border-top: 2px solid LightGray; padding-left: 2.5em; padding-top: 0.5em;" | * [[/References/]] |} == See also == * [[Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy]] * [[Instructional Technology]] * [[Wikiversity:Portal:Education|Wikiversity Education Portal]] * [[Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 2: The Learning Process|Contemporary Educational Psychology – The Learning Process]] {{Shelves|Learning theory}} {{Alphabetical|L}} {{Status|75%}} f8d2mjgflofisft5pep4lslygdwz46q 0 67472 4095735 4088474 2022-08-24T10:53:27Z Rich Farmbrough 9604 /* Conditional questions */ wikitext text/x-wiki Don't worry about the length of the lesson this time. Unlike [[../Lesson Two - I am...|last lesson]], this will just be a short, basic grammar lesson teaching you how to form questions in Turkish. ==Question words== Before we can start asking questions, let's learn some question words: *'''Ne?''' - What? *'''Nerede?''' - Where? **'''Nereden?''' - From where? **'''Nereye?''' - To where? *'''Ne zaman?''' - When? *'''Neden?/Niye?''' - Why? *'''Hangi?''' - Which? **'''Hangisi?''' - Which one? *'''Kim?''' - Who? **'''Kimin?''' - Whose (is it)? **'''Kime?''' - To whom? *'''Nasıl?''' - How? **'''Ne kadar?''' - How much?/How many? **'''Ne kadar zaman kaldı?''' - How long left? ===Incorporation=== Let's try and incorporate these words into sentences. *'''Senin adın ''ne''?''' - ''What'' is your name? *'''Kumanda ''nerede''?''' - ''Where's'' the remote? **'''''Nereden'' geldin?''' - ''Where'' did you come ''from''? **'''''Nereye'' gidiyorsun?''' - ''Where'' are you going (''to'')? *'''O evden ''ne zaman'' çıktı?''' - ''When'' did he leave the house? *'''Sen ''neden/niye'' kurabiyeyi kurabiye kavanozundan çaldın?''' - ''Why'' did you steal the cookie from the cookie jar? *'''Bugün ''hangi'' elbiseyi giyineceğim?''' - ''Which'' dress am I going to wear today? *'''''Hangisi'' senin?''' - ''Which'' one is yours? *'''O ''kim''?''' - ''Who'' is that? **'''O ''kimin''?''' - ''Whose'' is that? **'''O hediyeyi ''kime'' gönderiyorsun?''' - ''Who'' are you sending that present ''to''? *'''Onu ''nasıl'' göndereceksin?''' - ''How'' are you going to send it? **'''O ''ne kadar''dı?''' - ''How much'' was it? **'''Evden çıktığına kadar ''ne kadar zaman kaldı''?''' - ''How long left'' until you leave the house? Some of these examples are of the perfect (past) tense. We'll touch on those later. ==Conditional questions== In other words, a question which could be answered either with a positive or a negative response (e.g. '''Did you go shopping yesterday?'''). In Turkish, it's a little different. Let's use the verb '''gitmek'''-to go as an example for this demonstration. '''Sen gidiyorsun''' is ''you're going''. All you do to make it ''are you going?'' is this: You add a -mı-, a -mi-, a -mü- or a -mu- in between the ''-yor-'' and the suffix (''-yum'', ''-sun'', etc.), depending on the vowel harmony, as so: '''Sen gidiyor'' mu''sun?''' - Are you going? However, it's different with some other people. Let's conjugate it fully: {|class="wikitable" align=center |- !to go [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] ![[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|20px]] gitmek |- |Am I going? |(Ben) gidiyor '''mu'''yum? |- |Are you going? |(Sen) gidiyor '''mu'''sun? |- |Is he/she going? |(O) gidiyor '''mu'''? |- |Are we going? |(Biz) gidiyor '''mu'''yuz? |- |Are you (pl.) going? |(Siz) gidiyor '''mu'''sunuz? |- |Are they going? |(Onlar) gidiyor '''mu'''?, (Onlar) gidiyorlar '''mı'''? |} As you can see, the pattern applies to almost all cases, except for he/she, because it doesn't have a suffix. Therefore, all we do is add a ''mı'', ''mi'' or ''mu'' afterwards, but as a separate word. Now that we've covered all of this, let's continue to the next lesson. We'll learn more about questions later on. {{Turkish/TOC}} ijmtrgu2gba517gngwsyrzcqxl0kxwh 0 72474 4095703 4019857 2022-08-24T08:17:13Z RogueScholar 847443 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Knihy123knihy|Knihy123knihy]] ([[User talk:Knihy123knihy|talk]]) to last version by Adrignola wikitext text/x-wiki ==Roaring 20s (Lost Generation)== Gay 80s<br> Gay 90s<br> Women's Suffrage<br> Prohibition<br> Red Scare<br> Second International<br> income tax<br> "New Negro"<br> Jazz<br> [[Wikipedia:Esperanto|Esperanto]]<br> League of Nations (United Nations)<br> ''Cheaper by the Dozen''<br> ''The Sun Also Rises''<br> Al "Scarface" Capone<br> "Bugs" Muran<br> Valentine's Day Massacre<br> Bonnie and Clyde<br> anti-Modernism<br> ==Depression== Hoover<br> Third Riff War<br> Lina Medina<br> Franklin Roosevelt (FDR)<br> ===[[Wikipedia:Spanish Civil War|Spanish Civil War]] (''Guerra Civil Española'')=== Popular Front<br> Francisco Franco<br> Calros Garcias<br> Pope Pius XII<br> Ernest Hemingway<br> ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''<br> ''Tierra Española''<br> == World War II == Free World<br> Slave World<br> mind control<br> Josef Stalin<br> Adolf Hitler<br> Emperor Hirohito<br> Swastika<br> Nazi<br> facist<br> yellow star<br> total war (''totalier Kreig'')<br> SNAFU<br> Winston Churchill<br> D-Day<br> Pearl Harbor<br> Allies<br> {{chapnav|Keywords2|Keywords4}} famaw7ql0p04ofgeapuv408ochrhuvy 0 72913 4095478 3460336 2022-08-23T16:49:54Z 2601:805:8100:7BB0:EC7E:B73E:B6B8:CF90 /* Ingredients */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cocktails | flavor = Citrus | units = 2.5 | standard drinks = 2.0 }} {{Wikipedia|Unit of alcohol}} The Adios Motherfucker (often abbreviated AMF and also known as a "Blue Motorcycle") is a strong "multi-liquor" cocktail, similar and comparable to the [[Bartending/Cocktails/Long Island Ice Tea|Long Island Ice Tea]]. ===Ingredients=== *1/2 oz. vodka *1/2 oz. rum *1/2 oz. tequila *1/2 oz. gin *1/2 oz. blue Curaçao *2 oz. of sour mix *2 oz. 7-Up or ginger ale ===Garnish=== cherry ===Glass=== pint glass ===Procedure=== #Fill glass with ice,and add the vodka, rum, tequila,blue curacao, and gin. #Fill up with sour mix. #Add a splash of 7-up soda. #Garnish with a cherry and stir. Reference [http://www.drinksmixer.com/drink735.html] ===Notes=== *The AMF is very similar to the Long Island Iced tea, which uses cola and triple sec instead of the clear soda and Curaçao. *Many bars that cannot serve doubles consider the AMF (and its cousin, the Long Island), off-limits. They are potent and go down smoothly by virtue of their mild flavor. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Cocktails with vodka|Adios Motherfucker]] [[Category:Cocktails with rum|Adios Motherfucker]] [[Category:Cocktails with gin|Adios Motherfucker]] [[Category:Cocktails with orange flavoured liqueur|Adios Motherfucker ]] [[sv:Adios Motherfucker]] [[de:Cocktails/ Adios Motherfucker]] 57v07p9ehz7z26iornky3yuhq5juz7d 5 74897 4095518 4088605 2022-08-23T19:55:27Z 196.191.49.15 /* Awel hasen */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk header}} == Mark admins == I've made [[User:Minorax/markAdmin.js]] to indicate the rights functionaries have. Should it be moved to gadget-space so it's more visible? --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 09:21, 20 March 2021 (UTC) :{{ping|Leaderboard}} for views, I think that seems reasonable. --[[User:Mrjulesd|<span style="color:orange;">Jules</span>]]&nbsp;[[User talk:Mrjulesd|(Mrjulesd)]] 21:16, 20 March 2021 (UTC) :{{re|Minorax}} What does that script do? Is it just purely cosmetic? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:28, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::{{Re|Leaderboard}} Yes, it's cosmetic It'll mark admins with the rights they have. e.g. since QuiteUnusual is a sysop, crat, cu and steward. Their username will appear as QuiteUnusual <span style="color:blue">'''(A/B/CU/S)'''</span>. --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 07:36, 21 March 2021 (UTC) :::{{re|Minorax}} I think you can go ahead then, you have interface-admin being a GS and I have no issues with your proposal. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:38, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::::Done and gadget seems to be working properly. [[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 13:30, 21 March 2021 (UTC) :::::{{ping|Minorax}}, I take it that [[MediaWiki:Gadget-markAdmins-data.js]] will have to be kept up-to-date for this to work, right? --[[User:Mrjulesd|<span style="color:orange;">Jules</span>]]&nbsp;[[User talk:Mrjulesd|(Mrjulesd)]] 13:52, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::::::{{re|Mrjulesd}} Yes, it'll have to be kept up-to-date. --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 14:19, 21 March 2021 (UTC) == Awel hasen == I will follow all about your library books [[Special:Contributions/196.191.49.15|196.191.49.15]] ([[User talk:196.191.49.15|discuss]]) 19:55, 23 August 2022 (UTC) 65m3404m9aagzcy2wfvzz5ag54mzh1o 4095527 4095518 2022-08-23T20:33:49Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/196.191.49.15|196.191.49.15]] ([[User talk:196.191.49.15|talk]]) to last version by L10nM4st3r wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk header}} == Mark admins == I've made [[User:Minorax/markAdmin.js]] to indicate the rights functionaries have. Should it be moved to gadget-space so it's more visible? --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 09:21, 20 March 2021 (UTC) :{{ping|Leaderboard}} for views, I think that seems reasonable. --[[User:Mrjulesd|<span style="color:orange;">Jules</span>]]&nbsp;[[User talk:Mrjulesd|(Mrjulesd)]] 21:16, 20 March 2021 (UTC) :{{re|Minorax}} What does that script do? Is it just purely cosmetic? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:28, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::{{Re|Leaderboard}} Yes, it's cosmetic It'll mark admins with the rights they have. e.g. since QuiteUnusual is a sysop, crat, cu and steward. Their username will appear as QuiteUnusual <span style="color:blue">'''(A/B/CU/S)'''</span>. --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 07:36, 21 March 2021 (UTC) :::{{re|Minorax}} I think you can go ahead then, you have interface-admin being a GS and I have no issues with your proposal. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 07:38, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::::Done and gadget seems to be working properly. [[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 13:30, 21 March 2021 (UTC) :::::{{ping|Minorax}}, I take it that [[MediaWiki:Gadget-markAdmins-data.js]] will have to be kept up-to-date for this to work, right? --[[User:Mrjulesd|<span style="color:orange;">Jules</span>]]&nbsp;[[User talk:Mrjulesd|(Mrjulesd)]] 13:52, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ::::::{{re|Mrjulesd}} Yes, it'll have to be kept up-to-date. --[[User:Minorax|Minorax]] ([[User talk:Minorax|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Minorax|contribs]]) 14:19, 21 March 2021 (UTC) ke5ffzyqht7zfmp59ziz92bteadsp9t 0 79458 4095513 3376557 2022-08-23T19:36:34Z 192.150.174.23 Switched order of pressure potential def. and solute potential def. for clarity and simplicity wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:entropie.svg|thumb|Low and high entropy. For any state of any system there is a number that describes how messy it is, this number is called entropy. Any spontaneous process will increase a system's entropy (as stated by the second law).]] ;Diffusion: the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. For example, if a bottle of air freshener is sprayed on one side of a room, the fragrance would eventually be able to be smelled on the opposite side of the room. The air freshener diffused from an area of high concentration (where it was first sprayed) to an area of low concentration (the rest of the room). Eventually, an equilibrium will be reached, and the concentration will be uniform throughout the room, and there will be no net movement of molecules. ;Osmosis: a special case of diffusion, in which water will diffuse across a selectively permeable (allows some but not all molecules to gow through) membrane. Water will diffuse from an area of higher water concentration (low solute concentration), to a lower water concentration (high solute concentration). Water potential is the measure of free energy of water in a solution. Water will always move from an area of higher water potential (more water molecules) to an area of lower water potential (fewer water molecules). Water potential is affected by two factors, the addition of solute and physical pressure. In this lab, we will investigate the processes of diffusion and osmosis in a model membrane system, and investigate the effect of solute concentration on water potential as it relates to living plant tissues. ;Water Potential :is the potential energy of water in proportion to dirty water. It is defined by the formula Ψ = Ψ_p + Ψ_s where ::*Ψ is the total water potential ::*Ψ_p is the pressure potential of the solution ::*Ψ_s is the solute potential of the solution Osmosis and diffusion are two of the most important processes in the study of how organisms maintain homeostasis, particularly with regard to their electrolyte and water balances. This AP lab attempts to demonstrate the process of osmosis using dialysis bags. =Expected Results and Analysis= From only having glucose and starch within the dialysis bag, the glucose diffuses and there is a presence of glucose inside the cup that was initially distilled water and the absence of starch. This is because the selectively permeable dialysis bag, cell membrane, only allows small molecules, such as glucose and water to pass, but not large polysaccharides like starch. =Conclusions= Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. One can see the effects of diffusion when one puts several balls tightly packed in a room and open the door to an adjacent room. The balls will gradually slide to the other room. Due to diffusion since the room had a high concentration of balls and the new room did not the balls diffused equally to both rooms. Another important piece of information to know about diffusion is that it is passive which means it requires no energy. Osmosis on the other hand is exactly like diffusion except that in osmosis the object that is being diffused is water, whereas diffusion implies no specific object. One example of osmosis can be seen in a plant when one pours water into a plant and the plant becomes turgid. This is because there is a lower concentration of water inside the plant so water diffuses into the plant. Osmosis like diffusion is also passive. {{BookCat}} iduw2mzdmp77pny2zouktzak81kxpns 0 89631 4095622 4045479 2022-08-24T04:01:05Z 119.160.64.132 I have only write one one example of we ,you ,he ,she ,and goof morning wikitext text/x-wiki * Good morning صُبح بخیر . good morning students. * We : Hum ھم .. We are playing cricket. * Us : Hum ھم . you go with us. * Our : Hamara ھمارا this is our tournament. * He : Woh وہus he is a good boy. * She :Woh وہ she is a beautiful * You : Tu تُو, Tum تُم or Aap آپ (intimate, informal, polite or plural form) * Your : Tera تیرا , Tumhara تُمہارا or Aap ka آپ کا (intimate, informal, polite or plural form) * Haan ھاں / Ji haan جی ھاں (Respect) : Yes * Nahin : no نہیں * Idher اِدھر / Yahan یھاں / Iss Jegha اِس جگہہ : here * Udher اُدھر / Wahan وھاں / ooss Jegha اُس جگہہ : there * Aisey ایسے / Is tarha اِس طرح : like this * jaisey جیسے / oos tarha اُس طرح : like (that) * hello ھیلو : hello * Assalam-O-Alai-qum اسلام و علیکم (From Arabic language meaning "peace be upon you") , aap kaise hain? آپ کیسے ھیں ؟ : (greetings), how are you? * kya haal hay? کیا حال ھے : How are you ? * Yeh Kya hay? یہ کیا ھے : What is This * Woh kya hay? وہ کیا ھے ؟ : What is That? * Abbu ابو /Ammi امی : Father/Mother * Bhai بھائی /Bahen بہن : Brother/Sister * Beta بیٹا /Beti بیٹی : Son/Daughter * Muaf Kijiye Ga معاف کیجیے گا / Main Muafi chata hun میں معافی چاہتا ھوں : Sorry / Excuse me. * Tumhara تُمہارا / Aapka naam kya hay آپ کا نام کیا ھے : What is your name? * Mujhey Tum مُجھے تم / Aap say mil kar bari kushi huhi آپ سے مل کر بڑی خوشی ھوئی : I'm very pleased to meet you. * Tumhara تُمہارا / Aapka ta'aluk kahan say hay? آپ کا تعلق کہاں سے ھے ؟ : Where are you from? * Tumhari تُمہاری / Aapki umer kitne hay? آپ کی عُمرکِتنی ھے ؟ : What is your age? * Lari adda kahan hay? لاری اڈا کہاں ھے ؟ :Where is bus stop? * Iss ki kya qeemat hay? اِس کی کیا قیمت ھے ؟ : How much does it cost? * Kya waqt huwa hay? کیا وقت ھُوا ھے ؟ : What is time now? * Kuyoon kar ? کیوں کر ؟ : Why so? * Mujhay tum say mohabbat ho-gaya(ee) hay مُجھے تُم سے مُحبت ھو گئی ھے ؟ : I am in love with you * Yeh Hai یہ ھے : This is * Khuda Hafiz خدا خافظ : Good Bye * A : Ek * Aao آؤ / Aaiye آئیں (respect) : Come * Aaya آیا ( he) / Aayee آئی (she) / Aaye آئے (plural) Will come : Aaonga آؤں گا - Aayeinge آئیں گے (he) / Aaongi آؤں گی - Aayegi آئے گی (she) / Aayeinge آئیں گی (plural) * Open : Kholo کھولو / Kholiye کھولیے (respect) / Kholna کھولنا (Verb) * Opened : Khula کھولا * Will open : Kholega کھولے گا - Kholeinge کھولیں گے (he-with respect) / Kholegi کھولے گی - Kholeingi کھولیں گی (she) / Kholeingay کھولیں گے (plural) * Sit : Thasreef-Rakhiye (formal) تشریف رکھیے (Baitho بیٹھو / Bhaitiay بیٹھیے (respect) / Baithna بیٹھنا) * Walk : Chalo چلو / Chaliyein چلیں - Chaliye چلیے (respect) / Chalna چلنا (to walk) * Eat : Nosh-Farmaeiye (formal) نوش فرمایئے (Khao کہو / Khaiyein کہیں - Khaiye کہیے (respect)/ Kehna کہنا) * Drink : Piyo (instruction) پیئو / Pee-lee-jiay (respect) پی لی جیئے / Peena پینا (to drink) * Win : Fatah (victory) فتح/ Jeet جیت/ Jeetna جیتنا * Go : Jaao جاؤ / Jaaiye (respect) جایئے / Jaana (to go) جانا * Run : Daurna دوڑنا/ Daur (race) دوڑ/ Bhag Daur (activity) بھاگ دوڑ * We go: Hum Jain ہم جایئں/ Hum Chalain ہم چلیں / I go: Main Jaoun میں جاؤں/ Main Chloun میں چلوں : Hum jaaien ہم جائیں / Mein jaata hoon میں جاتا ہوں * He goes: Woh jate hain * He eats an apple: Woh seb khaata hai (Normally) / Woh seb khaatey hein (Respect) [[Hebrew Roots/The original foundation/Repentance|He]] is eating an apple Woh seb khaa raha hai(Normally) Woh seb khaa rahey hein (Respect) He ate an apple Us ne seb khaya (Normally) Unhon ne seb khaya (Respect) I saw the film last week Main ne guzishte(pichhle) hafte film dekhi (talking about self) Humne ne guzishte(pichhle) hafte film dekhi (talking about more than one person) She came by bus yesterday Woh kal bus se aayi (Normally) Woh kal bus se aayien (Respect) They went to the mosque Woh masjid gaye hain He slept the whole night Woh raat bhar sota raha (Normally) Woh raat bhar sotey rahey (Respect) He wrote well in the examination Usne imthihan mein achha likha (Normally) Unhon ne imthihan mein achha likha (Respect) He has eaten Woh khaa chuka hai (Normally) Woh khaa chukey hai (Respect) He had eaten Woh khaa chuka tha (Male) Woh khaa chuki thee. (Female) He had gone Woh chala gaya (Normally) Woh chaley gaye (Respect) He had come Woh aaya tha (Normally) Woh aaye thee (Respect) He will eat Woh khaey ga (Normally) Woh khaien gay (Respect) He will go Woh jaaey ga (Normally) Woh jaayen gay (Respect) He will come Woh aaey ga (Normally Woh aayen gay (Respect) What is your name? Tumhara naam kya hai ? (Normally) Aap ka naam kya hai (Respect) What Kya Is Hai / Hein (respect) Your Tumhara / Aap ka (respect) Name Naam / Isma-e-girami What did you do? Tum ne kya kiya ? (Normally) Aap ne kya kiya? (Respect) What should I do? Mujhe kya kerna chahiye? (what should i do) Hamien kya kerna chahiye (what should we do) What can I do? Main kya kar sakta (Male) / sakti(Female) hoon ? (me) Hum kya kar saktey hein ? (we) What are the questions? Sawalat kya hain? What were the questions? Sawalat kya thee? What is the last question? Aakhiri sawal kya hai ? What is written in the letter? Khat mein kya likha hai ? What you had been told? Tumhein kya kaha gaya tha ? (Normally) Aap ko kya kaha gaya tha ? (Respect) What will be the answer? Jawab kya hoga ? Why did you come? Tum kyon aaey ? (Normally) Aap kyon aaye (Respect) Why did you sleep? Tum kyon soey ? (Normally) Aap kyon soey ? (Respect) Why did you tell him to go? Tum ne unko jaane ko kyon kaha ? (Normally) Aap ne unko jaane ko kyon kaha ? (Respect) Why did he bring the bag? Woh bag kyon laya ? (Normally) Woh bag kyon laye ? (Respect) Why did she pay the money? Us ne paisey kyon diye ? (Normally) Unhon ne paisey kyon diye (Respect) Why did they sit there? Woh wahan kyon baithe the ? Why do you drive the car? Tum gaari kyon chalate ho ? (Normally) Aap gaari kyon chalate ho ? (Respect) Why did they come late for the meeting? Woh molaqaat ke liye der se kyon aaye ? How did you come? Tum kaise aaye ? (Normally) Aap kaise aaye ? (Respect) How did you sleep? Tum kaise soye ? (Normally) Aap kaise soye ? (Respect) How did you drive the car ? Tum ne gaari kaise chalai ? (Normally) Aap ne gari kaise chalai ? (Respect) How did you write? Tum ne kaise likha ? (Normally) Aap ne kaise likha ? (Respect) How many apples are there in my hand? Mere haath mein kitne sev hein ? (Normally) Hamare haath mein kitne sev hein ? (Respect) How many did you take? Tum ne kitne liye ? (Normally) Aap ne kitne liye ? (Respect) How much did he pay you? Us ne tum ko kitne paise diye ? (Normally) Unhon ne aap ko kitne paise diye ? (Respect) How much distance to go? Aur kitni door jana hai ? How was the journey yesterday? Kal ka safar kaisa tha ? Which way did you come? Tum kis raaste se aaye ? (Normally) Aap kis raaste se aaye ? (Respect) Which one is your favorite color? Tumhara pasandida rang kaun sa hai ? (Normally) Aap ka pasandida rang kaun sa hai ? (Respect) In which room did you sleep? Tum kaun se kamre mein soye ? (Normally) Aap kaun se kamre mein soye ? (Respect) Which story did you tell? Tum ne kaun si kahani batayee ? (Normally) Aap ne kaun si kahani batayee ? (Respect) Which is the sweetest fruit? Sab su meetha phal kon sa hai ? Which is the best newspaper in Hindi? Hindi mein sab se achcha akhbaar kaun sa hai ? Which Indian state has the largest population? Kis hindustani soobe ki aabadi sab se zyada hai ? Where are you coming from? Tum kahan se aa rahe ho ? (Normally) Aap kahan se aa rahe hein ? (Respect) Where did you sleep? Tum kahan soye ? (Normally) Aap kahan soye ? (Respect) Where is the manager’s cabin? Manager ka cabin kahan hai ? Where should I go? Mujhe kahan jaana chahiye ?(Normally) Hamien kahan jaana chahiye ? (Respect) Is it a book? Kya yeh ek kitab hai ? Yes, it is a book Haan, yeh ek kitab hai (Normally) Ji, yeh ek kitab hai (Respect) Is it the answer? Kya yeh jawab hai? Yes, it is the answer Haan, yehi jawab hai (Normally) Ji, yehi jawab hai (Respect) Will you come with me? Kya tum mere saath aaoge ? (Normally) Kya aap mere saath aaoge ? (Respect) I shall come with you. Mein tumhare saath aaunga. (Normally) Mein aap ke saath aaunga. (Respect) Will you give me your pen? Kya tum mujhe apna pen doge ? (Normally) Kya aap mujhe apna pen doge ? (Respect) Yes, of course. Haan, zaroor (Normally) / Ji, zaroor (Respect) Do you love me ? Kya tum mujhe se pyar karte ho (male) kerti ho (female)? (Normally) Kya aap mujhe se pyar karte ho (male) kerti ho (female)? (Respect) Yes, I love you. Haan, mein tum se pyaar karta (male) / karti(female) hoon (Normally) Ji, mein aap se pyaar karta hoon (male) / karti(female) hoon (Respect) Can you give me your pen? Kya tum mujhe apna pen de sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Normally) kya aap mujhe apna pen de sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Respect) Can you lift the box? Kya tum box utha sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Normally) kya aap box utha sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Respect) Can you write the exam? Kya tum pariksha / Imtihaan likh sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Normally) kya aap pariksha / Imtihaan likh sakte ho (male) / sakti ho (female) ? (Respect) Did you have your lunch? Kya tum ne dopehar ka khana khaya ? (Normally) kya aap ne dopehar ka khana khaya ? (Respect) How are you? Tum kaise ho ? (Normally) Aap kaise ho ? (Respect) I am fine Main achcha hoon (male) achchi hoon (female) Call her == More == {| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 |- bgcolor=#eeeeee ! align=left | Translation ! align=left | Phrase ! align=left | IPA ! align=left | Transliteration |- |Urdu|||''Hindi'' || |- |hello ''As-Salamu-Alaikum''||| |- |hello (Urdu, Reply to Hello)''Wa-Alaikum-As-Salam''|| |- |goodbye ''Khuda Hafiz''|| |- |please* (Urdu)||مہربانی فرماکے||{{IPA|meːhrbɑiː fərɑːkeː}}||''mehrbānī farmake''|| |- |thank you* (Urdu)||شکريہ||{{IPA|ʃukrijə}}||''śhukriyā''|| |- |thank you very much||بہت بہت شکريہ||{{IPA|bəhut̪ bəhut̪ ʃukrijə}}||''bahut bahut śhukriyā''|| |- |welcome ||خوش آمديد||{{IPA|xuʃ əmd̪eːd̪}}||<i>Khush Amdaidⁿ<i>|| |- |excuse me||معاف کيجۓ||{{IPA|mɑːf kiːdʒiːjeː}}||''māf kījiye''|| hamid how are you || hamid aap kaisa hoo |- |don’t mention it||کوئ بات نہيں||{{IPA|koiː bɑːt̪ nəhiː}}||''koī bāt nahī''|| |- |yes||جی ہاں||{{IPA|dʒiː hɑ̃ː}}||''jī hāⁿ''|| |- |no/not||جی نہيں||{{IPA|dʒiː nəhĩː}}||<i>jī nahīⁿ<i> |- |good/right||اچھا||{{IPA|ətʃʰə̃}}||<i>acchaⁿ<i> |- |(all-purpose adj./interj.)|| |- |How are you?||آپ کيسے ہيں/کیسی ہيں؟||{{IPA|ɑːp keːseː hẽː/keːsiː hẽː}}||<i>āp kaise hai/kaisī hai? (m/f)|| |- |OK!||ٹھيک ہے||{{IPA|ʈʰiːk hẽː}}||''{{unicode|ṭhīk hai!}}''|| |- |one minute! (“just a sec”; interj.)||ايک منٹ||{{IPA|eːk minəʈ}}||''ek minaṭ''|| |- |I don’t understand||ميں نہين سمجھا||{{IPA|mẽː nəhĩː səmdʒʰə/səmdʒʰiː}}||''maiⁿ nahīⁿ samjha/samjhī (m/f)''|| |- |I don’t know||مجھے نہين پتہ||{{IPA|mudʒʰeː nəhĩː pət̪ə}}||''mujhey nahi pata (m/f)''|| |- |English||انگريزی||{{IPA|əŋgreːziː}}||''angrezī''|| |-apka nam |what is your name?||آپ کا کیا نام ہے؟||{{IPA|ɑːp kə kjɑː nɑːm hẽː}}||''āp ka kya nām hai?''|| |- |my name is ...||میرا نام ... ہے||{{IPA|meːrə nɑː ... hẽː}}|| ''mera nām ... hai''|| |- |It was nice to meet you||آپ سے مل کر بہت خوشی ہوئ||{{IPA|ɑːp seː milkər bəhut̪ xuʃiː huiː}}||''āp se milkar bahut <u>kh</u>uśī huī''|| + |It was nice to meet you|| |- |It was nice to meet you too (lit. to me also)||''مجھے بھی||{{IPA|mudʒʰeː bʰiː}}||<I>mujhe bhī''|| |- |How much does this cost?||اس کی کیا قيمت ہے؟||{{IPA|iskiː kjɑː qiːmət̪ hẽː}}||''iski kya qeemat hai?''|| |- |Do you speak English?||کيا آپ انگريزی بولتے/بولتی ہيں؟||{{IPA|kjɑː ɑːp əŋgreːziː boːlt̪eː/boːlt̪iː hẽː}}||''kya āp angrezī bolte/boltī (m/f) haiⁿ?'' |} Ap nay kahan stay kai {{BookCat}} p6rgbqxdl2oduoktc9otp3wzjfb14vv 0 97980 4095569 3812636 2022-08-23T22:16:26Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typos wikitext text/x-wiki This is a timeline of fictional events that took place in the ''Metal Gear'' series, as well as fictional and non-fictional events that are referred to in the series. This timeline only covers canonical games and does not include side-stories or unofficial sequels. An ''X'' in this timeline represents an unknown year, while an ''XX'' represents an unknown decade. {{Spoiler}} ==18th century== ===1765=== The original Sons of Liberty formed in the United States. ===1789=== [[File:Washington's Inauguration.jpg|thumb|A painting of Washington's Inauguration at Federal Hall.]] '''April 30''': George Washington takes office as the first President of the United States at Wall Street's City Hall in Manhattan, New York. *Wall Street's City Hall is renovated and renamed Federal Hall. *The Sons of Liberty as an active movement are disbanded. ==19th century== ===18XX=== It is claimed by the Patriots that in this period a kind of consciousness (the censorship and manipulation of information) formed layer by layer in the crucible of the White House.<ref name = "MGS2">Taken from the script in ''The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2''.</ref> ===1860s=== The End is born.<ref name = "MGS3">Taken from ''Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater''.</ref> ===1880s-1890s=== McDonnel Benedict Miller's grandparents migrate from Japan to the US.<ref name = "MG2">Taken from the ''Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake'' manual.</ref> ==1900s== ===1904=== A Japanese man called Jin-emon Natakama goes missing while exploring a stalactite cave.<ref name = "MGS2 Book">Taken from ''In the Darkness of Shadow Moses'', a fictional book that appeared as part of ''Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty''.</ref> ===1909=== Major Zero (David Oh) born in Exeter, England, United Kingdom.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ==1910s== ===1914=== Jin-emon Natakama walks out of a stalactite cave, a full ten years after he had gone missing while exploring the same cave. His family are doubly astonished to discover that he has apparently not aged a day since they last saw him (possibly the result of genetic experiments).<ref name = "MGS2 Book"/> ==1920s== ===1922=== '''December 30''': The Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics / USSR) is formed.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual">Taken from the ''Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater'' manual.</ref> ===1923=== The "12 Wisemen" of the United States, the Republic of China, and the Soviet Union, gather together in a secret meeting that would later be known as the Wisemen's Committee. The secret pact they form there marks the beginning of the Philosophers. They begin controlling all the key decisions for the political, financial, economical and military affairs that take place in the US, USSR and China.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ===1924=== The Joy (The Boss) born as a daughter of one of the United States' "Wisemen" Her name is an State's Ultra-Secret since her born, only her Father and the Higher Ranked Officials knowns her true name. Mother unknown.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ==1930s== ===1936=== Jack (John / Naked Snake / Big Boss) born in Hawaii. ===1936=== '''May 15''': EVA (Tatyana/Tanya/Big Mama) born in Meridian, Idaho, USA on May 15th 1936.<ref name = "MGS3"/> '''June 22''': Para-Medic (Jane Doe / Quack/ Dr. Clarke) born in Boston, Massachusetts, USA.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ===1938=== [[File:Mitsubishi J2M.JPG|thumb|A Mitsubishi J2M Raiden fighter plane.]] The Mitsubishi J2M "Raiden" fighter plane is built in Japan. ===1939=== *Sigint born in Nashville, Tennessee, USA. '''August''': Albert Einstein writes a letter to President Franklin Roosevelt urging the development of an atomic bomb.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual"/> '''September''': German army invades Poland, setting off World War II. '''November''': Soviet army invades Finland (the Winter War). *The Joy's father becomes the last remaining member of the original Wisemen's Committee. He reveals the truth of the Philosophers to her but as a result, he is killed by the Philosophers.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ==1940s== ===194X=== *The Philosophers form a secret pact, a blueprint for defeating the Axis Powers and creating a new world order. To secure victory in the war, USA, USSR and China pool their resources to conduct the most covert types of operations and research, including the atomic bomb, rocket technology, and the Cobra unit. The Philosophers amass an enormous sum of money to fund these projects, enough to fight the war five times over. That wealth is known as the Philosopher's Legacy. Yevgeny Borisovitch Volgin's father is one of the men in charge of managing the Philosopher's Legacy and hence, in charge of the Philosophers' money laundering activities.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *Jack loses the entire American side of his family in an Imperial Japanese Navy's attack during World War II. The Japanese side of his family are placed in internment camps. ===1941=== '''June''': German army launches a surprise attack against the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa). '''July''': British army's SAS (Special Air Service) formed. '''December 7''': Imperial Japanese Navy attacks Pearl Harbour. US army participates in World War II as a result. ===1942=== '''August''': US army's research division begins development of the atomic bomb (the Manhattan Project). Hal Emmerich's grandfather participates.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual"/> '''September''': Siege of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) begins. *In the midst of World War II, The Joy forms the Cobra Unit; the unit is formed by: * The Fear * The Pain * The End * The Fury * The Sorrow * The Boss / The Joy their names are State's Ultra-Secret.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual"/> *Mitsubishi J2M Raiden interceptors are used against the US in World War II. The code name the US Armed Forces used to refer to the Raiden fighter plane is "Jack". '''December''': Physicist Enrico Fermi succeeds in splitting an atom inside a nuclear reactor. ===1943=== '''January''': Soviet army emerges victorious in the battle of Stalingrad. *The Joy becomes pregnant with The Sorrow's child.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ===1944=== '''June 6''': The D-Day incident: Allies land at Normandy, France. The Cobra unit take part in the landing at Normandy and are given a top secret mission to locate and destroy enemy V-2 rocket installations. Revolver Ocelot (Adamska) is born during the battle, when The Joy gives birth to him via a caesarian operation, after being shot in the gut. The Joy is left with a scar resembling the shape of a snake.<ref name = "MGS3"/> '''June''': Adamska is taken away from The Joy by the Philosophers. He begins being raised as an agent of the Philosophers.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *V-1 rockets fall on London. ===1944-1945=== Jack joins the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a Japanese-American infantry unit, in his teens. He gains his first combat experience fighting against Nazis in France, his unit contributing to freeing towns from invading Nazi units. ===1945=== '''July 16''': The first atomic test in history takes place at Los Alamos, New Mexico in the United States. '''August''': Hal Emmerich's father born in the US.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual"/> '''August 6 - August 9''': Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. '''August 15''': World War II ends when Japan surrenders. ===1945-1946=== *The Joy is given the title of "The Boss", and also becomes known as "Voyevoda" in the USSR.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *After the end of World War II, the world is split into two - East and West. This marks the beginning of the era called the Cold War. *After the war, Jack returns back to the US, but suffers from prejudice against him due to his mixed ethnicity. This stunts his patriotism, and he turns his attention to fighting for himself and his own ideals.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *In the confusion that ensues after World War II ends, Volgin's father devises a series of ingenious plots to ensure that the Soviet Union would have total control over the Philosopher's Legacy. The money amassed by the Philosophers, $100 billion, is divided up and laundered through banks all over the world, including Switzerland, Australia and Hong Kong. A microfilm contains a record of all those transactions, and hence the microfilm itself comes to be known as the Philosopher's Legacy.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ===1946=== [[File:Eniac.jpg|thumb|ENIAC in operation]] '''February''': ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator), claimed to be the world's first computer, completed. ===1947=== '''September''': CIA (US Central Intelligence Agency) established. '''October''': Pilot Chuck Yeager breaks the sound barrier in the Bell X-1. *The Boss disbands the Cobra unit. ===1949=== '''April''': NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) established. '''May''': Germany split into East and West. '''June''': British author George Orwell publishes ''1984''. '''August''': USSR tests its first atomic bomb at Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan, becoming the world's second nuclear power. '''October''': People's Republic of China founded. ==1950s== ===1950=== '''June''': *Outbreak of Korean War (lasts until July 1953). *Jack becomes The Boss's disciple. She begins giving him combat training as a mentor and also starts teaching him Russian.<ref name = "MGS3 Manual"/> ===1951=== '''November''' 1: "Buster Dog" atomic test conducted at Area 7 in Nevada, with Army troops participating. The Boss (formerly The Joy) is in the Nevada desert participating in this atomic test. (she is exposed to atomic radiation for research purposes of The Patriots, she became sterile after that). ===1952=== *When a Roland Grace's grave is relocated, there are deep gouge marks discovered on the inside of the Hungarian farmer's casket lid. It appears the dying man had tried to claw his way out of the coffin. '''November''': US establishes the NSA (National Security Agency). ===1953=== '''April''': James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA based on work performed by Rosalind Franklin. '''July''': Korean War ends. '''August''': Nikita Khrushchev becomes First Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party. ===1954=== '''January''': *US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles announces the New Look policy (the so-called "massive retaliation strategy"). *US Navy launches the world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus. [[File:Castle Bravo Blast.jpg|thumb|The Castle Bravo blast.]] '''February''': The Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb tested on Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. Jack (late known as Naked Snake) is used as an atomic test subject there (he was rendered sterile due the radiation expose). He is involved in the testing of the first airborne detonation of a hydrogen bomb. After noticing Jack as an atomic test subject on Bikini Atoll, The Boss becomes more drawn to him due to their similar situations. '''March''': KGB (Soviet Commission for State Security) formed. '''May''': French garrison of Dien Bien Phu falls, signaling the victory of the Viet Minh. France pulls out of Indochina. [[File:Gojira 1954 Japanese poster.jpg|thumb|Poster for the original ''Godzilla'' movie.]] '''November''': Japanese movie ''Godzilla'' released in Japan. ===1955=== '''April''': Albert Einstein dies, pleading for an end to nuclear weapons. *Jack and The Boss devise the CQC (Close Quarters Combat) style of combat.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *Johan Jacobsen (Yozev Norden) becomes acquainted with Drago Pettrovich Madnar after they become college graduates. *Roy Campbell (Colonel Campbell / Chicken Fox) born in the US. ===1957=== *Vietnam War begins. '''August''': USSR successfully launches an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). [[File:Sputnik asm.jpg|thumb|A replica of Sputnik.]] '''October''': Soviet Union succeeds in launching the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik, into orbit (the Sputnik Shock). ===1958=== '''January''': US launches its first artificial satellite, Explorer I. '''October''': NASA (US National Aeronautics and Space Administration) begins operation. ===1959=== '''January''': Cuban Revolution. '''June 12''': The Boss leaves Jack behind for a top-secret mission and does not see him again for 5 years, 72 days, and 18 hours.<ref name = "MGS3"/> ==1960s== ===1960=== *Francis Crick discovers that each gene in an individual produces a particular protein (and a particular characteristic). *Undercover Mafia sting operations begin in Chicago. '''May''': *American Lockheed U-2 spy plane violates Soviet airspace and is shot down over the Ural Mountains. *Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announces missile aid to Cuba. *South Vietnamese National Liberation Front (NLF) forms. ===1961=== '''January''': John Fitzgerald Kennedy assumes office as the 35th President of the United States. '''February''': US conducts first test of Minutemen intercontinental ballistic missile. [[File:Semyorka Rocket R7 by Sergei Korolyov in VDNH Ostankino RAF0540.jpg|thumb|A Vostok rocket.]] '''April 12''': USSR launches Vostok 1, the first manned spacecraft in history, piloted by Yuri Gagarin. The rocket that carries Gagarin into orbit is the A1, known as the Vostok rocket. Nikolai Stephanovich Sokolov, a famous Soviet rocket scientist, is said to be the man most responsible for the multi-engine cluster used in that rocket. '''April''': After Gagarin's flight, Sokolov leaves rocket development to become the head of the newly established OKB-754 Design Bureau, one of the Soviet's top-secret weapon research facilities, and the East's foremost expert on weapons development. '''May''': Alan Shepard becomes first American in rocket flight aboard the Redstone Rocket. '''August''': Construction begins on the Berlin Wall in Germany. '''September''': US 5th Special Forces Group, the "Green Berets" activated. Jack joins this group and stays until the Virtuous Mission. '''October''': USSR conducts the first atomic test in space above Russia. '''December''': U.S. President John F. Kennedy announces increase in military assistance to South Vietnam. *Acting as a mercenary for the French, Jack participates in the Congo Crisis. ===1962=== '''January''': US Navy SEALS formed. '''February''': US achieves its first manned space flight with the launch of Friendship 7. *Nikolai Stepanovich Sokolov requests asylum in the West. Major Zero conducts the operation to sneak him out of the USSR. He uses a mole to get Sokolov's family out first and succeeds in sneaking Sokolov over the Berlin Wall shortly afterwards. *The Boss is assigned a mission to kill The Sorrow (her lover and Ocelot / Revolver Ocelot father) and she successfully completes it after The Sorrow allows her to kill him.<ref name = "MGS3"/> '''July''': Kyle Cooper born in Fallowfield, Washington, USA. '''October 16''': American U2 spy planes confirm presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, precipitating the Cuban Missile Crisis. The President of the United States receives word that the Soviet Union has deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The world trembles in fear as the prospect of nuclear war looms ever closer. '''October''': *There is a secret condition in the deal that would put an end to the crisis. Nikolai Stepanovich Sokolov, who recently defected to the West, is to be sent back to the Soviet Union. The US government agrees to this stipulation, and returns Sokolov to his native land, the USSR. *After days of tense negotiations, the Soviets finally agree on the 28th to withdraw their missiles from Cuban soil. This event would later be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis '''December''': US Mars rocket Mariner 2 approaches Mars and begins sending back survey data. *US begins producing "Davy Crockett" portable nuclear missiles. ===1963=== '''February''': US and USSR sign Hotline Agreement, establishing a direct telephone hotline between America and Soviet leaders. '''June''': British spy James Bond makes his first movie appearance in ''Doctor No''. Major Zero becomes a big fan of James Bond. '''August''': *US, UK, and USSR sign the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) in the Kremlin (banning atmospheric, space-based, and underwater testing of nuclear weapons). *Movie ''The Great Escape'' released. '''August 24''': Hideo Kojima born in Stagaya, Tokyo, Japan. '''October''': James Bond movie ''From Russia with Love'' released in the UK. '''November''': US President John Fitzgerald Kennedy assassinated. Lyndon Baines Johnson becomes President. *John le Carré publishes ''The Spy Who Came in from the Cold''. *Deaths from Vietnam War in 1963: South Vietnamese army: 8,100. NLF: 20,600. US military: 78. *10,000 US military advisors stationed in Vietnam. 100,000 South Vietnamese civilians serving US military. ===1963-1964=== *Aleksandr Leonovitch Granin, the foremost weapons scientist in the Soviet Union and the head of the Granin Design Bureau, creates prototype designs for the development of a "Metal Gear". Yevgheny Borisovich Volgin, after his father's death, learns of the Philosopher's Legacy and obtains the microfilm. With this money and the support of Brezhnev and his allies, Volgin builds the fortress of Groznyj Grad and Granin's research facility in Tselinoyarsk, USSR. Colonel Volgin later cancels the funding for Granin's project, in order to continue research on Sokolov's "Shagohod" as a result of Granin failing to produce results.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *McDonnel Benedict Miller (Master Miller / Hell Master) born in the US, 60 years after his grandparents migrated there. *Frank Jaeger (Frank Hunter / Gray Fox / Ashen Tod / Cyborg Ninja / Deepthroat / Null) born in Vietnam during the Vietnam War, as a half-German, half-Vietnamese. *Para-medic becomes a big fan of Godzilla. *The CIA's FOX (Force Operations X) unit is formed by Major Zero, but is not yet officially organized into a unit. Jack joins the FOX unit.<ref name = "MGS3"/> *Adamska becomes the leader of the GRU Spetsnaz (Russian Special Forces) Ocelot unit, and becomes known as Major Ocelot.<ref name = "MGS3"/> == References == <div class="references-small"> <references/> </div> {{BookCat}} 1qmdk4r55ehmk5h456zbxhwf5ccxiop 102 100369 4095447 4033393 2022-08-23T15:35:37Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken I]] to [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]]: I am moving it so more people can access the site page wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts (chicken on the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] fipz4ytk56ki3nnqfecu0njr9b2wlu1 4095453 4095447 2022-08-23T15:45:10Z Wikivuyo 3384720 /* Ingredients */It is delicious wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts (chicken on the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] 1kg rice 1 teaspoon of Paprika 1 tablespoon of rajah medium curry powder ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] mdywrh9hv8538n8tvzk2fjyns3zrdbq 4095454 4095453 2022-08-23T15:50:23Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Nearly every thing wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts (chicken on the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] •1kg rice •1 teaspoon of Paprika •1 tablespoon of rajah medium curry powder <s><ref group="Wikipedia">wikibooks</ref></s><code>1236<u>8</u></code> ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] 7beew1tyrve5uk2cz5alou6dqpdj8cg 4095455 4095454 2022-08-23T15:52:18Z Wikivuyo 3384720 It's a minor change wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts (chicken on the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] •1kg rice •1 teaspoon of Paprika •1 tablespoon of rajah medium curry powder ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] 1cg2e4975f1jglkuamtunf9nd630cyp 4095458 4095455 2022-08-23T15:56:55Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] to [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]]: For everyone else wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts (chicken on the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] •1kg rice •1 teaspoon of Paprika •1 tablespoon of rajah medium curry powder ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] 1cg2e4975f1jglkuamtunf9nd630cyp 4095462 4095458 2022-08-23T16:00:25Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Made things back to normal wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary |Category = Indian recipes |Servings = 4 to 6 |Image = [[Image:Butter_Chicken_with_Naan.JPG|300px]] }} {{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Cuisine of India]] '''Butter Chicken''' or '''murgh makhani''' is an [[Cookbook:Cuisine of India|Indian]] dish popular in countries all over the world where Indian restaurants are found. The dish was invented by accident at Moti Mahal Restaurant in Daryaganj, New Delhi. While the dish's general recipe is well known, the actual flavor can vary from restaurant to restaurant even within Delhi. It is a dish made by [[Cookbook:Marinating|marinating]] a chicken overnight in a yoghurt and [[Cookbook:Spices and herbs|spice]] mixture. The chicken is then roasted or baked. A sauce is made from butter, tomatoes, [[cookbook:almond|almond]]s and various spices, usually including the famous tandoori masala spice mix, and sometimes cream. Once the sauce is prepared, the marinated and roasted chicken is chopped and added to it. {{see also|Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala}} ==Ingredients== *2 tablespoons of [[Cookbook:Butter|butter]] *1 large [[Cookbook:Onion|onion]] *¼ teaspoon of [[Cookbook:Cinnamon|cinnamon]] (optional) *2-3 cloves of crushed [[Cookbook:Garlic|garlic]] *2 teaspoons of grated [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]] *1 teaspoon of ground [[Cookbook:Turmeric|turmeric]] *1 tablespoon of ground [[Cookbook:Coriander|coriander]] *2-3 teaspoons of [[Cookbook:Chili Powder|chilli powder]] *50g [[Cookbook:Tandoori masala|tandoori masala]] powder *400-500 grams of skinless, boneless [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] thighs or breasts ([[Wikibooks|chicken]] the bone, this will probably be 800 g) *100-200g [[Cookbook:Tomato Paste|tomato paste]] *100g [[Cookbook:Cream|full cream]] *1 small [[Cookbook:Lemon|lemon]] or [[Cookbook:Lime|lime]] *½ cup of unsweetened [[Cookbook:Yogurt|yoghurt]] ==Procedure== # Trim and cut the chicken into small cubes. (Cooks who prefer chicken on the bone, put long thin slices laterally into the chicken) # In a big bowl add Tandoori powder, yogurt and squeeze in lemon juice. Massage this well with your hands so that all the chicken is evenly covered in the Tandoori powder. Cover and put aside for at least ½ an hour. # With a clean knife or electric chopper slice the onions very finely. # Heat a large saucepan or frying pan for 5 minutes or until evenly hot (whichever is first). # In the pan melt 2 tablespoons of butter until it is frothy. Add the onions and the cinnamon to the pan and fry lightly. When the onions are soft and starting to brown, stir in the crushed garlic and ginger. Then add the turmeric, chili and coriander, and sauté over a medium heat. # Add the cubed chicken and [[Cookbook:Sautéing|sauté]], stirring constantly until the chicken has turned white. This doesn't take long so make sure you don't overcook the chicken. # Pour in the tomato paste. Mix thoroughly. Add the cream and heat through. After adding the cream and stirring, you may add additional tandoori masala. About 3-5 tablespoons full is generally sufficient. # Cover and simmer for just over 10 minutes. [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Gluten-free recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] 8twm70byya6wfnf8tpusmswq6xgrsx2 4 112405 4095435 4095350 2022-08-23T12:14:15Z Mervat (WMF) 3307949 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} == Subscribe to the This Month in Education newsletter - learn from others and share your stories == Dear community members, Greetings from the EWOC Newsletter team and the education team at Wikimedia Foundation. We are very excited to share that we on tenth years of Education Newsletter ([[m:Education/News|This Month in Education]]) invite you to join us by [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|subscribing to the newsletter on your talk page]] or by [[m:Education/News/Newsroom|sharing your activities in the upcoming newsletters]]. The Wikimedia Education newsletter is a monthly newsletter that collects articles written by community members using Wikimedia projects in education around the world, and it is published by the EWOC Newsletter team in collaboration with the Education team. These stories can bring you new ideas to try, valuable insights about the success and challenges of our community members in running education programs in their context. If your affiliate/language project is developing its own education initiatives, please remember to take advantage of this newsletter to publish your stories with the wider movement that shares your passion for education. You can submit newsletter articles in your own language or submit bilingual articles for the education newsletter. For the month of January the deadline to submit articles is on the 20th January. We look forward to reading your stories. Older versions of this newsletter can be found in the [[outreach:Education/Newsletter/Archives|complete archive]]. More information about the newsletter can be found at [[m:Education/News/Publication Guidelines|Education/Newsletter/About]]. For more information, please contact spatnaik{{@}}wikimedia.org. ------ <div style="text-align: center;"><div style="margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[[m:Education/Newsletter/About|About ''This Month in Education'']] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/This Month in Education|Subscribe/Unsubscribe]] · [[m:MassMessage|Global message delivery]] · For the team: [[User:ZI Jony|<span style="color:#8B0000">'''ZI Jony'''</span>]] [[User talk:ZI Jony|^{<span style="color:Green"><i>(Talk)</i></span>}]], {{<includeonly>subst:</includeonly>#time:l G:i, d F Y|}} (UTC)</div></div> <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/Awareness_of_Education_Newsletter/List_of_Village_Pumps&oldid=21244129 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Invitation to Hubs event: Global Conversation on 2022-03-12 at 13:00 UTC</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" />Hello! The Movement Strategy and Governance team of the Wikimedia Foundation would like to invite you to the next event about "Regional and Thematic Hubs". The Wikimedia Movement is in the process of understanding what Regional and Thematic Hubs should be. Our workshop in November was a good start ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Hubs/Documentation/27 November Workshop|read the report]]), but we're not finished yet. Over the last weeks we conducted about 16 interviews with groups working on establishing a Hub in their context ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Hubs/Dialogue|see Hubs Dialogue]]). These interviews informed a report that will serve as a foundation for discussion on March 12. The report is planned to be published on March 9. The event will take place on March 12, 13:00 to 16:00 UTC on Zoom. Interpretation will be provided in French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, and Portuguese. Registration is open, and will close on March 10. Anyone interested in the topic is invited to join us. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Hubs/Global Conversations March 12, 2022|More information on the event on Meta-wiki]]. Best regards, [[User:KVaidla (WMF)|Kaarel Vaidla]]<br />Movement Strategy <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> == <section begin="announcement-header" /> Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass<section end="announcement-header" /> == <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Hi all, Community members in the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022|2022 Board of Trustees election]] are invited to [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass|propose statements to use in the Election Compass.]] An Election Compass is a tool to help voters select the candidates that best align with their beliefs and views. The community members will propose statements for the candidates to answer using a Lickert scale (agree/neutral/disagree). The candidates’ answers to the statements will be loaded into the Election Compass tool. Voters will use the tool by entering in their answer to the statements (agree/disagree/neutral). The results will show the candidates that best align with the voter’s beliefs and views. Here is the timeline for the Election Compass: July 8 - 20: Community members propose statements for the Election Compass July 21 - 22: Elections Committee reviews statements for clarity and removes off-topic statements July 23 - August 1: Volunteers vote on the statements August 2 - 4: Elections Committee selects the top 15 statements August 5 - 12: candidates align themselves with the statements August 15: The Election Compass opens for voters to use to help guide their voting decision The Elections Committee will select the top 15 statements at the beginning of August. The Elections Committee will oversee the process, supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance team. MSG will check that the questions are clear, there are no duplicates, no typos, and so on. Best, Movement Strategy and Governance ''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee'' [[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 09:47, 10 July 2022 (UTC) <section end="announcement-content" /> == <section begin="announcement-header" />Movement Strategy and Governance News – Issue 7<section end="announcement-header" /> == <section begin="msg-newsletter" /><div style="line-height: 1.2"> <span style="font-size:200%;">'''Movement Strategy and Governance News'''</span> <span style="font-size:120%; color:#404040;">'''Issue 7, July-September 2022'''</span><span style="font-size:120%; float:right;">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7|'''Read the full newsletter''']]</span> ----Welcome to the 7th issue of Movement Strategy and Governance News! The newsletter distributes relevant news and events about the implementation of Wikimedia's [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Initiatives|Movement Strategy recommendations]], other relevant topics regarding Movement governance, as well as different projects and activities supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance (MSG) team of the Wikimedia Foundation. The MSG Newsletter is delivered quarterly, while the more frequent [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Updates|Movement Strategy Weekly]] will be delivered weekly. Please remember to subscribe [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/MSG Newsletter Subscription|here]] if you would like to receive future issues of this newsletter. </div><div style="margin-top:3px; padding:10px 10px 10px 20px; background:#fffff; border:2px solid #808080; border-radius:4px; font-size:100%;"> * '''Movement sustainability''': Wikimedia Foundation's annual sustainability report has been published. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A1|continue reading]]) * '''Improving user experience''': recent improvements on the desktop interface for Wikimedia projects. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A2|continue reading]]) * '''Safety and inclusion''': updates on the revision process of the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A3|continue reading]]) * '''Equity in decisionmaking''': reports from Hubs pilots conversations, recent progress from the Movement Charter Drafting Committee, and a new white paper for futures of participation in the Wikimedia movement. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A4|continue reading]]) * '''Stakeholders coordination''': launch of a helpdesk for Affiliates and volunteer communities working on content partnership. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A5|continue reading]]) * '''Leadership development''': updates on leadership projects by Wikimedia movement organizers in Brazil and Cape Verde. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A6|continue reading]]) * '''Internal knowledge management''': launch of a new portal for technical documentation and community resources. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A7|continue reading]]) * '''Innovate in free knowledge''': high-quality audiovisual resources for scientific experiments and a new toolkit to record oral transcripts. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A8|continue reading]]) * '''Evaluate, iterate, and adapt''': results from the Equity Landscape project pilot ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A9|continue reading]]) * '''Other news and updates''': a new forum to discuss Movement Strategy implementation, upcoming Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election, a new podcast to discuss Movement Strategy, and change of personnel for the Foundation's Movement Strategy and Governance team. ([[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A10|continue reading]]) </div><section end="msg-newsletter" />[[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 12:58, 15 July 2022 (UTC) == <section begin="announcement-header" /> Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election<section end="announcement-header" /> == <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Hi everyone, '''The Affiliate voting process has concluded.''' Representatives from each Affiliate organization learned about the candidates by reading candidates’ statements, reviewing candidates’ answers to questions, and considering the candidates’ ratings provided by the Analysis Committee. The selected 2022 Board of Trustees candidates are: * Tobechukwu Precious Friday ([[metawiki:User:Tochiprecious|Tochiprecious]]) * Farah Jack Mustaklem ([[metawiki:User:Fjmustak|Fjmustak]]) * Shani Evenstein Sigalov ([[metawiki:User:Esh77|Esh77]]) * Kunal Mehta ([[metawiki:User:Legoktm|Legoktm]]) * Michał Buczyński ([[metawiki:User:Aegis Maelstrom|Aegis Maelstrom]]) * Mike Peel ([[metawiki:User:Mike Peel|Mike Peel]]) You may see more information about the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Results|Results]] and [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Stats|Statistics]] of this Board election. Please take a moment to appreciate the Affiliate Representatives and Analysis Committee members for taking part in this process and helping to grow the Board of Trustees in capacity and diversity. These hours of volunteer work connect us across understanding and perspective. Thank you for your participation. Thank you to the community members who put themselves forward as candidates for the Board of Trustees. Considering joining the Board of Trustees is no small decision. The time and dedication candidates have shown to this point speaks to their commitment to this movement. Congratulations to those candidates who have been selected. A great amount of appreciation and gratitude for those candidates not selected. Please continue to share your leadership with Wikimedia. Thank you to those who followed the Affiliate process for this Board election. You may review the results of the Affiliate selection process. '''The next part of the Board election process is the community voting period.''' [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022#Timeline|You may view the Board election timeline here]]. To prepare for the community voting period, there are several things community members can engage with in the following ways: * [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|Read candidates’ statements]] and read the candidates’ answers to the questions posed by the Affiliate Representatives. * [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Questions_for_Candidates|Propose and select the 6 questions for candidates to answer during their video Q&A]]. * See the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|Analysis Committee’s ratings of candidates on each candidate’s statement]]. * [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Community Voting/Election Compass|Propose statements for the Election Compass]] voters can use to find which candidates best fit their principles. * Encourage others in your community to take part in the election. Best, Movement Strategy and Governance ''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee''<section end="announcement-content" />[[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 13:37, 20 July 2022 (UTC) == Request for comment: cookbook naming == {{ping|Jammze}}, this is where you can ask for consensus to be made. See [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]], near the bottom. I'll leave this to those who are more familiar with the cookbook than I am. _{[[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:orange">L10nM4st3r</span>]]/[[meta:User_talk:L10nM4st3r|<span tyle="color:#fed8b1">Roar at me</span>]]} 13:40, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Jamzze}} sorry, I mispelt your username above. I suggest watching this page. _{[[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:orange">L10nM4st3r</span>]]/[[meta:User_talk:L10nM4st3r|<span tyle="color:#fed8b1">Roar at me</span>]]} 13:43, 24 July 2022 (UTC) :Have added this to > [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/Proposals#Change_Cookbook_categories_-_recipes_by_culture]] [[User:Jamzze|Jamzze]] ([[User talk:Jamzze|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jamzze|contribs]]) 15:52, 24 July 2022 (UTC) == Let's talk about the Desktop Improvements == [[File:Vector 2022 showing language menu with a blue menu trigger and blue menu items 01.jpg|thumb]] Join an online meeting with the team working on the [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]! It will take place on '''26 July 2022 at [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1200 12:00 UTC] and [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1900 19:00 UTC]''' on Zoom. '''[https://wikimedia.zoom.us/j/5304280674 Click here to join]'''. Meeting ID: 5304280674. [https://wikimedia.zoom.us/u/kc2hamfYz9 Dial by your location]. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|Read more]]. See you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|talk]]) 16:19, 25 July 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/MM/En_fallback&oldid=23430301 --> <languages /> == <section begin="announcement-header" /> Vote for Election Compass Statements<section end="announcement-header" /> == <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Vote for Election Compass Statements| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Vote for Election Compass Statements|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Vote for Election Compass Statements}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Hi all, Volunteers in the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022|2022 Board of Trustees election]] are invited to [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass/Statements vote for the statements]. You can vote for the statements you would like to see included in the Election Compass on Meta-wiki. An Election Compass is a tool to help voters select the candidates that best align with their beliefs and views. The community members will propose statements for the candidates to answer using a Lickert scale (agree/neutral/disagree). The candidates’ answers to the statements will be loaded into the Election Compass tool. Voters will use the tool by entering in their answer to the statements (agree/disagree/neutral). The results will show the candidates that best align with the voter’s beliefs and views. Here is the timeline for the Election Compass: * <s>July 8 - 20: Volunteers propose statements for the Election Compass</s> * <s>July 21 - 22: Elections Committee reviews statements for clarity and removes off-topic statements</s> * July 23 - August 1: Volunteers vote on the statements * August 2 - 4: Elections Committee selects the top 15 statements * August 5 - 12: candidates align themselves with the statements * August 15: The Election Compass opens for voters to use to help guide their voting decision The Elections Committee will select the top 15 statements at the beginning of August Best, Movement Strategy and Governance ''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee'' [[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 20:13, 25 July 2022 (UTC) [[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 20:13, 25 July 2022 (UTC) == I'm eligible for the Wikipedia library == Amazing! What even ''is'' this Wikipedia library thing? ^{[[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:orange">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[meta:User_talk:L10nM4st3r|<span tyle="color:#fed8b1">Roar at me</span>]]} 15:42, 3 August 2022 (UTC) == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Delay of the 2022 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Delay of Board of Trustees election| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Delay of Board of Trustees election|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Delay of Board of Trustees election}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Hi all, I am reaching out to you today with an update about the timing of the voting for the Board of Trustees election. As many of you are already aware, this year we are offering an [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass|Election Compass]] to help voters identify the alignment of candidates on some key topics. Several candidates requested an extension of the character limitation on their responses expanding on their positions, and the Elections Committee felt their reasoning was consistent with the goals of a fair and equitable election process. To ensure that the longer statements can be translated in time for the election, the Elections Committee and Board Selection Task Force decided to delay the opening of the Board of Trustees election by one week - a time proposed as ideal by staff working to support the election. Although it is not expected that everyone will want to use the Election Compass to inform their voting decision, the Elections Committee felt it was more appropriate to open the voting period with essential translations for community members across languages to use if they wish to make this important decision. The voting will open on August 23 at 00:00 UTC and close on September 6 at 23:59 UTC. Best regards, Matanya, on behalf of the Elections Committee <section end="announcement-content" /> </div>[[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 20:55, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == [Invitation] Join the Movement Strategy Forum == Hello everyone, The Movement Strategy Forum ([https://forum.movement-strategy.org/ MS Forum]) is a multilingual collaborative space for all conversations about Movement Strategy implementation. We are inviting all Movement participants to collaborate on the MS Forum. The goal of the forum is to build community collaboration, using an inclusive multilingual platform. The Movement Strategy is a collaborative effort to imagine and build the future of the Wikimedia Movement. Anyone can contribute to the [[metawiki:Movement_Strategy|Movement Strategy]], from a comment to a full-time project. Join this forum with your Wikimedia account, engage in conversations, and ask questions in your language. The Movement Strategy and Governance team (MSG) launched the proposal for the MS Forum in May 2022. There was a 2-month community review period, which ended on 24 July 2022. The community review process included several questions that resulted in interesting conversations. You can read the [https://forum.movement-strategy.org/t/ms-forum-community-review-report/1436 Community Review Report]. We look forward to seeing you at the MS Forum! Best regards, Movement Strategy and Governance team [[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|talk]]) 15:54, 22 August 2022 (UTC) == <section begin="announcement-header" /> The 2022 Board of Trustees election Community Voting period is now open<section end="announcement-header" /> == <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/The 2022 Board of Trustees election Community Voting period is now open| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/The 2022 Board of Trustees election Community Voting period is now open|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/The 2022 Board of Trustees election Community Voting period is now open}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Hi everyone, The Community Voting period for the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022|2022 Board of Trustees election]] is now open. Here are some helpful links to get you the information you need to vote: * Try the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass|Election Compass]], showing how candidates stand on 15 different topics. * Read the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|candidate statements]] and [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Affiliate_Organization_Participation/Candidate_Questions|answers to Affiliate questions]] * [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Apply to be a Candidate|Learn more about the skills the Board seeks]] and how the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|Analysis Committee found candidates align with those skills]] If you are ready to vote, you may go to [[Special:SecurePoll/vote/Wikimedia Foundation Board Elections 2022|SecurePoll voting page]] to vote now. '''You may vote from August 23 at 00:00 UTC to September 6 at 23:59 UTC.''' To see about your voter eligibility, please visit the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Voter_eligibility_guidelines|voter eligibility page]]. Best, Movement Strategy and Governance ''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee'' <section end="announcement-content" /> [[User:Mervat (WMF)|Mervat (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Mervat (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mervat (WMF)|contribs]]) 12:14, 23 August 2022 (UTC) du6lptwe77y69wzj32x092lmia6j8ay 103 118623 4095449 4033395 2022-08-23T15:35:37Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken I]] to [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]]: I am moving it so more people can access the site page wikitext text/x-wiki ==Coriander, where for art though?== Coriander is metioned in the procedure but it is not in the Ingredients list. What is right? or how mutch? <small>—The preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:213.65.83.42|213.65.83.42]] ([[User talk:213.65.83.42|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/213.65.83.42|contribs]]) 2007-04-15T06:33:52.</small> :Good catch, thanks! I've added it as a tablespoon of ground coriander, based on a quick look at other recipes on the Intaweb. [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]} 10:18, 15 April 2007 (UTC) == Rename and make disambiguation page? == I noticed that there are several recipes for butter chicken in the cookbook, so I think it would be a good idea to rename this as a variation and then make Cookbook:Butter Chicken a disambiguation page per [[Cookbook:Policy#Duplicate Recipes and Disambiguation Pages]]. Thoughts? -- [[User:Nostriker|Nostriker]] ([[User talk:Nostriker|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nostriker|contribs]]) 22:05, 22 January 2022 (UTC) 5gthaooxyg13yjbwjdlxwy07573nf8y 4095451 4095449 2022-08-23T15:36:56Z Wikivuyo 3384720 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Coriander, where for art though?== Coriander is metioned in the procedure but it is not in the Ingredients list. What is right? or how mutch? <small>—The preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:213.65.83.42|213.65.83.42]] ([[User talk:213.65.83.42|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/213.65.83.42|contribs]]) 2007-04-15T06:33:52.</small> :Good catch, thanks! I've added it as a tablespoon of ground coriander, based on a quick look at other recipes on the Intaweb. [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]} 10:18, 15 April 2007 (UTC) == Rename and make disambiguation page? == I noticed that there are several recipes for butter chicken in the cookbook, so I think it would be a good idea to rename this as a variation and then make Cookbook:Butter Chicken a disambiguation page per [[Cookbook:Policy#Duplicate Recipes and Disambiguation Pages]]. Thoughts? -- [[User:Nostriker|Nostriker]] ([[User talk:Nostriker|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nostriker|contribs]]) 22:05, 22 January 2022 (UTC) Thanks that is a great idea [[User:Wikivuyo|Goku]] ([[User talk:Wikivuyo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikivuyo|contribs]]) 15:36, 23 August 2022 (UTC) ibyo7i2jcz7mfzvekvpr0pcnwnegx0k 4095452 4095451 2022-08-23T15:39:59Z Wikivuyo 3384720 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Coriander, where for art though?== Coriander is metioned in the procedure but it is not in the Ingredients list. What is right? or how mutch? <small>—The preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:213.65.83.42|213.65.83.42]] ([[User talk:213.65.83.42|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/213.65.83.42|contribs]]) 2007-04-15T06:33:52.</small> :Good catch, thanks! I've added it as a tablespoon of ground coriander, based on a quick look at other recipes on the Intaweb. [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]} 10:18, 15 April 2007 (UTC) Yeah some of the recipes that includes coriander powder we don't even know how much of it should we add. [[User:Wikivuyo|Goku]] ([[User talk:Wikivuyo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikivuyo|contribs]]) 15:39, 23 August 2022 (UTC) == Rename and make disambiguation page? == I noticed that there are several recipes for butter chicken in the cookbook, so I think it would be a good idea to rename this as a variation and then make Cookbook:Butter Chicken a disambiguation page per [[Cookbook:Policy#Duplicate Recipes and Disambiguation Pages]]. Thoughts? -- [[User:Nostriker|Nostriker]] ([[User talk:Nostriker|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nostriker|contribs]]) 22:05, 22 January 2022 (UTC) Thanks that is a great idea [[User:Wikivuyo|Goku]] ([[User talk:Wikivuyo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikivuyo|contribs]]) 15:36, 23 August 2022 (UTC) 0wmkw8beulb22zqncw1rbxg6llw72jq 4095460 4095452 2022-08-23T15:56:56Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] to [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]]: For everyone else wikitext text/x-wiki ==Coriander, where for art though?== Coriander is metioned in the procedure but it is not in the Ingredients list. What is right? or how mutch? <small>—The preceding [[w:Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:213.65.83.42|213.65.83.42]] ([[User talk:213.65.83.42|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/213.65.83.42|contribs]]) 2007-04-15T06:33:52.</small> :Good catch, thanks! I've added it as a tablespoon of ground coriander, based on a quick look at other recipes on the Intaweb. [[User:Webaware|Webaware]]&nbsp;^{[[User_talk:Webaware|talk]]} 10:18, 15 April 2007 (UTC) Yeah some of the recipes that includes coriander powder we don't even know how much of it should we add. [[User:Wikivuyo|Goku]] ([[User talk:Wikivuyo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikivuyo|contribs]]) 15:39, 23 August 2022 (UTC) == Rename and make disambiguation page? == I noticed that there are several recipes for butter chicken in the cookbook, so I think it would be a good idea to rename this as a variation and then make Cookbook:Butter Chicken a disambiguation page per [[Cookbook:Policy#Duplicate Recipes and Disambiguation Pages]]. Thoughts? -- [[User:Nostriker|Nostriker]] ([[User talk:Nostriker|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nostriker|contribs]]) 22:05, 22 January 2022 (UTC) Thanks that is a great idea [[User:Wikivuyo|Goku]] ([[User talk:Wikivuyo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikivuyo|contribs]]) 15:36, 23 August 2022 (UTC) 0wmkw8beulb22zqncw1rbxg6llw72jq 0 133810 4095568 3677378 2022-08-23T22:13:41Z 104.139.115.235 /* OpenGL */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{sectstub}} All version of Windows from Windows 95 come with an OpenGL implementation (usually version 1.4). However, if you installed (or updated) the drivers for your graphics card it's probable that you're using your board manufacturer's own implementation of OpenGL. == OpenGL == The OpenGL library can usually be found by the name opengl32.dll under the \system32 folder, located in your system's root folder (usually c:\windows). Headers compatible with OpenGL are bundled with most compilers. The header's versions may not be fully updated to your running implementation of OpenGL. If so, the new functions must be linked manually using the OpenGL's extension system, or using a wrapper such as GLEW. == GLEW == GLEW's official release is meant to work with visualc++ - but if you're using MinGW/GCC with Code::Blocks, no worry - you can: * link ''directly to the .dll'' (instead of adding the mingw-incompatible <code>.lib</code>) * or, you can recompile it and use it as a shared library, using MSys: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> cd glew-1.7.0/ make </syntaxhighlight> * or, you can build GLEW statically: add glew32''s''.lib to linker libraries in the linker options, and add <tt>-DGLEW_STATIC</tt> to your compiler flags. * Link: [http://glew.sourceforge.net/install.html The OpenGL Extension Wrangler Library - Installation] * Link: [https://sourceforge.net/mailarchive/message.php?msg_id=28078525 glew-users] : mailing list where I reported the link issue - hopefully the GLEW developers will provide a MinGW-compatible binary release. [http://sourceforge.net/projects/glee/ GLee] only compiles statically under Windows (not cross-compiling from GNU/Linux) but doesn't have this issue. == GLUT == * [http://www.transmissionzero.co.uk/software/freeglut-devel/ freeglut Windows Development Libraries] - link with -lfreeglut instead of -lglut32; don't use the Code::Blocks wizard for GLUT projects since it's specific to non-free GLUT * [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~goetz/codeblocks/glut/ Using OpenGL & GLUT in Code::Blocks] - good tutorial; add <code>#include <windows.h></code> before including non-free glut.h == GLM == GLM is a headers-only library, so you just need to unzip the GLM release to a directory, and add that directory to your include path in the project properties. == Cross-compilation == Newer tutorial Makefile's can now be invoked using a MXE-compatible environment, for example: * Compile MXE: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> git clone https://github.com/mxe/mxe /opt/mxe cd /opt/mxe/ # select your architecture in settings.mk, e.g. MXE_TARGETS := i686-w64-mingw32.static make glew sdl2 sdl2_image freetype cp -a .../glm /opt/mxe/usr/i686-w64-mingw32.static/include/ </syntaxhighlight> * Prepare environment: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> PATH=/opt/mxe/usr/i686-w64-mingw32.static/bin:/opt/mxe/usr/bin:$PATH export CXX=i686-w64-mingw32.static-g++ export EXTRA_CPPFLAGS=-DGLEW_STATIC export EXTRA_LDLIBS=-lopengl32 export PKG_CONFIG=i686-w64-mingw32.static-pkg-config </syntaxhighlight> * Compile as easily as usual: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> cd modern-tutorials/tutXXX/ make </syntaxhighlight> Debugging note: due to a bug you need to pipe your input to GDB through <tt>cat</tt>: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> cd /opt/mxe/ make gdb cd .../modern-tutorials/tutXXX/ cat | wine /opt/mxe/usr/i686-w64-mingw32.static/bin/gdb.exe ./triangle </syntaxhighlight> = Error logs = <tt>sdl2-config --libs</tt> sets the <tt>-mwindows</tt> option which removes the command black window but also stdout and stderr. To see e.g. <tt>SDL_LogMessage</tt> output you can: * force console mode: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash"> make LDFLAGS=-mconsole </syntaxhighlight> * or explicitly redirect stderr: <syntaxhighlight lang="dosbatch"> triangle.exe 2> stderr.txt </syntaxhighlight> (If you know why explicit redirection is necessary, feel free to explain.) {{OpenGL Programming BottomNav}} [[ko:OpenGL 프로그래밍/설치/윈도]] crj0ybkgpf62vcvb3tqewk0xsa3cgvg 0 148769 4095708 4091621 2022-08-24T08:42:15Z 2A00:23C8:5987:3101:882D:C92D:3BC:A64 /* Boys' names */ wikitext text/x-wiki Just as the teenage characters in your story are going to need names, so are the adult characters. Authors writing a character who was a teen in the 1960s, or who is in her seventies today, will likely want to use a name that can convincingly reflect the person's age and generation. Having the majority of characters born in a certain year given a name from that year's most popular list can add verisimilitude to the characters' [[Writing Adolescent Fiction/Generations in history|generational]] identity. The reader will also be able to remember better which name attaches to which character if a character named Linda is in her sixties and a character named Dorothy is in her nineties, say, than if Linda is in her nineties and Dorothy is in her sixties. ==Most popular names for people living in the U.S. as of 1850== ===Girls' names=== Half of all women in 1850 had one of the 16 most common names. #Mary #Sarah #Elizabeth #Martha #Margaret #Nancy #Ann #Jane #Eliza #Susan #Hannah #Rebecca #Caroline #Ellen #Harriet #Louise #Maria #Julia #Catherine #Lucy #Lydia #Anna #Emily #Elizabeth #Amanda #Frances #Sally #Rachel #Matilda #Lucinda #Emma #Polly #Phoebe #Charlotte #Betsey #Bridget #Sophia #Francis #Laura #Ruth #Emmeline #Esther #Amelia #Isabella #Fanny #Abigail #Barbara #Rachael #Josephine #Susanna #Mariah #Alice #Henrietta #Margaret #Adaline #Helen #Clarissa #Betsy #Almira #Cynthia #Eunice #Olive #Virginia #Angeline #Cornelia #Harriet #Mahala #Abby #Deborah #Minerva #Adeline #Cath #Elisa #Lucretia #Anne #Eleanor #Joanna #Agnes #Rosanna #Clara #Melissa #Charity #Amy #Augusta #Delia #Isabel #Christina #Jemima #Cordelia #Barbary #Melinda #Delilah ====Other popular girls' names from that period.==== #Abba #Abiah #Adelaide #Adelia #Alida #Almeda #Almina #Alvira #America #Angelina #Ann #Annie #Arabella #Araminta #Arminda #Arvilla #Asenath #Aurelia #Aurilla #Bell #Bethany #Beth #Beulah #Biddy #Bridges #Calista #Carolina #Cecila #Celestia #Celia #Charlotte #Chloe #Clarinda #Clarisa #Clementine #Cynthia #Darcy #Delphine #Desire #Diantha #Dinah #Dolly #Dorothea #Drusilla #Eda #Electa #Eleanor #Ella #Elvira #Elza #Emaline #Emilie #Eudora #Eugenia #Eve #Eveline #Fidelia #Isabella #Jeanette #Joana #Jodi #Juana #Judith #Julianne #Leah #Lois #Loisa #Loretta #Lorinda #Louisiana #Louiza #Louvina #Lucetta #Magdalena #Mahaley #Malissa #Minerva #Marey #Marietta #Marilla #Martha #Margot #May #Medora #Mehitable #Melvina #Myra #Naoma #Narcissa #Octavia #Onza #Orpha #Orvilla #Pamelia #Parnethia #Parthena #Parthenia #Patience #Patsey #Patsy #Pauline #Percilla #Permelia #Persis #Pheba #Pheby #Pheobe #Philena #Philinda #Phillipa #Phoebe #Polley #Priscilla #Prudence #Rachal #Rebeca #Rhody #Roda #Rosa #Rose #Rosella #Rosetta #Rosina #Roxy #Rutha #Sabina #Sabra #Sabrina #Salina #Samantha #Sarepta #Sarrah #Serena #Sidra #Sophiah #Sophronia #Susanah #Swoop #Syntha #Tabitha #Telitha #Temperance #Tennessee #Thadine #Thankful #Thursey #Tippins #Tryphena #Unice #Unity #Ursula #Viola #Wealthy #Wilhelmina #Zilpha ===Boys' names=== Half of all men in 1850 had one of the 16 most common names. #John #William #James #George #Henry #Thomas #Charles #Joseph #Samuel #David #Robert #Daniel #Jacob #Oliver #Edward #Peter #Isaac #Andrew #Benjamin #Francis #Richard #Lewis #Albert #Patrick #Stephen #Alexander #Martin #Hiram #Alfred #Jesse #Frederick #Franklin #Levi #Abraham #Moses #Nathan #Edwin #Jonathan #Philip #Joshua #Jeremiah #Elijah #Adam #Josiah #Walter #Hugh #Aaron #Allen #Reuben #Joel #Solomon #Eli #Amos #Augustus #Nathaniel #Silas #Nicholas #Calvin #Abram #Theodore #Christopher #Ira #Christian #Elisha #Timothy #Cyrus #Horace #Simon #Asa #Jackson #Frank #Nelson #Rufus #Leonard #Washington #Harrison #Anthony #Louis #Milton #Alonzo #Arthur #Noah #Cornelius #Caleb #Ephraim #Luther #Mathew #Warren #Harvey #Dennis #Wesley #Sylvester #Gilbert #Edmund #Jefferson #Lyman #Enoch #Wilson #Perry #Matthew ====Other popular boys' names from this period.==== #Abel #Abert #Abijah #Abner #Absalom #Addison #Adelbert #Adolphus #Alanson #Albion #Alex #Alford #Almon #Almond #Alpheus #Alva #Alvin #Amasa #Ambrose #Anderson #Ansel #Anson #Antonio #Aquilla #Archibald #Armstead #Artemus #Asahel #Asbury #Asher #Ashley #Atwell #August #Austin #Baldwin #Barnard #Barney #Bartlett #Barton #Baxter #Benton #Bernhard #Berry #Beverly #Breneman #Burton #Butler #Byron #Calep #Carlos #Casper #Caswell #Cephas #Chancy #Chauncy #Chester #Cicero #Clark #Clarkson #Clement #Clinton #Coleman #Collins #Columbus #Conrad #Constantine #Crawford #Damon #Dan #Danforth #Davis #Dayton #Dempsey #DeWitt #Don #Drury #Dudley #Dwight #Early #Eben #Ebenezer #Eden #Edgar #Edson #Elbert #Elbridge #Elihu #Eliphalet #Elkanah #Ellis #Elnathan #Emerson #Enos #Erastus #Esau #Ethan #Eugene #Evert #Ezekiel #Ezra #Fayette #Felix #Ferdinand #Fielding #Fleming #Fletcher #Fountain #Francisco #Fred #Frederich #Freeman #Gabriel #Gardner #German #Gersham #Gideon #Giles #Gilman #Godfrey #Granville #Green #Greenberry #Gustavus #Hamilton #Hanson #Harden #Hardy #Harlow #Harmon #Harris #Hartwell #Harvy #Heman #Henderson #Hezekiah #Hollis #Horatio #Hosea #Hubbard #Ichabod #Isaiah #Isham #Israel #Jabez #Jaems #Jarvis #Jasper #Jeptha #Jessa #Jessee #Joab #Job #Johnson #Jonah #Jonas #Jose #Josephus #Jotham #Juan #Judson #Julius #Laban #Lafayette #Lambert #Larkin #Lawrence #Leander #Lee #Lemuel #Leonidas #Levy #Linus #Littleton #Lorenzo #Lorin #Lowell #Lowry #Lucius #Luke #Lysander #Madison #Mahlon #Major #Manly #Marcellus #Marcus #Marion #Mark #Mathena #Matthias #Melville #Micajah #Miles #Milford #Miller #Mills #Miner #Morgan #Morris #Mortimer #Munroe #Napoleon #Nehemiah #Newton #Niles #Nimrod #Noble #Not #Obadiah #Obediah #Olover #Orange #Orin #Orrin #Orson #Orvil #Orville #Osborn #Oscar #Osker #Otis #Owen #Pardon #Patterson #Paul #Peleg #Philander #Philo #Phineas #Pierre #Pinckney #Pleasant #Poebly #Porter #Ransom #Reason #Rice #Richardson #Right #Riley #Rollin #Roswell #Royal #Sampson #Sanford #Schuyler #Seaborn #Seneca #Seth #Simeon #Simpson #Smith #Soloman #Solon #Squire #Stillman #Story #Sumner #Sean #Sylvanus #Theophilus #Thompson #Thornton #Tilman #Tobias #Truman #Uriah #Valentine #Warner #Watson #Wellington #Westley #Willard #Williams #Willis #Winfield #Winslow #Wyatt #Zachariah #Zebulon #Zechariah #Zenas #Zephaniah #Zimamon ==Born in the 1870's== ===Girls’ names=== #Mary #Anna #Elizabeth #Emma #Alice #Edith #Florence #May #Helen #Katherine #Grace #Sarah #Ella #Clara #Mabel #Margaret #Ida #Jennie #Lillian #Annie #Edna #Gertrude #Bertha #Laura #Minnie #Blanche #Bessie #Elsie #Emily #Martha #Nellie #Marie #Lillie #Ethel #Lulu #Carrie #Amelia #Agnes #Frances #Harriet #Louisa #Maud #Ada #Lucy #Rose #Stella #Pauline #Rebecca #Alma #Belle #Charlotte #Dora #Eleanor #Esther #Eva #Fanny #Ruth #Sophia #Olive ===Boys’ names=== #William #John #Charles #Harry #James #George #Frank #Robert #Joseph #Thomas #Walter #Edward #Samuel #Henry #Arthur #Albert #Louis #David #Frederick #Clarence #Alexander #Fred #Howard #Alfred #Edwin #Paul #Ernest #Jacob #Ralph #Leonard #Oscar #Andrew #Carl #Francis #Harold #Allen #Herman #Warren #Benjamin #Eugene #Herbert #Lewis #Maurice #Richard #Clifford #Earl/Earle #Edgar #Elmer #Guy #Isaac #Leroy #Stanley #Aiden ==Born in the 1880's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Anna #Emma #Elizabeth #Margaret #Minnie #Ida #Bertha #Clara #Alice #Annie #Florence #Bessie #Grace #Ethel #Sarah #Ella #Martha #Nellie #Mabel #Laura #Carrie #Cora #Helen #Maude #Lillian #Gertrude #Rose #Edna #Pearl #Edith #Jennie #Hattie #Mattie #Eva #Julia #Myrtle #Louise #Lillie #Jessie #Frances #Catherine #Lula #Lena #Marie #Ada #Josephine #Fannie #Lucy #Dora #Agnes #Maggie #Blanche #Katherine #Elsie #Nora #Mamie #Rosa #Stella #Daisy #May #Effie #Mae #Ellen #Nettie #Ruth #Alma #Della #Lizzie #Sadie #Sallie #Nancy #Susie #Maud #Flora #Irene #Etta #Katie #Lydia #Lottie #Viola #Caroline #Addie #Hazel #Georgia #Esther #Mollie #Olive #Willie #Harriet #Emily #Charlotte #Amanda #Kathryn #Lulu #Susan #Kate #Nannie #Jane #Amelia ===Boys' names=== #John #William #James #George #Charles #Frank #Joseph #Henry #Robert #Thomas #Edward #Harry #Walter #Arthur #Fred #Albert #Samuel #Clarence #Louis #David #Joe #Charlie #Richard #Ernest #Roy #Will #Andrew #Jesse #Oscar #Willie #Daniel #Benjamin #Carl #Sam #Alfred #Earl #Peter #Elmer #Frederick #Howard #Lewis #Ralph #Herbert #Paul #Lee #Tom #Herman #Martin #Jacob #Michael #Jim #Claude #Ben #Eugene #Francis #Grover #Raymond #Harvey #Clyde #Edwin #Edgar #Ed #Lawrence #Bert #Chester #Jack #Otto #Luther #Charley #Guy #Floyd #Ira #Ray #Hugh #Isaac #Oliver #Patrick #Homer #Theodore #Leonard #Leo #Alexander #August #Harold #Allen #Jessie #Archie #Philip #Stephen #Horace #Marion #Bernard #Anthony #Julius #Warren #Leroy #Clifford #Eddie #Sidney #Milton ==Born in the 1890's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Anna #Margaret #Helen #Elizabeth #Ruth #Florence #Ethel #Emma #Marie #Clara #Bertha #Minnie #Bessie #Alice #Lillian #Edna #Grace #Annie #Mabel #Ida #Rose #Hazel #Gertrude #Martha #Pearl #Frances #Myrtle #Edith #Nellie #Sarah #Ella #Eva #Laura #Elsie #Louise #Esther #Catherine #Agnes #Carrie #Lillie #Mildred #Gladys #Irene #Julia #Hattie #Cora #Lena #Josephine #Mattie #Jennie #Jessie #Maude #Alma #Mae #Blanche #Dorothy #Ada #Lucy #Lula #Mamie #Fannie #Stella #Katherine #Viola #Ruby #Dora #Maggie #Nora #Rosa #Beatrice #Ellen #Sadie #Marion #Willie #Effie #May #Beulah #Pauline #Nettie #Susie #Della #Marguerite #Vera #Daisy #Lydia #Virginia #Olive #Kathryn #Evelyn #Sallie #Lizzie #Lottie #Emily #Georgia #Flora #Nancy #Katie #Lucille #Leona ===Boys' names=== #John #William #James #George #Charles #Joseph #Frank #Robert #Edward #Henry #Harry #Thomas #Walter #Arthur #Fred #Albert #Clarence #Willie #Roy #Louis #Earl #Paul #Carl #Ernest #Samuel #Richard #Raymond #Joe #David #Charlie #Harold #Ralph #Howard #Andrew #Herbert #Elmer #Oscar #Jesse #Alfred #Will #Daniel #Sam #Leo #Jack #Lawrence #Francis #Benjamin #Lee #Eugene #Herman #Peter #Frederick #Floyd #Michael #Ray #Lewis #Claude #Clyde #Edwin #Tom #Martin #Leonard #Ben #Chester #Edgar #Jim #Harvey #Russell #Lester #Clifford #Luther #Homer #Jacob #Leroy #Otto #Guy #Lloyd #Anthony #Jessie #Hugh #Ed #Bernard #Theodore #Stanley #Eddie #Patrick #Philip #Leon #Archie #Leslie #Oliver #Allen #Alexander #Dewey #Ira #Everett #Norman #Horace #Victor #Cecil ==Born 1900-1909== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Helen #Margaret #Anna #Ruth #Elizabeth #Dorothy #Marie #Florence #Mildred #Alice #Ethel #Lillian #Gladys #Edna #Frances #Rose #Annie #Grace #Bertha #Emma #Bessie #Clara #Hazel #Irene #Gertrude #Louise #Catherine #Martha #Mabel #Pearl #Edith #Esther #Minnie #Myrtle #Ida #Josephine #Evelyn #Elsie #Eva #Thelma #Ruby #Agnes #Sarah #Viola #Nellie #Beatrice #Julia #Laura #Lillie #Lucille #Ella #Virginia #Mattie #Pauline #Carrie #Alma #Jessie #Mae #Lena #Willie #Katherine #Blanche #Hattie #Marion #Lucy #Stella #Mamie #Vera #Cora #Fannie #Eleanor #Bernice #Jennie #Ann #Leona #Beulah #Lula #Rosa #Ada #Ellen #Kathryn #Maggie #Doris #Dora #Betty #Marguerite #Violet #Lois #Daisy #Anne #Sadie #Susie #Nora #Georgia #Maude #Marjorie #Opal #Hilda #Velma ===Boys' names=== #John #William #James #George #Charles #Robert #Joseph #Frank #Edward #Thomas #Henry #Walter #Harry #Willie #Arthur #Albert #Clarence #Fred #Harold #Paul #Raymond #Richard #Roy #Joe #Louis #Carl #Ralph #Earl #Jack #Ernest #David #Samuel #Howard #Charlie #Francis #Herbert #Lawrence #Theodore #Alfred #Andrew #Elmer #Sam #Eugene #Leo #Michael #Lee #Herman #Anthony #Daniel #Leonard #Floyd #Donald #Kenneth #Jesse #Russell #Clyde #Oscar #Peter #Lester #Leroy #Ray #Stanley #Clifford #Lewis #Benjamin #Edwin #Frederick #Chester #Claude #Eddie #Cecil #Lloyd #Jessie #Martin #Bernard #Tom #Will #Norman #Edgar #Harvey #Ben #Homer #Luther #Leon #Melvin #Philip #Johnnie #Jim #Milton #Everett #Allen #Leslie #Alvin #Victor #Marvin #Stephen #Alexander #Jacob #Hugh #Patrick ==Born in the 1910's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Helen #Dorothy #Margaret #Ruth #Mildred #Anna #Elizabeth #Frances #Virginia #Marie #Evelyn #Alice #Florence #Lillian #Rose #Irene #Louise #Edna #Catherine #Gladys #Ethel #Josephine #Ruby #Martha #Grace #Hazel #Thelma #Lucille #Edith #Eleanor #Doris #Annie #Pauline #Gertrude #Esther #Betty #Beatrice #Marjorie #Clara #Emma #Bernice #Bertha #Ann #Jean #Elsie #Agnes #Julia #Lois #Sarah #Marion #Katherine #Eva #Ida #Bessie #Pearl #Anne #Viola #Myrtle #Nellie #Mabel #Laura #Kathryn #Stella #Vera #Willie #Jessie #Jane #Alma #Minnie #Sylvia #Ella #Lillie #Rita #Leona #Barbara #Vivian #Lena #Violet #Lucy #Jennie #Genevieve #Marguerite #Charlotte #Mattie #Marian #Blanche #Mae #Ellen #Wilma #Juanita #Opal #June #Geraldine #Beulah #Velma #Theresa #Carrie #Phyllis #Maxine ===Boys' names=== #John #William #James #Robert #Joseph #George #Charles #Edward #Frank #Thomas #Walter #Harold #Henry #Paul #Richard #Raymond #Albert #Arthur #Harry #Donald #Ralph #Louis #Jack #Clarence #Carl #Willie #Howard #Fred #David #Kenneth #Francis #Roy #Earl #Joe #Ernest #Lawrence #Stanley #Anthony #Eugene #Samuel #Herbert #Alfred #Leonard #Michael #Elmer #Andrew #Leo #Bernard #Norman #Peter #Russell #Daniel #Edwin #Frederick #Chester #Herman #Lloyd #Melvin #Lester #Floyd #Leroy #Theodore #Clifford #Clyde #Charlie #Sam #Woodrow #Vincent #Philip #Marvin #Ray #Lewis #Milton #Benjamin #Victor #Vernon #Gerald #Jesse #Martin #Cecil #Alvin #Lee #Willard #Leon #Oscar #Glenn #Edgar #Gordon #Stephen #Harvey #Sidney #Claude #Everett #Arnold #Morris #Wilbur #Warren #Wayne #Allen #Homer ==Born in the 1920's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Dorothy #Helen #Betty #Margaret #Ruth #Virginia #Doris #Mildred #Frances #Elizabeth #Evelyn #Anna #Marie #Alice #Jean #Shirley #Barbara #Irene #Marjorie #Florence #Lois #Martha #Rose #Lillian #Louise #Catherine #Ruby #Eleanor #Patricia #Gladys #Annie #Josephine #Thelma #Edna #Norma #Pauline #Lucille #Edith #Gloria #Ethel #Phyllis #Grace #Hazel #June #Bernice #Marion #Dolores #Rita #Lorraine #Ann #Esther #Beatrice #Juanita #Clara #Jane #Geraldine #Sarah #Emma #Joan #Joyce #Nancy #Katherine #Gertrude #Elsie #Julia #Agnes #Wilma #Marian #Bertha #Eva #Willie #Audrey #Theresa #Vivian #Wanda #Laura #Charlotte #Ida #Elaine #Anne #Marilyn #Kathryn #Maxine #Kathleen #Viola #Pearl #Vera #Bessie #Myrtle #Alma #Beverly #Violet #Nellie #Ella #Lillie #Jessie #Jeanne #Eileen #Ellen ===Boys' names=== #Robert #John #James #William #Charles #George #Joseph #Richard #Edward #Donald #Thomas #Frank #Harold #Paul #Raymond #Walter #Jack #Henry #Kenneth #Arthur #Albert #David #Harry #Eugene #Ralph #Howard #Carl #Willie #Louis #Clarence #Earl #Roy #Fred #Joe #Francis #Lawrence #Herbert #Leonard #Ernest #Alfred #Anthony #Stanley #Norman #Gerald #Daniel #Samuel #Bernard #Billy #Melvin #Marvin #Warren #Michael #Leroy #Russell #Leo #Andrew #Edwin #Elmer #Peter #Floyd #Lloyd #Ray #Frederick #Theodore #Clifford #Vernon #Herman #Clyde #Chester #Philip #Alvin #Lester #Wayne #Vincent #Gordon #Leon #Lewis #Charlie #Glenn #Calvin #Martin #Milton #Lee #Jesse #Dale #Cecil #Bill #Harvey #Roger #Victor #Benjamin #Wallace #Ronald #Sam #Allen #Arnold #Willard #Gilbert #Edgar #Oscar ==Born in the 1930's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Betty #Barbara #Shirley #Patricia #Dorothy #Joan #Margaret #Nancy #Helen #Carol #Joyce #Doris #Ruth #Virginia #Marilyn #Elizabeth #Jean #Frances #Beverly #Lois #Alice #Donna #Martha #Dolores #Janet #Phyllis #Norma #Carolyn #Evelyn #Gloria #Anna #Marie #Ann #Mildred #Rose #Peggy #Geraldine #Catherine #Judith #Louise #Janice #Marjorie #Annie #Ruby #Eleanor #Jane #Sandra #Irene #Wanda #Elaine #June #Joanne #Rita #Florence #Delores #Lillian #Marlene #Edna #Sarah #Patsy #Lorraine #Thelma #Josephine #Juanita #Bonnie #Arlene #Gladys #Joann #Sally #Charlotte #Kathleen #Audrey #Pauline #Wilma #Sylvia #Theresa #Jacqueline #Clara #Ethel #Loretta #Grace #Sharon #Edith #Lucille #Emma #Bernice #Marion #Linda #Jo #Anne #Hazel #Roberta #Carole #Darlene #Esther #Katherine #Ellen #Laura #Julie #Jaime ===Boys' names=== #Robert #James #John #William #Richard #Charles #Donald #George #Thomas #Joseph #David #Edward #Ronald #Paul #Kenneth #Frank #Raymond #Jack #Harold #Billy #Gerald #Walter #Jerry #Joe #Eugene #Henry #Bobby #Arthur #Carl #Larry #Ralph #Albert #Willie #Fred #Michael #Lawrence #Harry #Howard #Roy #Norman #Roger #Daniel #Louis #Earl #Gary #Clarence #Anthony #Francis #Wayne #Marvin #Ernest #Leonard #Herbert #Melvin #Stanley #Leroy #Don #Peter #Jimmy #Alfred #Dale #Bill #Samuel #Bernard #Ray #Gene #Philip #Russell #Frederick #Franklin #Dennis #Douglas #Jimmie #Gordon #Andrew #Theodore #Floyd #Johnny #Allen #Glenn #Bryce #Edwin #Lee #Lloyd #Bob #Clifford #Leon #Leo #Clyde #Eddie #Vernon #Martin #Alvin #Jim #Herman #Lewis #Harvey #Tommy #Vincent #Charlie ==Born in the 1940's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Linda #Barbara #Patricia #Carol #Sandra #Nancy #Sharon #Judith #Susan #Betty #Carolyn #Margaret #Shirley #Judy #Karen #Donna #Kathleen #Joyce #Dorothy #Janet #Diane #Janice #Joan #Elizabeth #Brenda #Gloria #Virginia #Marilyn #Martha #Beverly #Helen #Bonnie #Ruth #Frances #Jeann #Ann #Phyllis #Pamela #Jane #Alice #Peggy #Cheryl #Doris #Catherine #Elaine #Cynthia #Marie #Lois #Connie #Christine #Diana #Gail #Joanne #Rose #Wanda #Carole #Rita #Charlotte #Jo #Evelyn #Geraldine #Jacqueline #Ellen #Sally #Rebecca #Kathryn #Deborah #Norma #Suzanne #Anna #Sue #Darlene #Patsy #Joann #Sarah #Katherine #Paula #Annie #Louise #Roberta #Sylvia #Anne #Theresa #Sheila #Maria #Laura #Kathy #Eileen #Marcia #Rosemary #Glenda #Dolores #Mildred #Lorraine #Marjorie #Sherry #Kay #Anita #Dianne ===Boys' names=== #James #Robert #John #William #Richard #David #Charles #Thomas #Michael #Ronald #Larry #Donald #Joseph #Gary #George #Kenneth # #Paul #Edward #Jerry #Dennis #Frank #Daniel #Raymond #Roger #Stephen #Gerald #Walter #Harold #Steven #Douglas #Lawrence #Terry #Wayne #Arthur #Jack #Daimon #Carl #Henry #Willie #Bruce #Joe #Peter #Billy #Roy #Ralph #Anthony #Jimmy #Albert #Bobby #Eugene #Johnny #Fred #Harry #Howard #Mark #Alan #Louis #Philip #Patrick #Dale #Danny #Stanley #Leonard #Timothy #Gregory #Samuel #Ronnie #Norman #Ernest #Russell #Francis #Melvin #Earl #Frederick #Allen #Bill #Tommy #Phillip #Marvin #Steve #Don #Barry #Clarence #Glenn #Jim #Eddie #Mike #Andrew #Jeffrey #Leroy #Alfred #Martin #Lee #Tom #Ray #Herbert #Gene #Bernard #Theodore #Curtis #Keith ==Born in the 1950's== ===Girls' names=== #Mary #Linda #Patricia #Susan #Deborah #Barbara #Debra #Karen #Nancy #Donna #Cynthia #Sandra #Pamela #Sharon #Kathleen #Carol #Diane #Brenda #Cheryl #Janet #Elizabeth #Kathy #Margaret #Janice #Carolyn #Denise #Judy #Rebecca #Joyce #Teresa #Christine #Catherine #Shirley #Judith #Betty #Beverly #Lisa #Laura #Theresa #Connie #Ann #Julie #Gloria #Gail #Joan #Paula #Peggy #Cindy #Martha #Bonnie #Jane #Cathy #Robin #Debbie #Diana #Marilyn #Kathryn #Dorothy #Wanda #Jean #Vicki #Sheila #Virginia #Sherry #Katherine #Rose #Lynn #Jo #Ruth #Maria #Darlene #Jacqueline #Rita #Rhonda #Phyllis #Helen #Vickie #Kim #Lori #Ellen #Elaine #Joanne #Anne #Valerie #Alice #Frances #Suzanne #Marie #Victoria #Kimberly #Anita #Laurie #Michelle #Sally #Terri #Marcia #Terry #Jennifer #Leslie #Doris ===Boys' names=== #James #Michael #Robert #John #David #William #Richard #Thomas #Mark #Charles #Steven #Gary #Joseph #Donald #Ronald #Kenneth #Paul #Larry #Daniel #Stephen #Dennis #Timothy #Edward #Jeffrey #George #Gregory #Kevin #Douglas #Terry #Anthony #Jerry #Bruce #Randy #Brian #Frank #Scott #Roger #Raymond #Peter #Patrick #Keith #Lawrence #Wayne #Danny #Alan #Gerald #Ricky #Carl #Christopher #Dale #Walter #Craig #Willie #Johnny #Arthur #Steve #Joe #Randall #Jack #Russell #Henry #Harold #Roy #Andrew #Philip #Ralph #Billy #Glenn #Stanley #Jimmy #Rodney #Barry #Samuel #Eric #Bobby #Albert #Philip #Ronnie #Martin #Mike #Eugene #Louis #Howard #Allen #Curtis #Jeffrey #Frederick #Leonard #Harry #Micheal #Tony #Ernest #Eddie #Fred #Darrell #Jay #Melvin #Matthew #Lee #Vincent ==Born in the 1960's== ===Girls' names=== #Lisa #Mary #Susan #Karen #Kimberly #Patricia #Linda #Donna #Michelle #Cynthia #Sandra #Deborah #Tammy #Pamela #Lori #Laura #Elizabeth #Julie #Brenda #Jennifer #Barbara #Angela #Sharon #Debra #Teresa #Nancy #Christine #Cheryl #Denise #Kelly #Tina #Kathleen #Melissa #Robin #Amy #Diane #Dawn #Carol #Tracy #Kathy #Rebecca #Theresa #Kim #Rhonda #Stephanie #Cindy #Janet #Wendy #Maria #Michele #Jacqueline #Debbie #Margaret #Paula #Sherry #Catherine #Carolyn #Laurie #Sheila #Ann #Jill #Connie #Diana #Terri #Suzanne #Andrea #Beth #Janie #Valerie #Renee #Leslie #Christina #Gina #Lynn #Annette #Cathy #Katherine #Judy #Carla #Anne #Wanda #Dana #Joyce #Regina #Beverly #Monica #Bonnie #Kathryn #Anita #Sarah #Darlene #Jane #Sherri #Martha #Anna #Colleen #Vicki #Tracey #Judith #Tamara ===Boys' names=== #Michael #David #John #James #Robert #Mark #William #Richard #Thomas #Jeffrey #Steven #Joseph #Timothy #Kevin #Scott #Brian #Charles #Paul #Daniel #Christopher #Kenneth #Anthony #Gregory #Ronald #Donald #Gary #Stephen #Eric #Edward #Douglas #Todd #Patrick #George #Keith #Larry #Matthew #Terry #Andrew #Dennis #Randy #Jerry #Peter #Frank #Craig #Raymond #Jeffery #Bruce #Rodney #Mike #Roger #Tony #Ricky #Steve #Jeff #Troy #Alan #Carl #Danny #Russell #Chris #Bryan #Gerald #Wayne #Joe #Randall #Lawrence #Dale #Philip #Johnny #Vincent #Martin #Bradley #Billy #Glenn #Shawn #Jonathan #Jimmy #Sean #Curtis #Barry #Bobby #Walter #Jon #Philip #Samuel #Jay #Jason #Dean #Jose #Tim #Roy #Willie #Arthur #Darryl #Henry #Darrell #Allen #Victor #Harold #Greg ==Other names used in the 1960's== #Bambi #Barbie #Bobbi #Bunny #Candy #Honey #Tami #Tori ==Hippie names== ===Girls' names=== #America #Amnesty #Andromeda #Aquaria #Asia #Astral Plane #August Blossom #Aura #Aurora #Autumn #Autumn Flowers #Bliss #Blossom #Blue Jay #Bohdi #Breeze #Breezeann #Butterfly #Cannabis #Canyon #Celestial #Celestial Butterfly #Celtic Rain #Chakra #Charm #Cherokee #Cherub #China #China Rain #China Rose #Chrysalis #Cloud #Comet #Cosmic #Cosmic Liberty #Cosmic River #Coyote #Crystal Dove #Daisy #Dakota #Dancer #Daydream #Dazy #Deja #Desert #Destiny #Dezra #Dharma #Dolphin #Dolphin Dreaming #Dove #Dream #Dreamsong #Dune #Dusk #Earth #Echo #Eclipse #Euphony #Evening #Evening Cloud #Evening Star #Feelfree #Flight #Flow #Flower #Free #Freedom #Gaia #Garcia #Gemini #God #Goddess #Gypsy #Happi #Happy #Harmony #Haze #Heady #Heart #India #Indica #Jade #Ja'far #Jazzerus #Joplin #Journey #Karma #Kharma #Leaf #Leary #Liberty #Light #Lotus #Lotus Blossom #Love #Lovely #Luna #Mandala #Manu #Marley #Meadow #Miracle #Miracle Moon #Mirakel #Mist #Moon #Moonbeam #Moondance #Moonjava #Moonlight #Moonshine #Moonsong #Moonstar #Moon Unit #Moon Willow #Morning #Moss #Mountain #Mountain Peace #Nahi #Natura #Newera #Ocean #Ocean Lily #Om #Orion #Orion Destiny #Paisley #Papers #Paradise #Patchouli #Peace #Peaceandlove #Peaceful #Peaceful Willow #Perfecta #Petal #Phoenix #Pony #Promise #Rain #Raina #Rainbow #Rainbow Love #Rain Dancer #Rebel #Revelation #Revolution #River #Ryvre #Sahara #Sahara Sunshine #Santana #Sativa #Saturn #Seagull Dream #Seashawna #Season #Seed #Seneca #September Sky #Sequoiah #Serene #Shadow #Sierra #Sky #Skye #Smiley #Snowphish #Soul #Sparrow #Spirit #Spring #Star #Starbright #Starchild #Stardust #Starlight #Starshine #Strawberry #Summer #Summer Rain #Sun #Sunburst #Suncloud #Sunflower #Sunray #Sunrise #Sunshine #Sunstar #Sweet Rain #Tangerine #Tangerine Dream #Tao #Tao Lynn #Te #Tempany #Temple Sunrise #Terra #Tigerlily #Timber #Tranquilla #Tree #True #Understanding #Vaspera #Virgo #Vision #Welcome #Wildfire #Wildwind #Willow #Wind #Windsong #Winter #Woodstock #Yukon #Zen #Zowie #Zubnomia ===Boys' names=== #America #Amnesty #Andromeda #Aquarius #Asia #Belou #Blaze #Blue #Bohdi #Boo #Breeze #Buzz #Byrd #Cannabis #Canyon #Caribou #Chakra #Charm #Che #Chrysalis #Cloud #Cosmic #Cosmic Liberty #Cosmic River #Cougar #Coyote #Crow #Dakota #Dancer #Daydream #Dezra #Dharma #Dolphin #Dolphin Dreaming #Doobie #Dream #Dreamsong #Dude #Dune #Dusk #Dweezil #Dylan #Eagle #Earth #Echo #Eclipse #Feelfree #Flight #Flow #Flower #Forest #Free #Freedom #Ganja #Garcia #Gemini #Gryphon #Gypsy #Happy #Harmony #Hawk #Haze #Heady #Heart #Honesty #Indica #Ja'far #Jaguar #Jazzerus #Joplin #Journey #Karma #Kharma #Land #Leaf #Leary #Lennon #Liberty #Light #Little Flower #Manu #Marley #Marx #Meadow #Miracle #Mirakel #Mist #Molybdenous Oxide #Mook #Moon #Moonjava #Moonshine #Moonstar #Morning #Moss #Mountain #Natura #Night #Nimbin #Ocean #Ocean Blue #Om #Orion #Owl #Papers #Patchouli #Peace #Peaceful #Peyote #Phoenix #Pony #Promise #Rainbow #Rebel #Reefer #Revelation #Revolution #River #Ryvre #Saigon #Santana #Sativa #Saturn #Season #Seed #Seneca #Sequoiah #Shadow #Sierra #Sky #Skye #Skylark #Snowphish #Soul #Sparrow #Spirit #Spring #Star #Starbright #Starchild #Stardust #Starlight #Starshine #Storm Boy #Summer #Sunburst #Suncloud #Sundance #Sunflower #Sunray #Sunrise #Sunshine #Sunstar #Tao #Te #Tempest #Temple Sunrise #Tet #Thunder #Timber #Toke #Totem #True #Understanding #Vietnam #Virgo #Vishnu #Vision #Welcome #Wildfire #Wildman #Wildwind #Willow #Wind #Windsong #Winter #Wolf Song #Woodstock #Yukon #Zen #Zephyr #Ziggy #Zowie ==Born in the 1970's== ===Girls' names=== #Jennifer #Amy #Melissa #Michelle #Kimberly #Lisa #Angela #Heather #Stephanie #Nicole #Jessica #Elizabeth #Rebecca #Kelly #Mary #Christina #Amanda #Julie #Sarah #Laura #Shannon #Christine #Tammy #Tracy #Karen #Dawn #Susan #Andrea #Tina #Patricia #Cynthia #Lori #Rachel #April #Maria #Wendy #Crystal #Stacy #Erin #Jamie #Carrie #Tiffany #Tara #Sandra #Monica #Danielle #Stacey #Pamela #Tonya #Sara #Michele #Teresa #Denise #Jill #Katherine #Melanie #Dana #Holly #Erica #Brenda #Deborah #Tanya #Sharon #Donna #Amber #Emily #Robin #Linda #Kathleen #Leslie #Christy #Kristen #Catherine #Kristin #Misty #Barbara #Heidi #Nancy #Cheryl #Theresa #Brandy #Alicia #Veronica #Gina #Jacqueline #Rhonda #Anna #Renee #Megan #Tamara #Melinda #Kathryn #Debra #Sherry #Allison #Valerie #Diana #Paula #Kristina #Ann ===Boys' names=== #Michael #Christopher #Jason #David #James #John #Robert #Brian #William #Matthew #Joseph #Daniel #Kevin #Eric #Jeffrey #Richard #Scott #Mark #Steven #Thomas #Timothy #Anthony #Charles #Joshua #Ryan #Jeremy #Paul #Andrew #Gregory #Chad #Kenneth #Jonathan #Stephen #Shawn #Aaron #Adam #Patrick #Justin #Sean #Edward #Todd #Donald #Ronald #Benjamin #Keith #Bryan #Gary #Jose #Nathan #Douglas #Nicholas #Brandon #George #Travis #Peter #Craig #Bradley #Larry #Dennis #Shane #Raymond #Troy #Jerry #Samuel #Frank #Jesse #Jeffery #Juan #Terry #Corey #Phillip #Marcus #Derek #Rodney #Joel #Carlos #Randy #Jacob #Jamie #Tony #Russell #Brent #Antonio #Billy #Derrick #Kyle #Erik #Johnny #Marc #Carl #Philip #Roger #Bobby #Brett #Danny #Curtis #Jon #Vincent #Cory #Jimmy ==Born in the 1980's== ===Girls' names=== #Jessica #Jennifer #Amanda #Ashley #Sarah #Stephanie #Melissa #Nicole #Elizabeth #Heather #Tiffany #Michelle #Amber #Megan #Amy #Rachel #Kimberly #Christina #Lauren #Crystal #Brittany #Rebecca #Laura #Danielle #Emily #Samantha #Angela #Erin #Kelly #Sara #Lisa #Katherine #Andrea #Jamie #Mary #Erica #Courtney #Kristen #Shannon #April #Katie #Lindsey #Kristin #Lindsay #Christine #Alicia #Vanessa #Maria #Kathryn #Allison #Julie #Anna #Tara #Kayla #Natalie #Victoria #Monica #Jacqueline #Holly #Kristina #Patricia #Cassandra #Brandy #Whitney #Chelsea #Brandi #Catherine #Cynthia #Kathleen #Veronica #Leslie #Natasha #Krystal #Stacy #Diana #Erika #Dana #Jenna #Meghan #Carrie #Leah #Melanie #Brooke #Karen #Alexandra #Valerie #Caitlin #Julia #Alyssa #Jasmine #Hannah #Stacey #Brittney #Susan #Margaret #Sandra #Candice #Latoya #Bethany #Misty ===Boys' names=== # Alexander #Michael #Christopher #Matthew #Joshua #David #James #Daniel #Robert #John #Joseph #Jason #Justin #Andrew #Ryan #William #Brian #Brandon #Jonathan #Nicholas #Anthony #Eric #Adam #Kevin #Thomas #Steven #Timothy #Richard #Jeremy #Jeffrey #Kyle #Benjamin #Aaron #Charles #Mark #Jacob #Stephen #Patrick #Scott #Nathan #Paul #Sean #Travis #Zachary #Dustin #Gregory #Kenneth #Jose #Tyler #Jesse #Alexander #Bryan #Samuel #Derek #Bradley #Chad #Shawn #Edward #Jared #Cody #Jordan #Peter #Corey #Keith #Marcus #Juan #Donald #Ronald #Phillip #George #Cory #Joel #Shane #Douglas #Antonio #Raymond #Carlos #Brett #Gary #Alex #Nathaniel #Craig #Ian #Luis #Derrick #Erik #Casey #Philip #Frank #Evan #Gabriel #Victor #Vincent #Larry #Austin #Brent #Seth #Wesley #Dennis #Todd #Christian ==Born in the 1990's== ===Girls' names=== #Jessica #Ashley #Emily #Sarah #Samantha #Amanda #Brittany #Elizabeth #Taylor #Megan #Hannah #Kayla #Lauren #Stephanie #Rachel #Jennifer #Nicole #Alexis #Victoria #Amber #Alyssa #Courtney #Rebecca #Danielle #Jasmine #Brianna #Katherine #Alexandra #Madison #Morgan #Melissa #Michelle #Kelsey #Chelsea #Anna #Kimberly #Tiffany #Olivia #Mary #Christina #Allison #Abigail #Sara #Shelby #Heather #Haley #Maria #Kaitlyn #Laura #Erin #Andrea #Natalie #Jordan #Brooke #Julia #Emma #Vanessa #Erica #Sydney #Kelly #Kristen #Katelyn #Marissa #Amy #Crystal #Paige #Cassandra #Gabrielle #Katie #Caitlin #Lindsey #Destiny #Kathryn #Jacqueline #Shannon #Jenna #Angela #Savannah #Mariah #Alexandria #Sierra #Alicia #Briana #Miranda #Jamie #Catherine #Brittney #Breanna #Grace #Monica #Sabrina #Madeline #Caroline #Molly #Erika #Mackenzie #Leah #Diana #Whitney #Cheyenne ===Boys' names=== #Michael #Christopher #Matthew #Joshua #Jacob #Nicholas #Andrew #Daniel #Tyler #Joseph #Brandon #David #James #Ryan #John #Zachary #Justin #William #Anthony #Robert #Jonathan #Austin #Alexander #Kyle #Kevin #Thomas #Cody #Jordan #Eric #Benjamin #Aaron #Christian #Samuel #Dylan #Steven #Brian #Jose #Timothy #Nathan #Adam #Richard #Patrick #Charles #Sean #Jason #Cameron #Jeremy #Mark #Stephen #Jesse #Juan #Alex #Travis #Jeffrey #Ethan #Caleb #Luis #Jared #Logan #Hunter #Trevor #Bryan #Evan #Paul #Taylor #Kenneth #Connor #Dustin #Noah #Carlos #Devin #Gabriel #Ian #Nathaniel #Gregory #Derek #Corey #Jesus #Scott #Bradley #Dakota #Antonio #Marcus #Blake #Garrett #Edward #Luke #Shawn #Peter #Seth #Mitchell #Adrian #Victor #Miguel #Shane #Chase #Isaac #Spencer #Lucas #Jack ==Other 1990's names== ===Girls' names=== #Aaisha #Aalexus #Aaliyah #Akira #Akyria #Alanis #Alayna #Aleisha #Alexa #Alexxis #Alia #Alisha #Aliya #Aliyeh #Alizabethe #Allegra #Allie #Allysiah #Alondra #Alysia #Alysiah #Alysin #Amberleigh #Ambreen #Amiracle #Anissa #Ann Marie #Aracely #Ariana #Ariel #Arizona #Ashleigh #Ashlyn #Ashnica #Ashtyn #Aspyn #Auburn #Autumn #Avery #Bradleigh #Braxton #Bre'anna #Brette #Bria #Brieannah #Brielle #Brionna #Brooklyn #Burgundy #Cache #Cadence #Camary #Cameo #Caress #Carlee #Carley #Carli #Cayetlinne #Cayla #Cebryna #Celine #Celrai #Cerrah #Chanel #Chaos #Chardonnay #Charisma #Chasity #Chassidy #Chaylee #Chelse #Chelsy #Cher #Cherish #Cheyanne #Chloetene #Chole #Chyanna #Chyna #Ciara #Cierra #Claton #Cobain #Cyarah #Dakota #Dalice #Darby #Daria #Darrington #Dasia #Davia #Deasia #Decade #Deja #Delaney #Deleighla #Denicy #Derica #Devin #Diamond #Diamonique #Dillon #Dionne #Divine #Dynasty #Eleigha #Elexus #Emage #Emagin #Emalee #Emilee #Emilyn #Emylina #Eryah #Erykah #Espylacopa #Essence #Estephany #Ferral #Ferran #Fiona #Giselle #Gracyn #Greyson #Haily #Harmony #Haven #Hayleigh #Heaven #Heavenlee #Heaven-Leigh #Hedaya #Hunter #Ikea #Image #Imagine #India #Infiniti #Iris #Jaaliyahh #Jabree #Jacee #Jacey #Jaceya #Jada #Jade #Jadyn #Jadzia #Jaedina #Jaida #Jaidyn #Jailene #Jailyn #Jaisyn #Jakajah #Jamari #Jamin #Janae #Jashly #Jasleen #Jaslynn #Jayla #Jaylene #Jazlyn #Jenicis #Jenisee #Jennese #Jeovana #Jesstine #Jewel #Jiana #Joelynn #Joita #Jonathan #Juleen #Julissa #Justice #Kadeidra #Kaela #Kaelee #Kahlia #Kahmaria #Kaile #Kailey #Kali #Kalyn #Karess #Kariann #Karisma #Karissa #Karizma #Karsyn #Karynne #Kasandra #Kateland #Katelin #Katia #Katlynne #Katterina #Kayce #Kayleah #Kaylene #Kayley #Kayleigh #Kayli #Kaylii #Kaylyn #Kayricha #Keely #Keirsen #Kejonna #Kelleigh #Kelli #Kellianne #Kenadi #Kennedi #Kennedy #Khaytelynne #Kheryna #Kierra #Kiersten #Kiley #Kimani #Kimone #Kinzie #Kirra #Klanisse #Kora #Koty #Kreigh #Kylea #Kylene #Laiandra #Laikyn #Laken #Lakin #Laurice #Laurissa #Laykin #Layston #Ledestiny #Lexie #Lexis #Lexus #Liliana #Logan #Lontierra #Lynnsey #Lynzie #Macalah #Macarena #Macey #Macon #Madalyn #Makayla #Makaylee #Makenna #Marah #Marina #Marinda #Mayra #Mayte #McKay #McKayla #McKenna #Meghanna #Mellanie #Michaela #Mikayla #Millennium #Mireya #Monet #Naquel #Nashalie #Nashaly #Nathasha #Nautica #Nemesis #Nia #Nichelle #Nirvana #Now #Olishia #Paisley #Pamelia #Panda #Paris #Passion #Payton #Peighton #Perla #Peyton #Precious #Princess #Qylci #Raelene #Rain #Raina #Raven #Riley #Romance #Rosetta #Roxana #Roz'zhana #Ryanne #Rylee #Saige #Santeria #Sarha #Schuyler #Selah #Selena #Selene #Seles #Sevannah #Shae #Shaela #Shaelee #Shaelyn #Shakira #Shanee #Shanese #Shania #Shaniah #Shannondoah #Shantel #Shavona #Shawnee #Shayla #Shaylee #Shelaine #Sheligh #Shiloh #Shyann #Si’aira #Sienna #Skiblu #Skye #Skylar #Skyler #Soprinna #Starlyn #Starr #Surreal #Syreni #Talin #Tamia #Tanqueray #Tapanga #Taryn #Tayla #Taylor Ann #Teryn #Tessa #Thea #Tiana #Tiara #Ticia #Timone #Tori #Traesha #Trinity #Trishawn #Tristen #Tronika #Tyanna #Tylar #Tyler-Makenzie #Tylor #Tyra #Valencia #Valeria #Vitalina #Winter #Winterlyn #Xabrina #Xena #Yaileen #Yanessa #Yaritza #Yasmine #Yessenia #Yessica #Yoandra #Yourshabel #Zaria #Zerine #Zhoe #Zoey #Zoie ===Boys' names=== #Adan #Alen #Amari #Armani #Arrick #Baylor #Bennett #Bion #Blaine #Blakeleigh #Blayd #Braden #Braeton #Brandon #Brannen #Brannon #Braxton #Brayden #Braylon #Brayton #Brennan #Britton #Bronzie #Bryant #Bryson #Cade #Cadin #Caeden #Camden #Caughner #Cayden #Cayton #Cerah #Chance #Chandler #Chauncey #Chayton #Cheyenne #Christion #Clinton #Cobain #Coby #Colbey #Colby #Colden #Coleton #Coley #Colter #Colton #Conar #Conner #Conor #Coty #Coulter #Coy #Cristopher #Cross #Cullen #Cameron #cam #Dacota #Daikairi #Dallin #Danieko #Darrion #Data #Davon #Dawson #Daylon #Dayton #DeAndre #Delvin #Denzel #Deon #Devante #Dillian #Dillon #Djimon #Donovan #Dontavius #Drake #Draven #Duevol #Dyllan #Emeri #Emerie #Garin #Garren #Garrit #Gavin #Germylun #Glay #Grayson #Greyson #Griffin #Haden #Haiden #Hayden #Hudson #Ifenna #Iris #Irvin #Isaak #Isaias #Issac #Izic #Jace #Jade #Jaden #Jahkari #Jahkarie #Jakob #Jalen #Jamichael #Jamiroquai #Jarell #Jareth #Jarod #Jaron #Jarrett #Jathan #Javon #Jaxsen #Jayden #Jaylen #Jayston #Jayvon #Jerek #Jerod #Jeron #Jerrell #Jerrett #Jerrod #Jewell #Jishuri #JoDeCi #Jonte #Josiah #Josue #Jovany #Julioze #Justice #Justyn #Juwan #Jyasi #Kacey #Kade #Kadin #Kaedon #Kaelin #Kahron #Kai #Kaleb #Kamden #Kanidre #Karan #Kasey #Kaydon #Kaylen #Keandre #Keanu #Keaton #Keelan #Keenan #Keetan #Kellen #Kendal #Kendall #Kendell #Keon #Khristian #Kobe #Kodee #Kodi #Kolby #Kolton #Konnor #Kraig #Kris #Kross #Kullen #Kyler #Kyron #Lake #Landon #Layton #Lecien #Leighton #Lochlyn #Lukas #Makenna #Marsh #McKay #McKell #McKenna #Micah #Myles #Naisun #Nash #Nasir #Naylor #Nicoma #Noe #Nolan #Notorious #Oamar #Odis #Olajuwon #Parker #Payten #Peyton #Pierce #Prince #Quest #Quinndon #Quinten #Race #Rashaun #Rayce #Rayden #Raymon #Reamer #Ridge #Rory #Ryker #Sage #Schylar #Shace #Shaine #Shakur #Shawn Michael #Shelton #Shiloh #Shonnathan #Skylar #Skyler #Taiwan #Tarek #Tarik #Tarique #Tarren #Tason #Tatum #Tavares #Tavaris #Tavon #Tay #Tayler #Taylor Scott #Terik #Terrell #Terren #Terron #Tevin #Tierre #Tiger #Tionne #Torey #Torin #Tory #Trace #Tre #Trent #Trevyn #Trey #Tristian #Tucker #Tyee #Tyger #Tylan #Tylor #Tynan #Tyree #Tyrel #Tyrene #Tyron #Tyson #Tyzea #Uriel #Uzziel #Viagra #Vicente #Victorious #Xander #Zachary Taylor #Zacherie #Zack #Zackary Lee #Zade #Zak #Zeejay #Zhaine ==Born 2000–2009== ===Girls' names=== #Emily #Madison #Emma #Olivia #Hannah #Abigail #Isabella #Samantha #Elizabeth #Ashley #Alexis #Sarah #Sophia #Beatrice #Alyssa #Grace #Ava #Taylor #Brianna #Lauren #Chloe #Natalie #Kayla #Jessica #Anna #Victoria #Mia #Hailey #Sydney #Jasmine #Julia #Morgan #Destiny #Rachel #Ella #Kaitlyn #Megan #Katherine #Savannah #Jennifer #Alexandra #Allison #Haley #Maria #Kaylee #Lily #Makayla #Brooke #Nicole #Mackenzie #Addison #Stephanie #Lillian #Andrea #Zoe #Faith #Kimberly #Madeline #Alexa #Katelyn #Gabriella #Gabrielle #Trinity #Amanda #Kylie #Mary #Paige #Riley #Leah #Jenna #Sara #Rebecca #Michelle #Sofia #Vanessa #Jordan #Angelina #Caroline #Avery #Audrey #Evelyn #Maya #Claire #Autumn #Jocelyn #Ariana #Nevaeh #Arianna #Jada #Bailey #Brooklyn #Aaliyah #Amber #Isabel #Mariah #Danielle #Melanie #Sierra #Erin #Molly #Amelia ===Boys' names=== #Jacob #Michael #Joshua #Matthew #Daniel #Christopher #Andrew #Ethan #Joseph #William #Anthony #David #Alexander #Nicholas #Ryan #Tyler #James #John #Jonathan #Noah #Brandon #Christian #Dylan #Samuel #Benjamin #Nathan #Zachary #Logan #Justin #Gabriel #Jose #Austin #Kevin #Elijah #Caleb #Robert #Thomas #Jordan #Cameron #Jack #Hunter #Jackson #Angel #Isaiah #Evan #Isaac #Luke #Mason #Jason #Jayden #Gavin #Aaron #Connor #Aiden #Aidan #Kyle #Juan #Charles #Luis #Adam #Lucas #Brian #Eric #Adrian #Nathaniel #Sean #Alex #Carlos #Ian #Bryan #Owen #Jesus #Landon #Julian #Chase #Cole #Diego #Jeremiah #Steven #Sebastian #Xavier #Timothy #Carter #Wyatt #Brayden #Blake #Hayden #Devin #Cody #Richard #Seth #Dominic #Aiden #Antonio #Miguel #Liam #Patrick #Carson #Jesse #Tristan {{Subject|Writing Adolescent Fiction}} 8bsxakg4zwv6mzvgwb93dhcgtrhjq5i 0 154939 4095670 4028478 2022-08-24T06:06:27Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 wikitext text/x-wiki This book is devoted to unofficial Microsoft Windows extensions and add-ons that provide core functionality that the operating system as a distribution lacks. Feel free to file a brief tutorial of your favorite Windows components. Components that aren't wholly free are not welcome in this book. It is not intended as an advertisement for proprietary vendors; nor, is intended to document native Windows features. == Table of Contents == {{Book search}} {{Print version}} ; Image Manipulation #; [[/Image/Resize-O-Matic|Resize-O-Matic]] : This program makes resizing an image a simple right-mouse-click on the image or images. #; [[/Image/Image Resizer for Windows|Image Resizer for Windows]] : This program works like the above but works on Windows 7. #; [[GIMP]] (Separate Wikibook) {{expand}} {{shelves|Microsoft Windows}} {{Alphabetical|W}} {{status|0%}} kvi3f3erohxupopvd97o53d57aummv0 102 155612 4095617 1259489 2022-08-24T02:33:42Z Nostriker 3371989 style, format, language, links wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} == Ingredients == * 1 [[Cookbook:Egg|Egg]] * [[Cookbook:Flour|Flour]] == Procedure == # Beat the egg. Mix and knead in flour until you have a very stiff dough. # Roll the dough out into a thin sheet. # Sprinkle the dough with a good amount of flour to prevent it from sticking to itself. Tightly roll up the dough to make a log. # Use a sharp knife to cut the log cross-wise into thin slices, similar to how you would slice cabbage for slaw. Unroll the noodles and toss with flour. # Add the noodles to boiling soup. Simmer for 10 minutes. == References == ''From the 1881 Household Cyclopedia'' [[Category:Soup recipes|{{PAGENAME}}]] nphg7uw6r40lw6ad9y695j0rz514kyp 0 156850 4095615 3809566 2022-08-24T02:24:27Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typo wikitext text/x-wiki == WINDOW == === Syntax === <pre>WINDOW [#]idExpr[,[title$][,[rect][,[type][,class]]]]</pre> === Description === Use this statement to do any of the following: <ul> <li type="disc">Create a new screen window; <li type="disc">Activate (highlight and bring to the front) an existing window; <li type="disc">Make an existing window visible or invisible; <li type="disc">Alter the title or rectangle of an existing window. </ul> The parameters should be specified as follows. They are interpreted slightly differently depending on whether you are creating a new window or altering an existing one. <ul> <li type="disc"><code><i>idExpr</i></code> - a positive or negative integer whose absolute value is in the range 1 through 255. <li type="disc"><code><i>title$</i></code> - a string expression. <li type="disc"><code><i>rect</i></code> - a rectangle in global screen coordinates. You can express it in either of two forms: <code>(<i>x1</i>,<i>y1</i>)-(<i>x2</i>,<i>y2</i>) </code>Two diagonally opposite corner points.<code> <i>rectAddr&amp; </i></code>Long integer expression or <code>POINTER</code> variable which points to an 8-byte struct such as a <code>RECT</code> type. <li type="disc"><code><i>type</i></code> - a positive or negative integer which specifies the general appearance of the window, and specifies whether it should be "modal" or not (a modal window is always active while it's open; it inhibits the user from selecting another window or a menubar item until the window is closed). <li type="disc"><code><i>class</i></code> - an integer in the range 0 through 255. </ul> <strong>To Create a New Screen Window</strong> <ul> <li type="disc">Specify an <code><i>idExpr</i></code> value such that <code>ABS(<i>idExpr</i>)</code> is different from the ID number of&nbsp;any existing window. A new window is created and is assigned an ID number of&nbsp;<code>ABS(<i>idExpr</i>)</code>. You can use the window's ID number later to identify the window in&nbsp;other FB statements and functions. If <code><i>idExpr</i></code> is negative, the window is created&nbsp;invisibly; it's sometimes useful to create a window invisibly if it will contain controls,&nbsp;edit fields and graphics that may take a long time to build. You can use the <code><b>WINDOW</b></code> statement again to make an invisible window visible (see below). When you create a&nbsp;new window, it becomes the current output window. If you create it visibly (and you&nbsp;don't specify the <code>_keepInBack</code> attribute), it also becomes the current active window. <li type="disc"><code><i>title$</i></code> assigns a string to the window's title bar (if the window has a title bar). If you&nbsp;omit this parameter, the window will be created without a title. <li type="disc"><code><i>rect</i></code> specifies the initial size and location of the window's content rectangle. Note&nbsp;that rect does not include the window's frame. This parameter is interpreted in a&nbsp;special way if you specify an upper-left coordinate of (0,0) in <code><i>rect</i></code>; in this case, the&nbsp;window is centered in the screen, and its width and height are determined by the right&nbsp;and bottom coordinates of <code><i>rect</i></code>. Note that this special interpretation applies only&nbsp;when you're creating a new window. If you omit this parameter, a window of a&nbsp;"default" size and location is created. <li type="disc"><code><i>type</i></code> specifies the appearance, modality and special attributes of the window (see more&nbsp;below). If you omit this parameter, a non-modal window of type <code>_doc</code> is created,&nbsp;with no special attributes. <li type="disc"><code><i>class</i></code> specifies an optional "class number" for the window. If your application creates several windows, it's useful to assign the same class number to each window that performs a given kind of function. Later, you can use the <code>WINDOW</code> function to determine the class number of the currently active window and the current output window; this can help your application determine what the window is used for and how to process it. If you omit this parameter, the new window is assigned a class number of zero. <strong>To Activate an Existing Window</strong> <li type="disc">Specify the (positive) ID number of an existing window in <code><i>idExpr</i></code>. You do not need&nbsp;to specify any of the other parameters, unless you also wish to change some of the&nbsp;window's characteristics. The window also becomes the current output window. If&nbsp;the window was invisible, it becomes visible. '''Note''': You can't activate the window if you specified the <code>_keepInBack</code> attribute when the window was created, and there are other visible windows open. <strong>To Make an Existing Window Visible or Invisible</strong> <li type="disc">To make a window visible, specify the (positive) ID number of an existing window in <code><i>idExpr</i></code>. The window also becomes the current active window (unless its <code>_keepInBack</code>&nbsp;attribute is set), and it becomes the current output window. <li type="disc">To make a window invisible, specify the negative of an existing window's ID number&nbsp;in <code><i>idExpr</i></code>. The window becomes the current output window. If it was the active&nbsp;window, it becomes inactive (possibly forcing another window to become active). You do not need to specify any of the other parameters, unless you also want to change some of the window's characteristics. <strong>To Alter the Characteristics of an Existing Window</strong> <li type="disc">Specify the ID number of an existing window (or its negative) in <code><i>idExpr</i></code>, and&nbsp;specify a new <code><i>title$</i></code> and/or <code><i>rect</i></code> parameter (you can't change the window's<code> <i>type</i></code> nor <code><i>class</i></code> after it's been created). If you omit any parameter, the corresponding&nbsp;characteristic won't change. Note that the <code><i>rect </i></code>parameter is interpreted slightly&nbsp;differently when you're altering an existing window, as opposed to creating a new&nbsp;window; in particular, specifying an upper-left coordinate of (0,0) will ''not'' cause an&nbsp;existing window to be centered on the screen. If you want to change an existing&nbsp;window's rectangle so that it's centered on the screen, use a <code><i>rect </i></code>parameter that's&nbsp;calculated as follows: <code><b>DIM</b> rect.8<br> x1 = (<b>SYSTEM</b>(_scrnWidth) - myWindowWidth) / 2 <br> y1 = (<b>SYSTEM</b>(_scrnHeight) - myWindowHeight) / 2 <br> x2 = x1 + myWindowWidth<br> y2 = y1 + myWindowHeight<br> <b>CALL SETRECT</b>(rect, x1, y1, x2, y2)</code> </ul> '''Note''': If you specify the window's (positive) ID number when you alter a window's characteristics, the window also becomes the current active window (unless its <code>_keepInBack</code> attribute is set). If you specify the negative of the window's ID number, the window becomes invisible. <strong>Side Effects of Activating the Window</strong> </strong>The <code><b>WINDOW</b></code> statement always makes the window active, unless you specify a negative <code><i>idExpr</i></code>, or you specified the <code>_keepInBack</code> attribute when you created the window. When you activate a window using the <code><b>WINDOW</b></code> statement, the following things also happen: <ul> <li type="disc">The window also becomes the current output window. (See the <code>WINDOW OUPTUT</code> statement to learn how to specify an output window that's different from the active window.) <li type="disc">A DIALOG event of type <code>_wndActivate</code> is generated. (There are also other kinds of actions which generate <code>_wndActivate</code> events; see the <code>DIALOG</code> function for more information.) <li type="disc">Any previously-active window becomes inactive (this also generates a separate <code>_wndActivate</code> DIALOG event). </ul> <strong>Side Effects of Making a Window Visible</strong> </strong>If <code><i>idExpr</i></code> is the (positive) ID of a window that currently exists but is invisible, the <code><b>WINDOW</b></code> statement makes the window visible, and also generates a <code>DIALOG</code> event of type <code>_wndRefresh</code>. A <code>_wndRefresh</code> event is also generated when you create a new window visibly. (Note: There are also other kinds of actions which generate <code>_wndRefresh </code>events; see the <code>DIALOG</code> function for more information.) <strong>Side Effects of Making a Window Invisible</strong> </strong>If <code><i>idExpr</i></code> is negative, the window becomes invisible, and it becomes the current output window. If the window was previously active, it becomes inactive; if your program has other visible windows, one of them becomes the active window. <strong>More about the type Parameter</strong> </strong>The <code>type</code>parameter is a positive or negative integer. The absolute value of <code>type<br> </code>determines the general appearance of the window and determines some special attributes<br> of it. The sign of <code>type</code> determines whether the window will be modal or non-modal. If<br> <code>type</code> is negative, the window will be modal, which means the user won't be able to<br> switch to a different window until the modal window is closed; if the user clicks in an<br> inactive window while a modal window is active, a beep is generated, but a <code>_wndClick<br> </code>event is notgenerated. <code>type</code>can be expressed as follows: <code>[-](windowVariant [+attribute [+attribute ...]])</code> <code>windowVariant</code> can be any of the following: <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td> <image was here </td> <td> <code>_doc</code> (1) </td> <td>Document window with room for scrollbars.</td> </tr> <tr> <td> <image was here </td> <td>Framed dialog window.</td> </tr> <tr> <td> <image was here </td> <td nowrap> <code>_dialogPlain</code> (3) <code>_dialogShadow</code> (4) <code>_docNoGrow</code> (5) <code>_dialogMovable</code> (6) <code>_docZoom</code> (9) </td> <td nowrap>Plain dialog window. Shadowed dialog window. Document window with no grow box. Movable dialog window. Document window with zoom box and room for scrollbars. </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <image was here </td> <td> <code>_docRound</code> (17) </td> <td>Rounded-corner window. Add 1 through 7 to this variant to increase the roundness of the corners.</td> </tr> <tr> <td> <image was here </td> <td> <code>_WDEFbaseID</code> (129) </td> <td>Palette window with close box. You can add the constant <code>_WDEFhasZoom</code> (8) to this variant to give the window a zoom</td> </tr> <tr> <td><image was here</td> <td><code>_WDEFbaseID + _WDEFsideDrag</code> (131)</td> <td>Sideways palette. You can add the constant <code>_WDEFhasZoom</code> (8) to this variant to give the window a zoom box.</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>176 through 191</td> <td>These values are mapped to Appearance Manager window types 1984 through 1999.</td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>192 through 255</td> <td>These values are mapped to Appearance Manager window types 1024 through 1087.</td> </tr> </table> The <code>attribute</code> can be any of the following (you can specify as many of these as apply): <image was here> === See Also === MINWINDOW; MAXWINDOW; SETZOOM; GET WINDOW; WINDOW CLOSE; WINDOW OUTPUT; WINDOW function; DIALOG function; AUTOCLIP {{BookCat}} djg74mm7puu48crdnsbukwdkhtse49u 0 158710 4095505 4034424 2022-08-23T18:54:33Z 5.217.188.197 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikipedia|Base64}} The traditional (MIME) base64 encoding and decoding processes are fairly simple to implement. Here an example using JavaScript is given, including the MIME/etc required line breaks at particular line lengths. It is worth noting however, that many base64 functions (e.g. in [[PHP]]) return base64 encoded strings without the line breaks, as the line breaks can be inserted easily after encoding, and many times the base64 encoding is desired only for safely transferring data via [[XML]] or inserting into a database, etc. &mdash; times when the line breaks are known to be unnecessary and therefore undesirable. The newline inserting and removing in these functions here can easily be commented out (they are each only one line in the respective functions) if they are not needed. An array of the base 64 characters is necessary for encoding, such as: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> var base64chars = 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/'.split(""); </syntaxhighlight> And decoding will require the inverse list (swap the indices for the values), such as: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> var base64inv = {}; for (var i = 0; i < base64chars.length; i++) { base64inv[base64chars[i]] = i; } </syntaxhighlight> Note that in real implementations, it is better to explicitly list the entire array/hash for each list above &mdash; the one-liners here are given to demonstrate the concept as directly as possible, rather than being the ideal in practice. ==Encode== ===Javascript=== The base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> function base64_encode (s) { // the result/encoded string, the padding string, and the pad count var base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; var r = ""; var p = ""; var c = s.length % 3; // add a right zero pad to make this string a multiple of 3 characters if (c > 0) { for (; c < 3; c++) { p += '='; s += "\0"; } } // increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time for (c = 0; c < s.length; c += 3) { // we add newlines after every 76 output characters, according to the MIME specs if (c > 0 && (c / 3 * 4) % 76 == 0) { r += "\r\n"; } // these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number var n = (s.charCodeAt(c) << 16) + (s.charCodeAt(c+1) << 8) + s.charCodeAt(c+2); // this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers n = [(n >>> 18) & 63, (n >>> 12) & 63, (n >>> 6) & 63, n & 63]; // those four 6-bit numbers are used as indices into the base64 character list r += base64chars[n[0]] + base64chars[n[1]] + base64chars[n[2]] + base64chars[n[3]]; } // add the actual padding string, after removing the zero pad return r.substring(0, r.length - p.length) + p; } </syntaxhighlight> ===Java=== The base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="Java"> class Base64Encode { private final static String base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; public static String encode(String s) { // the result/encoded string, the padding string, and the pad count String r = "", p = ""; int c = s.length() % 3; // add a right zero pad to make this string a multiple of 3 characters if (c > 0) { for (; c < 3; c++) { p += "="; s += "\0"; } } // increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time for (c = 0; c < s.length(); c += 3) { // we add newlines after every 76 output characters, according to // the MIME specs if (c > 0 && (c / 3 * 4) % 76 == 0) r += "\r\n"; // these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number int n = (s.charAt(c) << 16) + (s.charAt(c + 1) << 8) + (s.charAt(c + 2)); // this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers int n1 = (n >> 18) & 63, n2 = (n >> 12) & 63, n3 = (n >> 6) & 63, n4 = n & 63; // those four 6-bit numbers are used as indices into the base64 // character list r += "" + base64chars.charAt(n1) + base64chars.charAt(n2) + base64chars.charAt(n3) + base64chars.charAt(n4); } return r.substring(0, r.length() - p.length()) + p; } } </syntaxhighlight> An alternate implementation could use Java Streams. For example, one could create a Base64EncoderStream, inheriting from FilterOutputStream. ===Ruby=== [http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.1.4/libdoc/base64/rdoc/Base64.html Base64 module documentation] show the shortest way to encode a string: <syntaxhighlight lang="irb"> irb(main):001:0> require "base64" => true irb(main):002:0> enc = Base64.encode64('Send reinforcements') => "U2VuZCByZWluZm9yY2VtZW50cw==\n" irb(main):003:0> plain = Base64.decode64(enc) => "Send reinforcements" </syntaxhighlight> Ruby version, implemented as a tool that encodes the file specified on the command line: <syntaxhighlight lang="ruby"> BASE64_CHARS = 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/' File.open(ARGV[0], 'rb') do |file| # read file name passed on command line c = 0 # count outputted characters while (buf = file.read(3)) != nil do # read up to 3 bytes at a time pad = '' # padding for this group of 4 characters while buf.length < 3 buf << "\0" pad << '=' end group24 = (buf[0] << 16) | (buf[1] << 8) | buf[2] # current 3 bytes as a 24 bit value encoded = BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 18) & 0x3f, 1] # read the 24 bit value 6 bits at a time encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 12) & 0x3f, 1] encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 6) & 0x3f, 1] encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 0) & 0x3f, 1] encoded[4 - pad.length, pad.length] = pad # add the padding print encoded print "\r\n" if (c += 4) % 76 == 0 # output newline ever 76th character end end </syntaxhighlight> ===C=== C version of the base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <inttypes.h> #include <string.h> int base64encode(const void* data_buf, size_t dataLength, char* result, size_t resultSize) { const char base64chars[] = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; const uint8_t *data = (const uint8_t *)data_buf; size_t resultIndex = 0; size_t x; uint32_t n = 0; int padCount = dataLength % 3; uint8_t n0, n1, n2, n3; /* increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time */ for (x = 0; x < dataLength; x += 3) { /* these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number */ n = ((uint32_t)data[x]) << 16; //parenthesis needed, compiler depending on flags can do the shifting before conversion to uint32_t, resulting to 0 if((x+1) < dataLength) n += ((uint32_t)data[x+1]) << 8;//parenthesis needed, compiler depending on flags can do the shifting before conversion to uint32_t, resulting to 0 if((x+2) < dataLength) n += data[x+2]; /* this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers */ n0 = (uint8_t)(n >> 18) & 63; n1 = (uint8_t)(n >> 12) & 63; n2 = (uint8_t)(n >> 6) & 63; n3 = (uint8_t)n & 63; /* * if we have one byte available, then its encoding is spread * out over two characters */ if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n0]; if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n1]; /* * if we have only two bytes available, then their encoding is * spread out over three chars */ if((x+1) < dataLength) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n2]; } /* * if we have all three bytes available, then their encoding is spread * out over four characters */ if((x+2) < dataLength) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n3]; } } /* * create and add padding that is required if we did not have a multiple of 3 * number of characters available */ if (padCount > 0) { for (; padCount < 3; padCount++) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = '='; } } if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex] = 0; return 0; /* indicate success */ } </syntaxhighlight> ===C++=== Below is a C++ version of Base64Encode. This code is released into public domain. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <string> #include <vector> // Prototype // std::basic_string<TCHAR> base64Encode(std::vector<BYTE> inputBuffer); // This line goes in header file /* Define these if they aren't already in your environment * #define TEXT(x) Lx //Unicode * #define TCHAR wchar_t //Unicode * #define TCHAR char //Not unicode * #define TEXT(x) x //Not unicode * #define DWORD long * #define BYTE unsigned char * They are defined by default in Windows.h */ //Lookup table for encoding //If you want to use an alternate alphabet, change the characters here const static TCHAR encodeLookup[] = TEXT("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"); const static TCHAR padCharacter = TEXT('='); std::basic_string<TCHAR> base64Encode(std::vector<BYTE> inputBuffer) { std::basic_string<TCHAR> encodedString; encodedString.reserve(((inputBuffer.size()/3) + (inputBuffer.size() % 3 > 0)) * 4); DWORD temp; std::vector<BYTE>::iterator cursor = inputBuffer.begin(); for(size_t idx = 0; idx < inputBuffer.size()/3; idx++) { temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian temp += (*cursor++) << 8; temp += (*cursor++); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00000FC0) >> 6 ]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0000003F) ]); } switch(inputBuffer.size() % 3) { case 1: temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(2,padCharacter); break; case 2: temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian temp += (*cursor++) << 8; encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00000FC0) >> 6 ]); encodedString.append(1,padCharacter); break; } return encodedString; } </syntaxhighlight> ===R=== <syntaxhighlight lang="rsplus"> base64encode <- function(sobj) { sstr <- as.character(sobj) stopifnot(length(sstr) == 1) # we only like 1-entry string vectors for now if (nchar(sstr) == ) return("") b64c <- "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/" shfts <- c(18,12,6,) sand <- function(n,s) bitwAnd(bitwShiftR(n,s),63)+1 slft <- function(p,n) bitwShiftL(as.integer(p),n) subs <- function(s,n) substring(s,n,n) sbit <- charToRaw(sstr) npad <- ( 3 - length(sbit) %% 3) %% 3 # yeah. sbit <- c(sbit,as.raw(rep(,npad))) pces <- lapply(seq(1,length(sbit),by=3),function(ii) sbit[ii:(ii+2)]) encv <- paste(sapply(pces,function(p) paste0(sapply(shfts,function(s)(subs(b64c,sand(slft(p[1],16)+slft(p[2],8)+slft(p[3],),s)))))),collapse="") if (npad > ) substr(encv,nchar(encv)-npad+1,nchar(encv)) <- paste(rep("=",npad),collapse="") return(encv) } </syntaxhighlight> ==Decode== ===Javascript=== The base64 decoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> function base64_decode (s) { var base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; // remove/ignore any characters not in the base64 characters list // or the pad character -- particularly newlines s = s.replace(new RegExp('[^'+base64chars.split("")+'=]', 'g'), ""); // replace any incoming padding with a zero pad (the 'A' character is zero) var p = (s.charAt(s.length-1) == '=' ? (s.charAt(s.length-2) == '=' ? 'AA' : 'A') : ""); var r = ""; s = s.substr(0, s.length - p.length) + p; // increment over the length of this encoded string, four characters at a time for (var c = 0; c < s.length; c += 4) { // each of these four characters represents a 6-bit index in the base64 characters list // which, when concatenated, will give the 24-bit number for the original 3 characters var n = (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c)) << 18) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+1)) << 12) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+2)) << 6) + base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+3)); // split the 24-bit number into the original three 8-bit (ASCII) characters r += String.fromCharCode((n >>> 16) & 255, (n >>> 8) & 255, n & 255); } // remove any zero pad that was added to make this a multiple of 24 bits return r.substring(0, r.length - p.length); } </syntaxhighlight> The above implementation is best with a language like JavaScript that handles string concatenation of arbitrary length strings very efficiently. Other languages (e.g. C) will work much more efficiently by allocating memory for a new string/array of the appropriate size (the output string length is easily calculated from the input string at the very beginning) and then simply setting each character index, as opposed to concatenation. ===Java=== The base64 decoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="java"> class Base64Decode { private final static String base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; public static String decode(String s) { // remove/ignore any characters not in the base64 characters list // or the pad character -- particularly newlines s = s.replaceAll("[^" + base64chars + "=]", ""); // replace any incoming padding with a zero pad (the 'A' character is // zero) String p = (s.charAt(s.length() - 1) == '=' ? (s.charAt(s.length() - 2) == '=' ? "AA" : "A") : ""); String r = ""; s = s.substring(0, s.length() - p.length()) + p; // increment over the length of this encoded string, four characters // at a time for (int c = 0; c < s.length(); c += 4) { // each of these four characters represents a 6-bit index in the // base64 characters list which, when concatenated, will give the // 24-bit number for the original 3 characters int n = (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c)) << 18) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 1)) << 12) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 2)) << 6) + base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 3)); // split the 24-bit number into the original three 8-bit (ASCII) // characters r += "" + (char) ((n >>> 16) & 0xFF) + (char) ((n >>> 8) & 0xFF) + (char) (n & 0xFF); } // remove any zero pad that was added to make this a multiple of 24 bits return r.substring(0, r.length() - p.length()); } } </syntaxhighlight> An alternate implementation could use Java Streams. For example, one could create a Base64DecoderStream, inheriting from FilterInputStream. ===C=== Counterpart C decoder for the encoder above. This code is also public domain. This solution has been optimized using pointer math and a look-up table. This algorithm handles multiple encoding formats: with and without line breaks, with and without whitespace, and with and without padding characters. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #define WHITESPACE 64 #define EQUALS 65 #define INVALID 66 static const unsigned char d[] = { 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,64,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,62,66,66,66,63,52,53, 54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,66,66,66,65,66,66,66, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,66,66,66,66,66,66,26,27,28, 29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66 }; int base64decode (char *in, size_t inLen, unsigned char *out, size_t *outLen) { char *end = in + inLen; char iter = 0; uint32_t buf = 0; size_t len = 0; while (in < end) { unsigned char c = d[*in++]; switch (c) { case WHITESPACE: continue; /* skip whitespace */ case INVALID: return 1; /* invalid input, return error */ case EQUALS: /* pad character, end of data */ in = end; continue; default: buf = buf << 6 | c; iter++; // increment the number of iteration /* If the buffer is full, split it into bytes */ if (iter == 4) { if ((len += 3) > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 16) & 255; *(out++) = (buf >> 8) & 255; *(out++) = buf & 255; buf = 0; iter = 0; } } } if (iter == 3) { if ((len += 2) > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 10) & 255; *(out++) = (buf >> 2) & 255; } else if (iter == 2) { if (++len > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 4) & 255; } *outLen = len; /* modify to reflect the actual output size */ return 0; } </syntaxhighlight> ===<ref>c</ref>C++=== Counterpart C++ decoder for the encoder above. This code is also public domain. While a more general solution is possible by using a table similar to that in encoding, and then finding the index of the character we want in that table, and while that solution is much simpler, this version with the if-else-if ladder is faster because it does not need to run as many character comparisons to find the right character to use. The alphabet specific parts of this code are pretty much the same across most base64 alphabets however. Items that need changed to accommodate the base64url encoding are commented as such. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <string> #include <vector> // Prototype // std::vector<BYTE> base64Decode(const std::basic_string<TCHAR>& input); // This line goes in header file /* Define these if they aren't already in your environment * #define TEXT(x) Lx //Unicode * #define TCHAR wchar_t //Unicode * #define TCHAR char //Not unicode * #define TEXT(x) x //Not unicode * #define DWORD long * #define BYTE unsigned char * They are defined by default in Windows.h */ const static TCHAR padCharacter = TEXT('='); std::vector<BYTE> base64Decode(const std::basic_string<TCHAR>& input) { if (input.length() % 4) //Sanity check throw std::runtime_error("Non-Valid base64!"); size_t padding = 0; if (input.length()) { if (input[input.length()-1] == padCharacter) padding++; if (input[input.length()-2] == padCharacter) padding++; } //Setup a vector to hold the result std::vector<BYTE> decodedBytes; decodedBytes.reserve(((input.length()/4)*3) - padding); DWORD temp=0; //Holds decoded quanta std::basic_string<TCHAR>::const_iterator cursor = input.begin(); while (cursor < input.end()) { for (size_t quantumPosition = 0; quantumPosition < 4; quantumPosition++) { temp <<= 6; if (*cursor >= 0x41 && *cursor <= 0x5A) // This area will need tweaking if temp |= *cursor - 0x41; // you are using an alternate alphabet else if (*cursor >= 0x61 && *cursor <= 0x7A) temp |= *cursor - 0x47; else if (*cursor >= 0x30 && *cursor <= 0x39) temp |= *cursor + 0x04; else if (*cursor == 0x2B) temp |= 0x3E; //change to 0x2D for URL alphabet else if (*cursor == 0x2F) temp |= 0x3F; //change to 0x5F for URL alphabet else if (*cursor == padCharacter) //pad { switch( input.end() - cursor ) { case 1: //One pad character decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 16) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 8 ) & 0x000000FF); return decodedBytes; case 2: //Two pad characters decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 10) & 0x000000FF); return decodedBytes; default: throw std::runtime_error("Invalid Padding in Base 64!"); } } else throw std::runtime_error("Non-Valid Character in Base 64!"); cursor++; } decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 16) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 8 ) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp ) & 0x000000FF); } return decodedBytes; } </syntaxhighlight> ===R=== <syntaxhighlight lang="rsplus"> base64decode <- function(eobj) { estr <- as.character(eobj) stopifnot(length(estr) == 1) b64c <- "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/" estr <- gsub(paste("[^",b64c,"=]"),"",estr) if (nchar(estr) == ) return("") estr <- gsub("=","A",estr,fixed=T) ebit <- charToRaw(estr); b64r <- charToRaw(b64c) pces <- lapply(seq(1,length(ebit),by=4),function(ii) ebit[ii:(ii+3)]) slft <- function(p,n) bitwShiftL(match(p,b64r)-1,n) # note the -1 sand <- function(n,s) intToUtf8(bitwAnd(bitwShiftR(n,s),xFF)) return(paste(sapply(pces,function(p){ n <- slft(p[1],18) + slft(p[2],12) + slft(p[3],6) + slft(p[4],) c(sand(n,16),sand(n,8),sand(n,)) }),collapse="")) } </syntaxhighlight> {{subject}} h0xt6st1b2s087ssw9wocfikr7f8u1u 4095552 4095505 2022-08-23T21:40:54Z SHB2000 3332924 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/5.217.188.197|5.217.188.197]] ([[User talk:5.217.188.197|talk]]) to last version by JackPotte wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikipedia|Base64}} The traditional (MIME) base64 encoding and decoding processes are fairly simple to implement. Here an example using JavaScript is given, including the MIME/etc required line breaks at particular line lengths. It is worth noting however, that many base64 functions (e.g. in [[PHP]]) return base64 encoded strings without the line breaks, as the line breaks can be inserted easily after encoding, and many times the base64 encoding is desired only for safely transferring data via [[XML]] or inserting into a database, etc. &mdash; times when the line breaks are known to be unnecessary and therefore undesirable. The newline inserting and removing in these functions here can easily be commented out (they are each only one line in the respective functions) if they are not needed. An array of the base 64 characters is necessary for encoding, such as: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> var base64chars = 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/'.split(""); </syntaxhighlight> And decoding will require the inverse list (swap the indices for the values), such as: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> var base64inv = {}; for (var i = 0; i < base64chars.length; i++) { base64inv[base64chars[i]] = i; } </syntaxhighlight> Note that in real implementations, it is better to explicitly list the entire array/hash for each list above &mdash; the one-liners here are given to demonstrate the concept as directly as possible, rather than being the ideal in practice. ==Encode== ===Javascript=== The base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="Javascript"> function base64_encode (s) { // the result/encoded string, the padding string, and the pad count var base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; var r = ""; var p = ""; var c = s.length % 3; // add a right zero pad to make this string a multiple of 3 characters if (c > 0) { for (; c < 3; c++) { p += '='; s += "\0"; } } // increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time for (c = 0; c < s.length; c += 3) { // we add newlines after every 76 output characters, according to the MIME specs if (c > 0 && (c / 3 * 4) % 76 == 0) { r += "\r\n"; } // these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number var n = (s.charCodeAt(c) << 16) + (s.charCodeAt(c+1) << 8) + s.charCodeAt(c+2); // this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers n = [(n >>> 18) & 63, (n >>> 12) & 63, (n >>> 6) & 63, n & 63]; // those four 6-bit numbers are used as indices into the base64 character list r += base64chars[n[0]] + base64chars[n[1]] + base64chars[n[2]] + base64chars[n[3]]; } // add the actual padding string, after removing the zero pad return r.substring(0, r.length - p.length) + p; } </syntaxhighlight> ===Java=== The base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="Java"> class Base64Encode { private final static String base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; public static String encode(String s) { // the result/encoded string, the padding string, and the pad count String r = "", p = ""; int c = s.length() % 3; // add a right zero pad to make this string a multiple of 3 characters if (c > 0) { for (; c < 3; c++) { p += "="; s += "\0"; } } // increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time for (c = 0; c < s.length(); c += 3) { // we add newlines after every 76 output characters, according to // the MIME specs if (c > 0 && (c / 3 * 4) % 76 == 0) r += "\r\n"; // these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number int n = (s.charAt(c) << 16) + (s.charAt(c + 1) << 8) + (s.charAt(c + 2)); // this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers int n1 = (n >> 18) & 63, n2 = (n >> 12) & 63, n3 = (n >> 6) & 63, n4 = n & 63; // those four 6-bit numbers are used as indices into the base64 // character list r += "" + base64chars.charAt(n1) + base64chars.charAt(n2) + base64chars.charAt(n3) + base64chars.charAt(n4); } return r.substring(0, r.length() - p.length()) + p; } } </syntaxhighlight> An alternate implementation could use Java Streams. For example, one could create a Base64EncoderStream, inheriting from FilterOutputStream. ===Ruby=== [http://ruby-doc.org/stdlib-2.1.4/libdoc/base64/rdoc/Base64.html Base64 module documentation] show the shortest way to encode a string: <syntaxhighlight lang="irb"> irb(main):001:0> require "base64" => true irb(main):002:0> enc = Base64.encode64('Send reinforcements') => "U2VuZCByZWluZm9yY2VtZW50cw==\n" irb(main):003:0> plain = Base64.decode64(enc) => "Send reinforcements" </syntaxhighlight> Ruby version, implemented as a tool that encodes the file specified on the command line: <syntaxhighlight lang="ruby"> BASE64_CHARS = 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/' File.open(ARGV[0], 'rb') do |file| # read file name passed on command line c = 0 # count outputted characters while (buf = file.read(3)) != nil do # read up to 3 bytes at a time pad = '' # padding for this group of 4 characters while buf.length < 3 buf << "\0" pad << '=' end group24 = (buf[0] << 16) | (buf[1] << 8) | buf[2] # current 3 bytes as a 24 bit value encoded = BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 18) & 0x3f, 1] # read the 24 bit value 6 bits at a time encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 12) & 0x3f, 1] encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 6) & 0x3f, 1] encoded << BASE64_CHARS[(group24 >> 0) & 0x3f, 1] encoded[4 - pad.length, pad.length] = pad # add the padding print encoded print "\r\n" if (c += 4) % 76 == 0 # output newline ever 76th character end end </syntaxhighlight> ===C=== C version of the base64 encoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <inttypes.h> #include <string.h> int base64encode(const void* data_buf, size_t dataLength, char* result, size_t resultSize) { const char base64chars[] = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; const uint8_t *data = (const uint8_t *)data_buf; size_t resultIndex = 0; size_t x; uint32_t n = 0; int padCount = dataLength % 3; uint8_t n0, n1, n2, n3; /* increment over the length of the string, three characters at a time */ for (x = 0; x < dataLength; x += 3) { /* these three 8-bit (ASCII) characters become one 24-bit number */ n = ((uint32_t)data[x]) << 16; //parenthesis needed, compiler depending on flags can do the shifting before conversion to uint32_t, resulting to 0 if((x+1) < dataLength) n += ((uint32_t)data[x+1]) << 8;//parenthesis needed, compiler depending on flags can do the shifting before conversion to uint32_t, resulting to 0 if((x+2) < dataLength) n += data[x+2]; /* this 24-bit number gets separated into four 6-bit numbers */ n0 = (uint8_t)(n >> 18) & 63; n1 = (uint8_t)(n >> 12) & 63; n2 = (uint8_t)(n >> 6) & 63; n3 = (uint8_t)n & 63; /* * if we have one byte available, then its encoding is spread * out over two characters */ if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n0]; if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n1]; /* * if we have only two bytes available, then their encoding is * spread out over three chars */ if((x+1) < dataLength) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n2]; } /* * if we have all three bytes available, then their encoding is spread * out over four characters */ if((x+2) < dataLength) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = base64chars[n3]; } } /* * create and add padding that is required if we did not have a multiple of 3 * number of characters available */ if (padCount > 0) { for (; padCount < 3; padCount++) { if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex++] = '='; } } if(resultIndex >= resultSize) return 1; /* indicate failure: buffer too small */ result[resultIndex] = 0; return 0; /* indicate success */ } </syntaxhighlight> ===C++=== Below is a C++ version of Base64Encode. This code is released into public domain. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <string> #include <vector> // Prototype // std::basic_string<TCHAR> base64Encode(std::vector<BYTE> inputBuffer); // This line goes in header file /* Define these if they aren't already in your environment * #define TEXT(x) Lx //Unicode * #define TCHAR wchar_t //Unicode * #define TCHAR char //Not unicode * #define TEXT(x) x //Not unicode * #define DWORD long * #define BYTE unsigned char * They are defined by default in Windows.h */ //Lookup table for encoding //If you want to use an alternate alphabet, change the characters here const static TCHAR encodeLookup[] = TEXT("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"); const static TCHAR padCharacter = TEXT('='); std::basic_string<TCHAR> base64Encode(std::vector<BYTE> inputBuffer) { std::basic_string<TCHAR> encodedString; encodedString.reserve(((inputBuffer.size()/3) + (inputBuffer.size() % 3 > 0)) * 4); DWORD temp; std::vector<BYTE>::iterator cursor = inputBuffer.begin(); for(size_t idx = 0; idx < inputBuffer.size()/3; idx++) { temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian temp += (*cursor++) << 8; temp += (*cursor++); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00000FC0) >> 6 ]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0000003F) ]); } switch(inputBuffer.size() % 3) { case 1: temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(2,padCharacter); break; case 2: temp = (*cursor++) << 16; //Convert to big endian temp += (*cursor++) << 8; encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00FC0000) >> 18]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x0003F000) >> 12]); encodedString.append(1,encodeLookup[(temp & 0x00000FC0) >> 6 ]); encodedString.append(1,padCharacter); break; } return encodedString; } </syntaxhighlight> ===R=== <syntaxhighlight lang="rsplus"> base64encode <- function(sobj) { sstr <- as.character(sobj) stopifnot(length(sstr) == 1) # we only like 1-entry string vectors for now if (nchar(sstr) == ) return("") b64c <- "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/" shfts <- c(18,12,6,) sand <- function(n,s) bitwAnd(bitwShiftR(n,s),63)+1 slft <- function(p,n) bitwShiftL(as.integer(p),n) subs <- function(s,n) substring(s,n,n) sbit <- charToRaw(sstr) npad <- ( 3 - length(sbit) %% 3) %% 3 # yeah. sbit <- c(sbit,as.raw(rep(,npad))) pces <- lapply(seq(1,length(sbit),by=3),function(ii) sbit[ii:(ii+2)]) encv <- paste(sapply(pces,function(p) paste0(sapply(shfts,function(s)(subs(b64c,sand(slft(p[1],16)+slft(p[2],8)+slft(p[3],),s)))))),collapse="") if (npad > ) substr(encv,nchar(encv)-npad+1,nchar(encv)) <- paste(rep("=",npad),collapse="") return(encv) } </syntaxhighlight> ==Decode== ===Javascript=== The base64 decoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> function base64_decode (s) { var base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; // remove/ignore any characters not in the base64 characters list // or the pad character -- particularly newlines s = s.replace(new RegExp('[^'+base64chars.split("")+'=]', 'g'), ""); // replace any incoming padding with a zero pad (the 'A' character is zero) var p = (s.charAt(s.length-1) == '=' ? (s.charAt(s.length-2) == '=' ? 'AA' : 'A') : ""); var r = ""; s = s.substr(0, s.length - p.length) + p; // increment over the length of this encoded string, four characters at a time for (var c = 0; c < s.length; c += 4) { // each of these four characters represents a 6-bit index in the base64 characters list // which, when concatenated, will give the 24-bit number for the original 3 characters var n = (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c)) << 18) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+1)) << 12) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+2)) << 6) + base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c+3)); // split the 24-bit number into the original three 8-bit (ASCII) characters r += String.fromCharCode((n >>> 16) & 255, (n >>> 8) & 255, n & 255); } // remove any zero pad that was added to make this a multiple of 24 bits return r.substring(0, r.length - p.length); } </syntaxhighlight> The above implementation is best with a language like JavaScript that handles string concatenation of arbitrary length strings very efficiently. Other languages (e.g. C) will work much more efficiently by allocating memory for a new string/array of the appropriate size (the output string length is easily calculated from the input string at the very beginning) and then simply setting each character index, as opposed to concatenation. ===Java=== The base64 decoding function: <syntaxhighlight lang="java"> class Base64Decode { private final static String base64chars = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"; public static String decode(String s) { // remove/ignore any characters not in the base64 characters list // or the pad character -- particularly newlines s = s.replaceAll("[^" + base64chars + "=]", ""); // replace any incoming padding with a zero pad (the 'A' character is // zero) String p = (s.charAt(s.length() - 1) == '=' ? (s.charAt(s.length() - 2) == '=' ? "AA" : "A") : ""); String r = ""; s = s.substring(0, s.length() - p.length()) + p; // increment over the length of this encoded string, four characters // at a time for (int c = 0; c < s.length(); c += 4) { // each of these four characters represents a 6-bit index in the // base64 characters list which, when concatenated, will give the // 24-bit number for the original 3 characters int n = (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c)) << 18) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 1)) << 12) + (base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 2)) << 6) + base64chars.indexOf(s.charAt(c + 3)); // split the 24-bit number into the original three 8-bit (ASCII) // characters r += "" + (char) ((n >>> 16) & 0xFF) + (char) ((n >>> 8) & 0xFF) + (char) (n & 0xFF); } // remove any zero pad that was added to make this a multiple of 24 bits return r.substring(0, r.length() - p.length()); } } </syntaxhighlight> An alternate implementation could use Java Streams. For example, one could create a Base64DecoderStream, inheriting from FilterInputStream. ===C=== Counterpart C decoder for the encoder above. This code is also public domain. This solution has been optimized using pointer math and a look-up table. This algorithm handles multiple encoding formats: with and without line breaks, with and without whitespace, and with and without padding characters. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #define WHITESPACE 64 #define EQUALS 65 #define INVALID 66 static const unsigned char d[] = { 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,64,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,62,66,66,66,63,52,53, 54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,66,66,66,65,66,66,66, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,66,66,66,66,66,66,26,27,28, 29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66,66, 66,66,66,66,66,66 }; int base64decode (char *in, size_t inLen, unsigned char *out, size_t *outLen) { char *end = in + inLen; char iter = 0; uint32_t buf = 0; size_t len = 0; while (in < end) { unsigned char c = d[*in++]; switch (c) { case WHITESPACE: continue; /* skip whitespace */ case INVALID: return 1; /* invalid input, return error */ case EQUALS: /* pad character, end of data */ in = end; continue; default: buf = buf << 6 | c; iter++; // increment the number of iteration /* If the buffer is full, split it into bytes */ if (iter == 4) { if ((len += 3) > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 16) & 255; *(out++) = (buf >> 8) & 255; *(out++) = buf & 255; buf = 0; iter = 0; } } } if (iter == 3) { if ((len += 2) > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 10) & 255; *(out++) = (buf >> 2) & 255; } else if (iter == 2) { if (++len > *outLen) return 1; /* buffer overflow */ *(out++) = (buf >> 4) & 255; } *outLen = len; /* modify to reflect the actual output size */ return 0; } </syntaxhighlight> ===C++=== Counterpart C++ decoder for the encoder above. This code is also public domain. While a more general solution is possible by using a table similar to that in encoding, and then finding the index of the character we want in that table, and while that solution is much simpler, this version with the if-else-if ladder is faster because it does not need to run as many character comparisons to find the right character to use. The alphabet specific parts of this code are pretty much the same across most base64 alphabets however. Items that need changed to accommodate the base64url encoding are commented as such. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <string> #include <vector> // Prototype // std::vector<BYTE> base64Decode(const std::basic_string<TCHAR>& input); // This line goes in header file /* Define these if they aren't already in your environment * #define TEXT(x) Lx //Unicode * #define TCHAR wchar_t //Unicode * #define TCHAR char //Not unicode * #define TEXT(x) x //Not unicode * #define DWORD long * #define BYTE unsigned char * They are defined by default in Windows.h */ const static TCHAR padCharacter = TEXT('='); std::vector<BYTE> base64Decode(const std::basic_string<TCHAR>& input) { if (input.length() % 4) //Sanity check throw std::runtime_error("Non-Valid base64!"); size_t padding = 0; if (input.length()) { if (input[input.length()-1] == padCharacter) padding++; if (input[input.length()-2] == padCharacter) padding++; } //Setup a vector to hold the result std::vector<BYTE> decodedBytes; decodedBytes.reserve(((input.length()/4)*3) - padding); DWORD temp=0; //Holds decoded quanta std::basic_string<TCHAR>::const_iterator cursor = input.begin(); while (cursor < input.end()) { for (size_t quantumPosition = 0; quantumPosition < 4; quantumPosition++) { temp <<= 6; if (*cursor >= 0x41 && *cursor <= 0x5A) // This area will need tweaking if temp |= *cursor - 0x41; // you are using an alternate alphabet else if (*cursor >= 0x61 && *cursor <= 0x7A) temp |= *cursor - 0x47; else if (*cursor >= 0x30 && *cursor <= 0x39) temp |= *cursor + 0x04; else if (*cursor == 0x2B) temp |= 0x3E; //change to 0x2D for URL alphabet else if (*cursor == 0x2F) temp |= 0x3F; //change to 0x5F for URL alphabet else if (*cursor == padCharacter) //pad { switch( input.end() - cursor ) { case 1: //One pad character decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 16) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 8 ) & 0x000000FF); return decodedBytes; case 2: //Two pad characters decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 10) & 0x000000FF); return decodedBytes; default: throw std::runtime_error("Invalid Padding in Base 64!"); } } else throw std::runtime_error("Non-Valid Character in Base 64!"); cursor++; } decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 16) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp >> 8 ) & 0x000000FF); decodedBytes.push_back((temp ) & 0x000000FF); } return decodedBytes; } </syntaxhighlight> ===R=== <syntaxhighlight lang="rsplus"> base64decode <- function(eobj) { estr <- as.character(eobj) stopifnot(length(estr) == 1) b64c <- "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/" estr <- gsub(paste("[^",b64c,"=]"),"",estr) if (nchar(estr) == ) return("") estr <- gsub("=","A",estr,fixed=T) ebit <- charToRaw(estr); b64r <- charToRaw(b64c) pces <- lapply(seq(1,length(ebit),by=4),function(ii) ebit[ii:(ii+3)]) slft <- function(p,n) bitwShiftL(match(p,b64r)-1,n) # note the -1 sand <- function(n,s) intToUtf8(bitwAnd(bitwShiftR(n,s),xFF)) return(paste(sapply(pces,function(p){ n <- slft(p[1],18) + slft(p[2],12) + slft(p[3],6) + slft(p[4],) c(sand(n,16),sand(n,8),sand(n,)) }),collapse="")) } </syntaxhighlight> {{subject}} 15r5krued1d73betycwwktky1az7rxw 0 163134 4095597 3991435 2022-08-24T01:13:22Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typos wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} The invasion of Normandy, codenamed 'Operation Overlord', began on June 6, 1944, with the landing of airborne and amphibious troops in Normandy. The initial landing phase of this operation was the largest amphibious operation in history. The invasion culminated in Operation Cobra on July 24. == Preparation == === Early Planning === Proposals for opening up a 'second front' as early as Autumn 1942 were being considered by the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. An alternate plan, drawn up by then-Brigadier General Dwight D. Eisenhower, proposed a landing before April 1943. While this plan never came to fruition, it brought Eisenhower's organisational and diplomatic skill to the attention of senior political and military leaders in both America and Britain, leading to his rise to Supreme Allied Commander in Europe in less than two years. Planning for an invasion of occupied France began in earnest after the Casablanca and Tehran Conferences in 1943. The costly failure of the Dieppe raid in December the previous year had ruled out a direct assault on a seaport. The need for air support and proximity to the U.K. narrowed the choice of landing sites to the Pas de Calais and Normandy. While attacking Normandy would pose logistical problems, Pas de Calais was heavily defended, and the rivers and canals in the area would prevent a breakout from the beachheads. As a result, Normandy was chosen to be the landing site. In March 1943, Frederick E. Morgan, a British Lieutenant General, was appointed Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander, or COSSAC. During June and July, the COSSAC staff worked on a plan for a full-scale attack on Western Europe. This plan, named Operation Overlord, was presented to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee in mid-July and to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff later that month. This plan envisaged a landing in Normandy, the use of prefabricated Mulberry harbours, the deployment of American forces on the right and British troops on the left, an airborne operation to secure the flanks and seize strategic points and a diversionary operation in the south of France (Operation Dragoon). The plan stated that the operation was to be launched on May 1, 1944. The COSSAC's plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 but it was several months before a Supreme Allied Commander was appointed. In November, General Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander in Europe in preference to U.S. Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall. Shortly after, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery was appointed Commander in Chief of the Ground Forces and Commander of the 21st Army Group. Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the Overlord plan in December 1943. While the key features of the plan were accepted, Montgomery though that the landing would not succeed unless it was significantly expanded (the original plan called for the landing of three divisions by sea and two brigades by air; it was revised to five divisions by sea and three by air), at the expense of the invasion of southern France. The expansion also delayed the landings by little over a month. In April and May 1944, Field Marshal Montgomery presented his strategy for the invasion of Normandy. It would involve a ninety-day battle in which the Allied forces would pivot on the town of Caen. In the first forty days, a lodgement in Normandy including Caen and Cherbourg would be created. Once Normandy was secured, there would be a breakout towards Brittany and the Atlantic ports on one flank, and a an assault on Paris on the right. === Operation Fortitude === [[File:DummyShermanTank.jpg|thumb|A dummy tank used in Operation Fortitude.]] One of the most crucial elements of the Allied plan for the landings in Normandy was Operation Bodyguard, a deception plan intended to mislead the Germans as to where and when the attack would come. Bodyguard was divided into a number of components, the most important of which was Operation Fortitude, which, in turn, was divided Fortitude North and South. Fortitude North was designed to trick the Germans into thinking that an Allied invasion would come in Scandinavia, thus tying down German units there. A fictional army, the British 4th Army, was created, and headquartered in Edinburgh Castle. Double agents were used to feed information about the arrival of troops in the area to the Germans. Fortitude North also involved simulated radio traffic between nonexistent army units. However, the use of false radio traffic failed to achieve anything as the Germans were not monitoring the radio traffic. Commando attacks, designed to look like preparations for a full-scale invasion, and naval activity, increased in Scandinavia. British diplomats began negotiations with neutral Sweden to obtain concessions that would have been beneficial to an invasion of Norway, such as the right to fly reconnaissance missions in Swedish airspace. A secondary effect of diplomatic pressure on Sweden was that the export of crucial ball bearings to Germany was halted. Fortitude South was intended to convince the Germans that the invasion of France would come at Pas de Calais (this was a logical choice from a geographical standpoint: Pas de Calais is the closest part of France to England), would be executed by the 21st Army Group (which was actually part of the invasion of Normandy) and the American 1st Army Group (which did not exist, and was supposedly under the command of General George S. Patton), and would be preceded by a diversionary attack at Normandy. Fortitude South involved a massive amount of false radio traffic, increased activity around Dover (intended to look like preparations for an invasion), the placement of dummy vehicles and landing craft near Dover and a supposedly pre-invasion bombing campaign against targets near Pas de Calais. The most important part of Fortitude South was the use of double agents loyal to the Allies, including captured German agents, to feed misinformation to the Germans. One particularly important double agent was Juan Pujol Garcia, codenamed Garbo by the British. Operating the Portugal while pretending to be in the U.K., Garbo developed a network of nonexistent agents who were supposedly working for him. Even after the landings in Normandy, the Allies maintained that the main attack would come in Pas de Calais, tying up German troops which could have been used as reinforcements. === Preparations for the Landings === Two armies, the British 2nd Army and American 1st Army, were used in the Normandy landings. The British 6th Airborne Division was to be delivered by parachute and glider to the east of the River Orne to protect the left flank of the attack. The 2nd Army was also responsible for three beaches; from east to west, they were Sword, Juno and Gold. The 2nd Army included some 83 thousand troops, of which approximately a quarter were Canadian. The American 1st Army included the 101st and 82nd Airborne Divisions. The former was to be dropped Vierville-sur-Mer to support the landing at Utah Beach; the latter was initially tasked with dropping in the middle of the Cotentin Peninsula to ease access to the Peninsula and prevent the Germans from reinforcing it, but, due to the presence of German forces in the drop zone, their mission was changed to guarding the right flank of Utah Beach. Units of the 1st Army would land at Omaha Beach and Utah Beach further west. The 1st Army consisted of about 76 thousand men. The naval part of the operation, often regarded as a masterpiece of military planning, was under the command of Royal Navy Admiral Sir Betram Ramsay, who had been in charge of the evacuation of British troops from Dunkirk several years earlier, as well as the naval part of the landings in North Africa and Sicily. Almost seven thousand ships were involved, including 1200 battleships and over 4 thousand transports. The vast majority of these ships were British. Of the nearly 200 thousand naval personnel, about sixty percent were British and half that number American, with the rest coming from other countries. The warships were tasked with guarding the transports against submarines, surface ships or attacking aircraft, as well as supporting the landings with a shore bombardment. === German Preparations === Throughout 1942 and 1943, the Germans had believed that there was very little possibility of a successful Allied invasion of western Europe. While strong fortifications protected the major ports, German preparations for an invasion were otherwise limited. In late 1943, ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Gerd von Rundstedt, commander of ''Oberbefehlshaber West'' or OB West, the German Army Command in the West, seeing the buildup of Allied forces in Britain, requested reinforcements. Fresh troops were duly sent. At around the same time, ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Erwin Rommel, renowned for his successes in North Africa and regarded as one of the best commanders in the ''Wehrmacht'', arrived in northern France to inspect the Atlantic Wall, as the coastal defences of Western Europe were called. After his inspection, Rommel asked Hitler for command of the defenders of northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands. These units were formed into Army Group B and put under Rommel's command. Rommel realised that the Atlantic Wall only protected the major ports. Thus, he had bunkers and pillboxes built, steel obstacles placed the high-water marks at the beaches and low-lying areas flooded. Booby-trapped stakes (known as ''Rommelspargel'' or 'Rommel's asparagus') were set up further inland to deter or disrupt airborne landings. In addition to static fortifications, Rommel wanted to use the Panzer Group West to defend the coast. However, there was a disagreement on the use of mobile forces. While Rommel wanted to put them close to the coast to use them in a counterattack against the invaders while they were vulnerable, ''General'' Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, the commander of the Panzer Group, wanted to concentrate them in Paris use them in a massive counterattack against the main Allied beachhead. Hitler imposed a compromise: most of the armored and mechanised units would be scattered across France and the Low Countries, while Rommel was given Panzer divisions, of which only one could reach the beaches in one day. === Exercise Tiger === Allied forces rehearsed their roles in the Normandy landings for months prior to the actual invasion. Exercises began in December 1943. Exercise Tiger was a full-scale rehearsal of the attack on Utah Beach that occurred in April 1944. Thirty thousand American troops were to participate in the mock landing at Slapton Sands on the coast of Lyme Bay in southern England. Nine German E-boats sighted the convoy of eight landing ships off the coast and attacked. Two landing ships were set on fire, of which one made it back to shore, and another sank shortly after being torpedoed. The remaining ships and their escorts retaliated, and the E-boat attacks ceased. A further landing ship was damaged by friendly fire. In the attack, 638 servicemen were killed. The surviving landing ships proceeded to land on Slapton Sands. General Eisenhower had ordered that the beach be shelled with live ammunition to simulate combat conditions. There was white tape on the beach which the troops were not supposed to advance beyond until the live shelling had stopped; however, some disregarded these orders and 308 men were killed. Due to embarrassment and fear of leaks, survivors were sworn to secrecy. Ten missing officers had Bigot-level clearance, which mean that they had knowledge of the invasion plans. Fearing that they had been captured alive, the invasion was almost called off. Their bodies were later recovered. The casualty count was not released until after the Normandy landings. === Weather === The window of opportunity for a successful invasion was limited. A full moon was required, both for a spring tide and light for the aircraft pilots. Thus, there were only a few days each month on which an invasion could happen. Eisenhower selected June 5 as the date for the invasion, that is, D-Day. (While the term 'D-Day' is most often associated with the Normandy landings, as a general military term it refers to the day on which an operation is to begin.) However, on the night June 3, the weather was bad. High winds and low cloud made it unsuitable for a landing. It was forecast that the bad weather would continue for three or four days. At a meeting of senior Allied commanders, Eisenhower decided to postpone the invasion until June 6. If weather did not improve somewhat within forty-eight hours, the invasion would have to be postponed for two weeks. Not only would this have decreased the morale of the Allied troops, who were already being loaded onto the ships, the invasion would have run into what Churchill called "the worst Channel storm in forty years". Early in the morning of June 4, it was agreed at another meeting that the postponement would stand. Meanwhile, the Germans, confident that the Allies would not launch an invasion in adverse weather conditions, relaxed. Some troops stood down, and many senior officers left, some of them for wargames. Rommel was attending his wife's birthday. Late on June 4, a meeting of the senior Allied commanders was convened again. Weather forecasts indicated that on June 6, the weather would improve slightly. Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the commander of the air forces, expressed his concern that visibility would be insufficient for the air operations to proceed. However, the other commanders agreed that the operation should go ahead on June 6. At a morning conference the next day, the final decision was made. Overlord was on. === Coordination with the French Resistance === The leaders of the French Resistance, most of whom were in the U.K., organised a massive sabotage campaign to increase the chances of a successful landing. The Resistance would attack railway lines, ambush roads and destroy other buildings of tactical significance, such as telephone exchanges. The BBC regularly broadcasted short messages in French to the Resistance. While these messages were seemingly meaningless, the few significant messages, masked by hundreds of meaningless ones, either instructed the resistance to commit a certain act of sabotage or gave them information. For example "''Bercent mon coeur d'une langueur monotone''" ("soothe my heart with a monotonous languor"), the second line of Paul Verlaine's poem ''Chanson d'Automne'', notified the Resistance that the invasion was imminent. Nazi intelligence had actually discovered the meaning of "''Bercent mon coeur d'une langueur monotone''", but when military commanders in France were notified, the warning was not heeded as a false alarm had been raised in the past. == D-Day == [[File:Lci-convoy.jpg|thumb|Landing craft convoys approaching Normandy.]] === Airborne Operations === The purpose of the airborne operations just prior to the main amphibious landings was to allow the Allied troops to come ashore without being threatened by German counterattacks before they had consolidated their beachheads. The paratroopers were tasked with demolishing bridges that the enemy could use for a counterstroke against the beachheads, and with securing bridges that the Allied forces might have to pass. They would also clear landing zones for the gliders, most of which would come later carry heavy equipment such as jeeps. ==== British Operations ==== There British airborne forces comprised one division, the 6th Airborne, which in turn was composed of the 5th and 3rd Parachute Brigades. D-Day opened with a glider assault by units of the 5th Parachute Brigade against the bridge across the Caen Canal (later renamed the Pegasus Bridge) fifteen minutes after midnight. After briefly exchanging fire with a few sentries, the paratroopers were able to secure the bridge. Shortly after this, another glider assault commenced with the objective of seizing a bridge across the River Orne. Despite a navigational error by a pilot which led to one of the three gliders landing eight miles (13km) east of its intended target, the bridge was secured without further misadventure. These two bridges were the only routes by which the Germans could launch a flank attack at Sword Beach; they were also crucial for the Allied attack on Caen. The heavy cloud cover and poor navigation meant that many of the pathfinders were widely scattered; only one team was dropped correctly. Another was wiped out by RAF Avro Lancasters that had missed their target. Thus, the rest of the brigade was also scattered. The 7th Battalion managed to run into the defenders of the two previously mentioned bridges. After setting up defences, they managed to hold the bridges against a number of German counterattacks. One one occasion, the Germans deployed a tank, which was subsequently destroyed with an anti-tank weapon. On another, the ''Luftwaffe'' attempted to bomb the bridge, but the bomb failed to detonate. The 12th and 13th Battalions were tasked with capturing Las Bas de Ranville and Ranville to secure the bridgehead; despite heavy mortar and artillery fire, they completed their mission. The first unit of the 3rd Parachute Brigade to land was the 9th Battalion. Due to the wide dispersal of the paratroopers, only a quarter gathered at the drop zone when the commander, Lieutenant Colonel Otway, decided to begin the assault on their primary objective, the Merville gun battery. After breaching the defensive perimeter with Bangalore torpedoes, the battalion attacked, but the defenders, who had been alerted to the threat by the explosions, inflicted heavy casualties. Despite a fifty percent casualty rate, they managed to reach the battery and destroy it, although one of the guns was not permanently put out of action. After capturing the village of Le Plein, the battalion was unable to complete any further objectives. The 8th Parachute Battalion was tasked with destroying two bridges at Bures and another at Troarn. With the exception of a brief firefight, their day was anticlimactic, as they found that all three of the bridges that had been tasked with destroying were already demolished. The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was tasked with destroying a bridge at Robehomme and another at Varaville. They ran into no resistance on their way to Robehomme, but the sappers tasked with destroying the bridge were not present. They arrived several hours late. Another detachment of the Battalion moved towards Varaville to destroy the bridge and several other objectives, but ran into almost a hundred defenders who had fortified the town. Nevertheless, they managed to persuade the Germans to surrender with concentrated mortar fire. ==== American Operations ==== === The Landings === ==== Naval Bombardment ==== Prior to the beginning of the actual amphibious landings, there was a naval bombardment beginning at 0550, which targeted not only pillboxes, bunkers etc. on the actual beaches, but also targeted coastal batteries and areas further inland to disrupt German troop movements. Some landing craft were equipped with howitzers and rockets, among other artillery, to act as fire support in conjunction with the larget ships. After the event, the German commander Field Marshal von Rundstedt would comment that the battleships were "quickly mobile, constantly available artillery" and that they "play[ed] an important part in the battle within their range" as they prevented any movement of tanks. However, despite their immense firepower, the impact on the beaches was unimpressive; many bunkers still remained. ==== Sword Beach ==== [[File:British commandos of 1st Special Service Brigade, led by Lord Lovat, landing on 'Queen Red' sector of Sword Beach, at La Breche, on the morning of 6 June 1944. B5103.jpg|thumb|Commandos landing at Sword Beach]] The easternmost landing beach was Sword Beach, assaulted by units of the British 3rd Division (and units attached to the division) under the command of Major-General Thomas Rennie. Sword Beach stretched five miles (8km) from Ouistreham to Aubin-sur-Mer, although landings would occur on a sector 1.8 miles (3km) long between Hermanville-sur-Mer and Colleville-sur-Orne (later renamed Collevillle-Montgomery) which was divided into Queen White and Queen Red sectors. The 8th Brigade, 1st Battalion of the South Lancashire Regiment and 2nd Battalion of the East Yorkshire Regiment would form the first wave. Three battalions of the 185th Brigade, supported by the Staffordshire Yeomanry, would march on Caen, while the 9th Brigade was tasked with protecting the right flank of the beach and linking up with the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landing at Juno Beach. Finally, the 1st Special Service Brigade (i.e. commandos), commanded by Brigadier Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, would capture Ouistreham and link up with the 6th Airborne paratroopers at Bénouville. Forming the first wave were a number of tanks and demolition teams. Some of the tanks ran into the path of the landing craft carrying the demolition teams, but quick manoeuvering prevented a potential disaster, and most of the tanks reached the beach safely. The first tanks and troops ashore were immediately greeted with German fire, which was fortunately rather moderate. Ten minutes later, units of the 1st South Lancashire Regiment and 2nd East Yorkshire Regiment landed, along with a number of French commandos attached to Lord Lovat's brigade. The German defenders were suppressed without much trouble, and by 0800 the British troops had advanced beyond the beaches. In another five hours the commandos had linked up with the paratroopers on the Caen Canal and Orne. However, the troops on Sword were unable to link up with the Canadians on Juno. At 1600, German tank forces and mechanized infantry units from the 21st Panzer Division launched the only German counterattack of any significance on D-Day. After being joined by the 192nd Panzergrenadier Regiment, they managed to reach the beaches between Sword and Juno after four hours, but the division's ninety-eight panzers were stopped by anti-tank weapons, airstrikes and Allied tanks. At the end of the day, the 3rd Division had landed twenty-nine thousand troops in Normandy at a cost of about 630 casualties, but had failed to join up with the Canadians in Juno and to seize the town of Caen: they were stopped three miles short of it by German panzers. Although Sword and Juno would be joined in a few days, the capture of Caen would finally take place some six weeks behind schedule. ==== Juno Beach ==== Juno Beach spanned six miles (10km) from Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer to Courseulles-sur-Mer and was just west of Sword Beach. It was assigned to the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division and attached units, under the command of Major-General Rodney Keller. Juno was divided into two main sectors: Mike in the west and Nan in the east. The 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade would assault Mike with the Royal Winnipeg Rifles, The Canadian Scottish Regiment and the 1st Hussars. They were to then take Courseulles and move inland. Nan was assigned to the Regina Rifle Regiment of 7th Brigade, as well as the North Shore Regiment and the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada of the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade. The 8th Brigade was to capture Bernières and the western edge of Saint-Aubin. By the end of D-Day, the 3rd Division was supposed to have secured the high ground to the west of Caen, the seaside towns of Courseulles, Bernières, Saint-Aubin and Beny-sur-Mer and the Bayeux–Caen railway line. ==== Omaha Beach ==== [[File:Approaching Omaha.jpg|thumb|Soldiers preparing to land on Omaha beach.]] ==== Utah Beach ==== Behind the advanced assault of airborne soldiers came the primary invasion of three American infantry divisions, the 4th, 29th,and 1st Infantry Divisions on beaches codenamed Utah and Omaha, with two British Divisions and one Canadian on beaches marked Sword, Gold, and Juno. With the placement of infantry on mainland France, the battle of Normandy had begun. A battle that in the end would involve the liberation of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Denmark and Norway amongst others and bring the Nazi control of western Europe to an end. {{Status|50%}} {{bookcat}} b7rpo9y7cwjfqz2mzchdi2okq20xuss 0 174025 4095585 4003445 2022-08-23T23:02:52Z Innerstream 3345774 /* Synthesis of Carbon-Carbon Bond */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Pentane alternative.svg |thumb]] The science of studying carbon-containing molecules is known as organic chemistry. One of the properties of the carbon atom that makes life possible is its ability to form four [[Structural Biochemistry/Chemical Bonding/Covalent bonds|covalent bonds]] with other atoms, including other carbon atoms. This binding ability with comes from having four electrons in the carbon’s outer shell, causing it to need four additional electrons for its outer shell to be full. == Role of Carbon in organic chemistry == In living organisms, carbon atoms most commonly form [[Structural Biochemistry/Chemical Bonding/Covalent bonds|covalent bonds]] with other carbons and with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur atoms. Bonds between two carbon atoms, between carbon and oxygen, or between carbon and nitrogen can be single or double in organic compounds. Bonds of a higher order between these atoms can be found in inorganic compounds however. The combination of carbon with itself and with different elements and different types of bonds allows a vast number of organic compounds to be formed from only a few chemical elements. This is made all the more impressive because carbon bonds may occur in configurations that are linear, ring like, or highly branched. Such molecular shapes can produce molecules with a variety of functions. One last feature of carbon that is important in biochemistry is that carbon bonds are stable at the different temperatures associated with life. This property arises in part because the carbon atom is very small compared to most other atoms, and therefore the distance between carbon atoms forming carbon – carbon bonds is quite short. Shorter bonds tend to be stronger and more stable than longer bonds between two large atoms. Thus, carbon atoms are compatible with what we observe about life today, namely that living organisms can inhibit environments ranging from the earth’s icy poles to deep-sea vents. Aside from the simplest hydrocarbons, most organic molecules and macromolecules contain functional groups – group of atoms with special chemical features that are functionally important. Each type of functional group exhibits the same properties in all molecules in which it occurs. For example, the amino group (NH₂) acts like a base. At the pH found in living organisms, amino groups readily bind H^<small>+</small> to become NH₃^<small>+</small>, thereby removing H^<small>+</small>from an aqueous solution and raising the pH. ==Synthesis of Carbon-Carbon Bond== The synthesis of new carbon-carbon bonds in organic reactions is an important synthetic organic technique that leads to the production of artificial chemicals such as new drugs and plastics. In the carbonyl chemistry many synthetic techniques are based on natural processes for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds in biological systems. Some examples of organic reactions forming new carbon-carbon bonds include Aldol reactions, Claisen condensation, Diels–Alder reaction, and Michael reaction. [[File:Claisen condensation overall.svg|thumb|right|320 px|Claisen Condensation]] An Aldol reaction is a powerful technique forming new carbon-carbon bonds in organic chemistry, since it unites two simple molecules into a complex one. The reaction combines two carbonyl compounds to form a new β-hydroxy carbonyl compound. Producsts of such reactions are called aldols, known as the product of aldehyde + alcohol. A typical Aldol reaction involve the nucleophilic addition of a ketone enolate to an aldehyde. Aldol condensation takes place when the aldol product lose a water molecule to form an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound. Nucleophiles that can be employed in the aldol reaction include the enols, enolates, and enol ethers of ketones, aldehydes, and other compounds carrying the carbonyl function, whereas the electrophilic reagent is usually an aldehyde or ketone. When different nucleophile and electrophile are used, the reaction is called a crossed aldol reaction. On the other hand, a reaction in which the same nucleophile and electrophile are employed is called aldol dimerization. [[File:Typical aldol-en.svg|thumb|320 px|Typical Aldol Reaction Mechanism]] A Claisen condensation occurs between two esters or one ester and another carbonyl compound in the presence of a strong base, which results in a β-keto ester or a β-diketone. In Claisen condensation, attack of an ester enolate on a carbonyl group generates a new carbon-carbon bond. The reaction mechanism involves ester enolate formation by reacting ethyl acetate with a stoichiometric amount of reagents with ester function, nucleophilic addition of another ester molecule that furnishes a ketoester, elimination of the alkoxide group, and finally the deprotonation of ketoester followed by protonation upon aqueous work-up. The overall process is endothermic and all steps before the deprotonation of ketoester are reversible. The deprotonation of ketoester drives equilibrium, since it removes the base needed to catalyze the previous steps. To prevent transesterification, both the alkoxide and ester are usually derived from the same alcohol. [[File:Claisen condensation mech.png|thumb|right|320 px|Claisen Condensation Mechanism]] In a Diels-Alder reaction, a conjugated diene adds to a substituted alkene to yield substituted cyclohexane derivatives. Such reaction is a special case of cycloaddition reactions between pi systems; four conjugated atoms containing four pi electrons reacts with a double bond containing two pi electrons. The four-carbon component is called diene and the alkene added is called dienophile. The reaction is also called a [4+2]cycloaddition. This type of reaction can still be carried out in the absence of carbon in the newly formed ring. Diels-Alder reactions that are reversible are called the retro-Diels-Alder; for example, the decomposition reaction of the cyclic system.[[File:Diels-Alder (1,3-butadiene + ethylene) red.svg|thumb|Diels-Alder Cycloaddition Mechanism]] The Michael reaction is the nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to an alpha, beta unsaturated carbonyl compound. The stabilized anions derived from β-dicarbony compounds with α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound leads to 1,4-additions. It is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. A Michael addition is base-catalyzed and works with α,β-unsaturated ketones, aldehydes, and other carboxylic acid derivatives; they are known as Michael acceptors. A Michael donor is an electron-withdrawing group on the nucleophile such acyl and cyano. [Vollhardt] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93carbon_bond] [[File:Michael Reaction Mechanism.png|thumb|left|320 px|Michael Reaction Mechanism]] ==Isomers in organic chemistry== Organic molecules also have isomers. Isomers are molecules that contain the same number of atoms and also the same kind of atoms. However, they have different bonding arrangements. Types of isomers include constitutional (or structural) isomers, and stereoisomers. Constitutional isomers (structural isomers) are the compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in how the atom are arranged and connected. Chain isomers, positional isomers, and functional group isomers are constitutional isomers. '''Chain isomers''' Example: Pentane and 2-Methylbutane [[File:Pentane1.png]] vs. [[File:2-méthylbutane.png]] '''Positional isomers''' Example: 3-Hexanone and 2-Hexanone [[File:3-Hexanone.svg]] vs. [[File:2-Hexanone.svg]] '''Functional isomers''' Example: Ethanol and Dimethylether [[File:Isomeren.png]] Stereoisomers include conformational isomers and configurational isomers. Conformational isomers are compounds that posses the same molecular formula and atomic connectivity but differ in a rotation about a bond. In other words, conformational isomers can be interconverted by rotation about single bonds. They are not separable at room temperature. There are different kinds of conformational isomers. They are eclipsed, staggered, anti, and gauche conformations. Configurational isomers are those isomers which can only be interconverted by breaking bonds. There are two different types of configuration isomers. They are enantiomers and diastereomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images. Diastereomers are non-superimposable non-mirror images. Glucose and fructose, which both have the same chemical formula of C₆H₁₂O₆ but a different arrangement in atoms, would be a good example of constitutional/structural isomers. Enantiomers would be a good example of a type of stereoisomer. Stereoisomers are isomers that have exact same bonding between atoms, but differ in their specific spatial arrangements. For example, enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other. They can be superimposed on each other (achiral) or not (chiral), and may exhibit either R (clockwise) or S (counter-clockwise) configurations. Each mirror image of a chiral molecule expresses different properties than its counterpart. A way to determine whether a molecule is chiral or not is by looking for and identifying chiral centers. A chiral center for carbon, will have four different groups bonded to it. It must be sp3 hybridized and be tetrahedral in shape. A molecule's chiral center can also be referred to as a stereocenter. Fullerenes are organic molecules that consist only of carbon atoms. == The role of organic synthesis research in Biochemistry == Organic synthesis is the science of constructing molecules. There are two major areas of research in organic synthesis: exploratory and target oriented. Research in both fields requires innovation, imagination, and artistic creativity. Exploratory research involves the development of new organic reactions. Many researchers in this field focus on the optimization of previously known reactions. There are many factors when developing new organic reactions such as reactant, solvent, temperature, pH, etc. The main goals for any researcher in this field are to maximize yield of desired product, minimize side reactions/products, and be reliable for a broad spectrum of starting material. The advancement of the methodology aspect of organic synthesis expands the tools and techniques used by target oriented research. Target oriented research involves the development of organic molecules through a series of organic reactions. Researchers in this field use preexisting reactions and commercially available materials to synthesis desired products. “Target” molecules are either natural products or designed molecules. A linear synthesis (a linear series of reactions conducted one after another) will suffice with simple molecules. Other approaches such as convergent synthesis (independent synthesis of key intermediates) are used for complex molecular structures. Methods such as solid phase synthesis are exceptionally useful in the synthesis of proteins. “Target” molecules are biologically, medicinally, and/or theoretically interesting products. The field of bioorganic synthesis began with the synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828. Natural product synthesis has been recognized with Nobel Prize in Chemistry on several occasions. Target oriented natural products are immensely useful for medical research. Cancer inhibiting molecules have been found in several natural products including marine natural products. New reactions are constantly being developed and optimized. Many of these reactions are particularly useful in the synthesis of drugs and biomarkers. Reactions such as the palladium cross-coupling reaction, winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, have been immensely useful in the synthesis of drugs, biomarkers, and other useful molecules. The simplest Suzuki coupling reaction involves a palladium cross-coupling reaction of phenylboronic acid and bromobenzene to yield phenylbenzene. Straying away from traditional synthetic methods has brought monumental advancements in alternate molecule building techniques in the last few decades. An example of an innovative technique is solid phase synthesis, a method in which molecular building blocks are attached to a bead and the “target” molecule is obtained with a linear series of reactant solutions. There are several advantages of solid phase synthesis compared to traditional solvent-based synthesis. Some advantages are that functional groups can be easily protected and also it is easier to extract unwanted byproducts or reactants from the desired “target” molecule. Solid phase synthesis is exceptionally useful with the synthesis of peptides, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and other sequence-based molecules. “There is excitement, adventure and challenge, and there can be great art in organic synthesis” – R.B. Woodward (Nobel Prize, 1965) == Synthetic Approach to Activated Amino Acids== The use of coupling agents in peptide synthesis is way of activating the carbonyl carbon of one amino acid, thus rendering it more reactive to the adjacent amino acid's amine group. Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and various uronium salts are predominantly used as coupling agents in the field [1]. Although the use of coupling agents isn't a daunting task, constructing an intrinsically activated amino acid would circumvent the use of these reagents, saving time, money, and reaction yield. The general synthetic approach at obtaining an activated amino acid will be described herein. Reaction of a specific isocyanide with an arbitrary aldehyde yields and alpha-hydroxy indole species [2]. [[File:Indole.pdf|thumb|Indole]] Converting the hydroxy function on this species to an amino group would yield an activated amino acid. Notice that the indole function is aromatically stabilized, acts as a great leaving group, and thus activates the carbonyl carbon. It is imperative that converted amine function is protected, so that cross reaction between monomers doesn't occur. Carrying out this task isn't easy, because many chemical syntheses require extreme conditions which aren't suitable for peptide synthesis. High temperature or pH fluctuations can easily break peptide bonds, rendering the targeted peptide destroyed. Therefore, mild conditions in carrying out this displacement are sought after. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_synthesis] [Gianneschi] == Click Chemistry == The ability of generating molecular modification with high selectivity is invaluable for studies of chemical and biological systems. Click chemistry is the chemical philosophy of synthesizing molecules from a core group of highly effective reactions developed by Sharpless, Finn, and Kolb in 2001. The inspiration for the development of Click chemistry came from the idea that nature tends to produce substances from smaller subunits. The logic behind click chemistry is to bind small molecular units together to produce products with reactions that proceed rapidly in high yields under ambient conditions. These reactions are required to have a high thermodynamic driving force that is orthogonal to other functional groups that may be present in biomolecules. Click chemistry reactions are effective for labeling biomolecules. They also proceed in biological conditions with high yield. An important aspect of the reactions is that they are bioorthogonal, meaning that they don’t react with functional groups in the biological systems. Some examples of Click chemistry reactions are (a) Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition, (b) Copper-Free Azide Alkyne Cycloaddition, and (c) Staudinger Ligation shown in the schemes below. [[File:Rxns.jpg]] The major goals of Click Synthesis were to simplify the methods of how molecules are synthesized and, consequently, improve the process of identifying and synthesizing molecules with biological importance. These methods have proven to be beneficial in modern drug development; particularly useful for in situ fragment-based drug design. In situ drug development via Click chemistry has been extended to the selective generation of potent inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase and HIV-1 protease. A schematic representation of the process of inhibitor development with aid of Click chemistry is shown below. These techniques have been extremely useful in combinatorial drug development. The product of the azide-alkyne cycloaddition, triazole, is favorable in drug design because it possesses a variety of useful properties. The highly tuned properties of these reactions possessing high yields, selectivity, and ability to undergo transformation in mild (biological) environments allow the products to be directly analyzed for activity without purification (which is a significant shortcut!). Example of direct screening of click chemistry products with alpha-1,3-fucosyltransferase (fuc-T) show below. [[File:Rxn2.png]] Click chemistry designs include reactions that are opposed to the reaction with biological molecules. This is a very useful property for selectively labeling molecules to detect in biological systems. The Staudinger ligation and azide-alkyne cycloadditions have proven to be very helpful for tasks that were very challenging prior. There are is an extensive range of applications, a brief description and example schematic depictions are presented below: (1) Introduction of Unnatural Amino Acids Bearing Reactive Tags into Proteins. (2) Labeling of Viral Surfaces. (3) Incorporation of Labeled Probes onto Proteins via Post-Translational Modification. (4) Labeling of Nucleotides for Imaging DNA and RNA. (5) Derivatization of Lipid Probes. (6) Activity- Based Protein Profiling. The benefit of these methods is clear from the broad spectrum of applications in chemical biology. The scope of these reactions is quite broad and takes innovation of the researchers using these methods to maximize its potential. These methods expand to pure organic chemistry lab as well. Without constraints of biological environments, these reactions have obvious beneficial aspects with precise control of target structures. The progression of bioorthogonal chemistry (has and) continues to produce new and effect tools for the future of research. [Best] {{BookCat}} ==Wöhler's Synthesis of Urea== Wöhler's synthesis is one of the examples of synthesis in which molecules are made. Carbon compounds, organic products, in this reaction are made from inorganic salt. Pb(OCN)₂ + 2 H₂O + 2 NH₃ -----> 2 H₂N(C=O)NH₂ + Pb(OH)₂ Lead cyanate Water Ammonia Urea Lead hydroxide <ref>Vollhardt, Peter and Schore, Neil. (2009). Organic Chemistry 9th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company. {{ISBN|978-1-4292-0494-1}}. </ref> ==The effect of acid on food digestion and stomach acid== The normal human stomach has about 0.02 M of HCl per day. If there's an increase of HCl in the stomach, the pH of stomach juice would falls from 2.5 to 1.0 . HCl would mess up the normal folded shapes of protein molecules in food. As a result, the acid would destroy many digestive enzymes in the stomach. Therefore, to protect itself from the increase of such acid, the cells in the stomach must work together to prevent it from happening. First, the stomach tissues are made of protein molecules with the interior covered with layers of gastric mucosa. When stimuli such as smelling and tasting activate the cells in the gastric mucosa, the signal molecule, histamine, would make the parietal cells to hide the acid juices in the stomach. As a result, there would be an increase in the acid juices production in the stomach. In order to prevent it from happening, active ingredients such as cimetidine, famotidine, and ranitidine help to reduce the acid by obstructing the histamine from helping the parietal cells. <ref>Vollhardt, Peter and Schore, Neil. (2009). Organic Chemistry 9th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company. {{ISBN|978-1-4292-0494-1}}. </ref> == References == http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claisen_condensation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldol_reaction http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claisen_condensation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diels%E2%80%93Alder_reaction http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_reaction Vollhardt and Schore. Organic Chemistry. 6th edition. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%E2%80%93carbon_bond http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_synthesis Gianneschi, C. N., Rubinshtein, M., James, R.C., Kobayashi, Y., Yang, J., Young, J., Yanyan, J.M. Org. Lett., 2010, 12 (15), pp 3560–3563 Best, M.D. Biochemistry, 2009, 48 (6571), pp 6571–6584 78inot7dl3q46hdz1uuzg2i6jqo1dna 10 179091 4095692 3968075 2022-08-24T07:24:31Z RogueScholar 847443 Remove embedded documentation in favor of that which was placed on the documentation subpage wikitext text/x-wiki <div class="center" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto{{#if:{{{style|}}}|; {{{style}}}|;}}">{{{text|{{{content|{{{1}}}}}}}}}</div><noinclude> {{Documentation}}</noinclude> mh0oz4zocsa4ydm6rez8gnhdipipq35 0 181787 4095690 4069696 2022-08-24T06:46:00Z 138.44.176.66 /* Foundations */ wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{topNav|next=Castle Estates|prev=Domestic Area Design}} </noinclude> Castles in England have been constructed from a number of materials including stone, brick, timber, lead, iron and tin. To a large degree the choice of material for the main walls was driven by the availability of local supplies and, in later years where defensive strength was less important, fashion. The earliest castles were constructed primarily of wood, locally sourced as the transportation of felled timber over long distances was both impractical and expensive. Work on the castle construction could not usually take place in the winter or early spring as it was too difficult to work in wet conditions. Even when work could take place, the sheer size of a castle meant it would take many years to build - for example, Dover Castle took 10 years to build. ==Foundations== <u>For stone built castles the foundations would, wherever possible, been built directly onto the bedrock. The builders would dig down to the rock before leveling it to create the strongest possible foundation. The stones for the walls would be laid directly onto the bedrock. If there was no suitable bedrock or it was too deep, then a similar approach to that used today for buildings would be used. The builders would dig a deep and wide trench, then fill it with rubble that was packed down as firmly as possible to create a solid foundation. The wall stones would be built on the compacted rubble. ==Walls== Walls were generally built of stone within wooden frames designed to hold the stone in place while the mortar dried. For thick walls, the wall was usually constructed with a cavity that was filled with rubble rather than being solid stone. Where strength was not so vital, the cavity sometimes contained a staircase. Scaffolding was used as the wall grew higher. It was held in place by inserting horizontal wooden scaffold beams into '''putlog''' holes built into the wall. ==Moats== A moat is typically either a dry or water filled ditch. Most commonly it was constructed by expanding or diverting an existing watercourse. In some cases the castle would be built on a peninsula or even an island. In Guernsey, Castle Cornet goes even further and the sea performs the function of a moat. Constructing a moat from scratch was a significant effort requiring hard labour. {{BookCat}} l2piuiry1catmg342rl3wluyk9firxf 4095707 4095690 2022-08-24T08:40:48Z SHB2000 3332924 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/138.44.176.66|138.44.176.66]] ([[User talk:138.44.176.66|talk]]) to last version by Xania wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{topNav|next=Castle Estates|prev=Domestic Area Design}} </noinclude> Castles in England have been constructed from a number of materials including stone, brick, timber, lead, iron and tin. To a large degree the choice of material for the main walls was driven by the availability of local supplies and, in later years where defensive strength was less important, fashion. The earliest castles were constructed primarily of wood, locally sourced as the transportation of felled timber over long distances was both impractical and expensive. Work on the castle construction could not usually take place in the winter or early spring as it was too difficult to work in wet conditions. Even when work could take place, the sheer size of a castle meant it would take many years to build - for example, Dover Castle took 10 years to build. ==Foundations== For stone built castles the foundations would, wherever possible, been built directly onto the bedrock. The builders would dig down to the rock before leveling it to create the strongest possible foundation. The stones for the walls would be laid directly onto the bedrock. If there was no suitable bedrock or it was too deep, then a similar approach to that used today for buildings would be used. The builders would dig a deep and wide trench, then fill it with rubble that was packed down as firmly as possible to create a solid foundation. The wall stones would be built on the compacted rubble. ==Walls== Walls were generally built of stone within wooden frames designed to hold the stone in place while the mortar dried. For thick walls, the wall was usually constructed with a cavity that was filled with rubble rather than being solid stone. Where strength was not so vital, the cavity sometimes contained a staircase. Scaffolding was used as the wall grew higher. It was held in place by inserting horizontal wooden scaffold beams into '''putlog''' holes built into the wall. ==Moats== A moat is typically either a dry or water filled ditch. Most commonly it was constructed by expanding or diverting an existing watercourse. In some cases the castle would be built on a peninsula or even an island. In Guernsey, Castle Cornet goes even further and the sea performs the function of a moat. Constructing a moat from scratch was a significant effort requiring hard labour. {{BookCat}} 9cugk3vqbiiszneelk4i3j1tvebkqyk 0 190772 4095439 4086993 2022-08-23T13:31:46Z 2A02:8109:B640:2A8C:848F:1E8E:4812:708F Fix typos in section title and in line name wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Richter-Veresov Attack| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|pd|= | | | | | |nd| | |= | | | |pd| | |bl| |= | | | |pl| | | | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl|pl|= |rl| | |ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= |moves=1.d4 Nf6 2. Nc3 d5 3. Bg5 }} =Richter-Veresov Attack= ==2...Bg5?!== The Richter-Veresov Attack is not the common attack we see, white plays early bg5 while aiming at the knight on f6, preparing to damage black’s pawn structure, black’s most common response is e6 but other moves are seen as well, the attack can lead to a sharp attack and black has to play carefully. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} :'''1.d4 Nf6 2.Nc3 d5 3.Bg5''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Richter-Veresov Attack</th> <td>...<br>[[3...Nbd7|Nbd7]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">French</th> <td>...<br>[[3...Bf5|Bf5]]</td> <td>f3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...c5|c5]]</td> <td>Bxf6<br>gxf6</td> <td></td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} {{ChessStub}} bg61u7l2gd2owez31l8xw9ja3qb7a4d 4095440 4095439 2022-08-23T13:32:17Z 2A02:8109:B640:2A8C:848F:1E8E:4812:708F Uppercase for bishop move wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Richter-Veresov Attack| |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd|= |pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|pd|= | | | | | |nd| | |= | | | |pd| | |bl| |= | | | |pl| | | | |= | | |nl| | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl|pl|= |rl| | |ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|= |moves=1.d4 Nf6 2. Nc3 d5 3. Bg5 }} =Richter-Veresov Attack= ==2...Bg5?!== The Richter-Veresov Attack is not the common attack we see, white plays early Bg5 while aiming at the knight on f6, preparing to damage black’s pawn structure, black’s most common response is e6 but other moves are seen as well, the attack can lead to a sharp attack and black has to play carefully. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} :'''1.d4 Nf6 2.Nc3 d5 3.Bg5''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">Richter-Veresov Attack</th> <td>...<br>[[3...Nbd7|Nbd7]]</td> <td>Nf3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">French</th> <td>...<br>[[3...Bf5|Bf5]]</td> <td>f3<br>&nbsp;</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"></th> <td>...<br>[[3...c5|c5]]</td> <td>Bxf6<br>gxf6</td> <td></td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} {{ChessFooter}} {{ChessStub}} 4rzf2yq2moxzmscaerrdcc4huvdyzng 0 193320 4095736 2735874 2022-08-24T11:02:59Z Rich Farmbrough 9604 /* Supplements */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Marijuana Cultivation}} == Flowering == The majority of marijuana cultivators are cultivating for unpollinated female flowers and breeding purposes. Naturally most readers are highly interested in this particular phase of adult marijuana growth. The truth is that flowering is actually pretty simple. === When do I Flower? === When to flower is a decision every grower must make for themselves. During the flowering stage a plant may grow 2 - 2.5 times the size it achieved in vegetation. An indoor grower in particular will need to plan space accordingly. Up until then the grower will have been trimming and training plants but during flowering these things should be avoided if possible. Growers with limited space should take note. Whenever you want to flower your plant should be at a level of maturity where it is producing alternating nodes. If grown from seed this will usually occur a few weeks into vegetative growth. Clones taken from a mature plant will be sexually mature upon rooting and can be flowered immediately. Towards the end of flowering, plants will begin robbing nutrients from their leaves. This is perfectly normal and nothing to be alarmed about as yellowing leaves are normal. You do not need to make an effort to remove the leaves unless they are brown and dead. === Lighting and Nutrient Changes === In order to make a plant flower you will need to reduce its light cycle down to 12hrs a day. During flowering it is absolutely essential to make the dark period as dark as possible and to never interrupt that cycle with light. Light up to the level of moonlight can be present without preventing the plant from flowering but any light reduces flowering hormone and will reduce the output of your plants. Light interruptions during the flowering period causes stress on the plants and can result in stress induced hermaphrodites. To avoid this, just place a green light bulb in the room. Use ONLY the green light when working in the room during the dark cycle. The plants cannot absorb the green light and thus it is safe to use, with no risk of ruining your crop. Attempts to remove all the pollen sacks on hermaphrodites are never successful and will result in a seedy crop. The best course of action if you find a hermaphrodite is to (1) spray the affected plants with water to hold the pollen in place, (2) put a trash bag around the whole plant (use a twist tie or something at the stem to hold it in place), (3) remove it quickly. Some growers believe that it is important to begin using flowering nutrients 1-2 weeks ''before'' switching over the light for flowering. Others begin flowering nutrients when they switch the light. There may be benefits to switching nutrients early but it is certainly not a requirement. === Growth and Rough Timeline === It should be noted that this is just a general average guideline. There are wide variations from this, some strains will move faster and other much more slowly. In some cases that wait is worthwhile and in others it is not. 1-2wks - During this time your plants will be changing over to their flowering period. It is generally during this time that the first evidence of flowers will appear. 2-4wks - During this time the plants will begin to stretch for the light. Flowers will appear at all the nodes but they will be light and airy no matter what you have done. 5+ - During this period you will likely see lots of yellowing on leaves and if you have done everything else right you will see the buds fill in and thicken substantially. Last two weeks - During the last 1-2wks of your plants life you will want to water it with clean water and feed it no nutrients. Before the last 72hrs you will want to flush the grow medium thoroughly. During the last 24-48hrs you should shut off the lights (thc is light sensitive and the plants will be utilizing sugars already produced by photosynthesis during this period). Overall this will increase taste and potency by flushing the plant of fertilizers and sugars which simply don't taste good when burned. === Supplements === There are a plethora of supplements on the market and no attempt will be made here to list them all at this time but there are a few general types that most flowering supplements fall into that can be addressed here. Sugar supplements such as sweet, molasses, etc. - This type of supplement won't feed the plant directly as plants can't utilize processed sugars in this way. However sugars do nourish organisms living in the grow medium. If you are using an organic grow process or growing in soil this can be very beneficial but should be stopped during the flush period. Hormone supplements - Naturally the effects depend on the hormone but all in all these are beneficial but expensive. Plant growth hormone extracted from algae is helpful but provides far more benefit during the vegetative grow cycle than the flowering cycle. Plant flowering hormones are beneficial during flowering, largely for creating more flowering sites. Hormone supplements can be very expensive which often limits their practical utility. Taste enhancers - There are products with citrus and other flavors that claim if you feed them to plants the plants will take on some aspect of their flavor. This is generally reported to be false. Nutrient supplements - Some boosters are simply more flowering nutrient. How well they work depends on how ideal the mix you are using is already. Calcium/Magnesium Supplements - These are very useful for balancing out your nutrient mix, this underrated nutrients are important for plant growth. The use of a supplement like this is highly recommended for all phases of growth. {{Marijuana Cultivation}} 34z7mwu3h5y4ih79ls20lc2wr49rb7a 102 202490 4095618 2688050 2022-08-24T02:37:57Z Nostriker 3371989 style, format, language, links wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} In eastern North Carolina, they use thin, vinegar-based barbecue sauces called mops, which differ from the thick, rich, tomato-based sauces most Americans are familiar with. == Ingredients == * 3 each skinless bone-in [[Cookbook:Chicken#Leg|chicken thighs and drumsticks]] * [[Cookbook:Barbecue Rub|Barbecue rub]] * ½ cup apple [[Cookbook:Cider Vinegar|cider vinegar]] * ¼ cup [[Cookbook:Honey|honey]] * 2 tbsp [[Cookbook:Worcestershire Sauce|Worcestershire sauce]] * 1 cup soaked hickory chips == Procedure == #Season chicken liberally with the barbecue rub. Gently massage into meat and refrigerate for at least 1 hour. #Meanwhile, combine the vinegar, honey, and Worcestershire sauce. #Place enough charcoal briquets to fill the charcoal compartment of a large chimney starter. Wad up some oil-moistened newspaper, stick under the compartment, and light. Wait 15 minutes. #Once coals are heated, disperse evenly along the bottom of the grill. Toss in soaked hickory chunks and reapply the grate. #Grill chicken over medium low, turning often and brushing with vinegar mixture when turned, until internal temperature reaches 165°F. #Remove and let rest for 7 minutes. #While chicken is resting, boil remaining vinegar mixture on high for 5 minutes. Drizzle over chicken and serve warm. [[Category:Barbecue recipes]] [[Category:Grilled recipes]] [[Category:Vinegar recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] h7pk2zpvofbopz7475gurmmi9brrvti 0 225731 4095739 3311295 2022-08-24T11:10:49Z Rich Farmbrough 9604 /* Counting Letters */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Modules and files = == Modules == A '''module''' is a file containing Python definitions and statements intended for use in other Python programs. There are many Python modules that come with Python as part of the '''standard library'''. We have seen two of these already, the <tt>doctest</tt> module and the <tt>string</tt> module. == pydoc == You can use '''pydoc''' to search through the Python libraries installed on your system. At the '''command prompt''' type the following: and the following will appear: [[Image:illustrations/pydoc_tk.png|pydoc tk window ]] (''note'': see exercise 2 if you get an error) Click on the open browser button to launch a web browser window containing the documentation generated by <tt>pydoc</tt>: [[Image:illustrations/pydoc_firefox.png|Python: Index of Modules ]] This is a listing of all the python libraries found by Python on your system. Clicking on a module name opens a new page with documenation for that module. Clicking <tt>keyword</tt>, for example, opens the following page: [[Image:illustrations/pydoc_keyword_firefox.png|Python: module keyword ]] Documentation for most modules contains three color coded sections: * ''Classes'' in pink * ''Functions'' in orange * ''Data'' in green Classes will be discussed in later chapters, but for now we can use pydoc to see the functions and data contained within modules. The <tt>keyword</tt> module contains a single function, <tt>iskeyword</tt>, which as its name suggests is a boolean function that returns <tt>True</tt> if a string passed to it is a keyword: The data item, <tt>kwlist</tt> contains a list of all the current keywords in Python: We encourage you to use <tt>pydoc</tt> to explore the extensive libraries that come with Python. There are so many treasures to discover! == Creating modules == All we need to create a module is a text file with a <tt>.py</tt> extension on the filename: We can now use our module in both scripts and the Python shell. To do so, we must first ''import'' the module. There are two ways to do this: and: In the first example, <tt>remove_at</tt> is called just like the functions we have seen previously. In the second example the name of the module and a dot (.) are written before the function name. Notice that in either case we do not include the <tt>.py</tt> file extension when importing. Python expects the file names of Python modules to end in <tt>.py</tt>, so the file extention is not included in the '''import statement'''. The use of modules makes it possible to break up very large programs into managable sized parts, and to keep related parts together. == Namespaces == A '''namespace''' is a syntactic container which permits the same name to be used in different modules or functions (and as we will see soon, in classes and methods). Each module determines its own namespace, so we can use the same name in multiple modules without causing an identification problem. We can now import both modules and access <tt>question</tt> and <tt>answer</tt> in each: If we had used <tt>from module1 import *</tt> and <tt>from module2 import *</tt> instead, we would have a '''naming collision''' and would not be able to access <tt>question</tt> and <tt>answer</tt> from <tt>module1</tt>. Functions also have their own namespace: Running this program produces the following output: The three <tt>n</tt>'s here do not collide since they are each in a different namespace. Namespaces permit several programmers to work on the same project without having naming collisions. == Attributes and the dot operator == Variables defined inside a module are called '''attributes''' of the module. They are accessed by using the '''dot operator''' ( <tt>.</tt>). The <tt>question</tt> attribute of <tt>module1</tt> and <tt>module2</tt> are accessed using <tt>module1.question</tt> and <tt>module2.question</tt>. Modules contain functions as well as attributes, and the dot operator is used to access them in the same way. <tt>seqtools.remove_at</tt> refers to the <tt>remove_at</tt> function in the <tt>seqtools</tt> module. In Chapter 7 we introduced the <tt>find</tt> function from the <tt>string</tt> module. The <tt>string</tt> module contains many other useful functions: You should use pydoc to browse the other functions and attributes in the string module. == String and list methods == As the Python language developed, most of functions from the <tt>string</tt> module have also been added as '''methods''' of string objects. A method acts much like a function, but the syntax for calling it is a bit different: String methods are built into string objects, and they are ''invoked'' (called) by following the object with the dot operator and the method name. We will be learning how to create our own objects with their own methods in later chapters. For now we will only be using methods that come with Python's built-in objects. The dot operator can also be used to access built-in methods of list objects: <tt>append</tt> is a list method which adds the argument passed to it to the end of the list. Continuing with this example, we show several other list methods: Experiment with the list methods in this example until you feel confident that you understand how they work. == Reading and writing text files == While a program is running, its data is stored in ''random access memory'' (RAM). RAM is fast and inexpensive, but it is also '''volatile''', which means that when the program ends, or the computer shuts down, data in RAM disappears. To make data available the next time you turn on your computer and start your program, you have to write it to a '''non-volatile''' storage medium, such a hard drive, usb drive, or CD-RW. Data on non-volatile storage media is stored in named locations on the media called '''files'''. By reading and writing files, programs can save information between program runs. Working with files is a lot like working with a notebook. To use a notebook, you have to open it. When you're done, you have to close it. While the notebook is open, you can either write in it or read from it. In either case, you know where you are in the notebook. You can read the whole notebook in its natural order or you can skip around. All of this applies to files as well. To open a file, you specify its name and indicate whether you want to read or write. Opening a file creates a file object. In this example, the variable <tt>myfile</tt> refers to the new file object. The open function takes two arguments. The first is the name of the file, and the second is the '''mode'''. Mode <tt>'w'</tt> means that we are opening the file for writing. If there is no file named <tt>test.dat</tt>, it will be created. If there already is one, it will be replaced by the file we are writing. When we print the file object, we see the name of the file, the mode, and the location of the object. To put data in the file we invoke the <tt>write</tt> method on the file object: Closing the file tells the system that we are done writing and makes the file available for reading: Now we can open the file again, this time for reading, and read the contents into a string. This time, the mode argument is <tt>'r'</tt> for reading: If we try to open a file that doesn't exist, we get an error: Not surprisingly, the <tt>read</tt> method reads data from the file. With no arguments, it reads the entire contents of the file into a single string: There is no space between time and to because we did not write a space between the strings. <tt>read</tt> can also take an argument that indicates how many characters to read: If not enough characters are left in the file, <tt>read</tt> returns the remaining characters. When we get to the end of the file, <tt>read</tt> returns the empty string: The following function copies a file, reading and writing up to fifty characters at a time. The first argument is the name of the original file; the second is the name of the new [file: file:] This functions continues looping, reading 50 characters from <tt>infile</tt> and writing the same 50 characters to <tt>outfile</tt> until the end of <tt>infile</tt> is reached, at which point <tt>text</tt> is empty and the <tt>break</tt> statement is executed. == Text files == A '''text file''' is a file that contains printable characters and whitespace, organized into lines separated by newline characters. Since Python is specifically designed to process text files, it provides methods that make the job easy. To demonstrate, we'll create a text file with three lines of text separated by newlines: The <tt>readline</tt> method reads all the characters up to and including the next newline character: <tt>readlines</tt> returns all of the remaining lines as a list of strings: In this case, the output is in list format, which means that the strings appear with quotation marks and the newline character appears as the escape sequence <tt>\\012</tt>. At the end of the file, <tt>readline</tt> returns the empty string and <tt>readlines</tt> returns the empty list: The following is an example of a line-processing program. <tt>filter</tt> makes a copy of <tt>oldfile</tt>, omitting any lines that begin with <tt>#</tt>: The '''continue statement''' ends the current iteration of the loop, but continues looping. The flow of execution moves to the top of the loop, checks the condition, and proceeds accordingly. Thus, if <tt>text</tt> is the empty string, the loop exits. If the first character of <tt>text</tt> is a hash mark, the flow of execution goes to the top of the loop. Only if both conditions fail do we copy <tt>text</tt> into the new file. == Directories == Files on non-volatile storage media are organized by a set of rules known as a '''file system'''. File systems are made up of files and '''directories''', which are containers for both files and other directories. When you create a new file by opening it and writing, the new file goes in the current directory (wherever you were when you ran the program). Similarly, when you open a file for reading, Python looks for it in the current directory. If you want to open a file somewhere else, you have to specify the '''path''' to the file, which is the name of the directory (or folder) where the file is located: This example opens a file named <tt>words</tt> that resides in a directory named <tt>dict</tt>, which resides in <tt>share</tt>, which resides in <tt>usr</tt>, which resides in the top-level directory of the system, called <tt>/</tt>. It then reads in each line into a list using <tt>readlines</tt>, and prints out the first 5 elements from that list. You cannot use <tt>/</tt> as part of a filename; it is reserved as a '''delimiter''' between directory and filenames. The file <tt>/usr/share/dict/words</tt> should exist on unix based systems, and contains a list of words in alphabetical order. ==Counting letters== The <tt>ord</tt> function returns the integer representation of a character: This example explains why <tt>'Apple' &lt; 'apple'</tt> evaluates to <tt>True</tt>. The <tt>chr</tt> function is the inverse of <tt>ord</tt>. It takes an integer as an argument and returns its character representation: The following program, <tt>countletters.py</tt> counts the number of times each character occurs in the book [[./resources/ch10/alice_in_wonderland.txt|Alice in Wonderland]]_: Run this program and look at the output file it generates using a text editor. You will be asked to analyze the program in the exercises below. == The <tt>sys</tt> module and <tt>argv</tt> == The <tt>sys</tt> module contains functions and variables which provide access to the ''environment'' in which the python interpreter runs. The following example shows the values of a few of these variables on one of our systems: Starting '''Jython''' on the same machine produces different values for the same variables: The results will be different on your machine of course. The <tt>argv</tt> variable holds a list of strings read in from the '''command line''' when a Python script is run. These '''command line arguments''' can be used to pass information into a program at the same time it is invoked. Running this program from the unix command prompt demonstrates how <tt>sys.argv</tt> works: <pre>$ python demo_argv.py this and that 1 2 3 ['demo_argv.py', 'this', 'and', 'that', '1', '2', '3'] $ </pre> <tt>argv</tt> is a list of strings. Notice that the first element is the name of the program. Arguments are separated by white space, and separated into a list in the same way that <tt>string.split</tt> operates. If you want an argument with white space in it, use quotes: :: <blockquote>$ python demo_argv.py &quot;this and&quot; that &quot;1 2&quot; 3 ['demo_argv.py', 'this and', 'that', '1 2', '3'] $ </blockquote> With <tt>argv</tt> we can write useful programs that take their input directly from the command line. For example, here is a program that finds the sum of a series of numbers: In this program we use the <tt>from &lt;module&gt; import &lt;attribute&gt;</tt> style of importing, so <tt>argv</tt> is brought into the module's main namespace. We can now run the program from the command prompt like this: You are asked to write similar programs as exercises. == Glossary == == Exercises == <ol> <li><p>Complete the following:</p> <ul> <li>Start the pydoc server with the command <tt>pydoc -g</tt> at the command prompt.</li> <li>Click on the open browser button in the pydoc tk window.</li> <li>Find the <tt>calendar</tt> module and click on it.</li> <li><p>While looking at the ''Functions'' section, try out the following in a Python shell:</p> </li> <li><p>Experiment with <tt>calendar.isleap</tt>. What does it expect as an argument? What does it return as a result? What kind of a function is this?</p></li></ul> Make detailed notes about what you learned from this exercise.</li> <li><p>If you don't have <tt>Tkinter</tt> installed on your computer, then <tt>pydoc -g</tt> will return an error, since the graphics window that it opens requires <tt>Tkinter</tt>. An alternative is to start the web server directly:</p> <pre>$ pydoc -p 7464</pre> <p>This starts the pydoc web server on port 7464. Now point your web browser at:</p> <pre>http://localhost:7464</pre> <p>and you will be able to browse the Python libraries installed on your system. Use this approach to start <tt>pydoc</tt> and take a look at the <tt>math</tt> module.</p> <ol style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <li>How many functions are in the <tt>math</tt> module?</li> <li>What does <tt>math.ceil</tt> do? What about <tt>math.floor</tt>? ( ''hint:'' both <tt>floor</tt> and <tt>ceil</tt> expect floating point arguments.)</li> <li>Describe how we have been computing the same value as <tt>math.sqrt</tt> without using the <tt>math</tt> module.</li> <li>What are the two data contstants in the <tt>math</tt> module?</li></ol> Record detailed notes of your investigation in this exercise.</li> <li>Use <tt>pydoc</tt> to investigate the <tt>copy</tt> module. What does <tt>deepcopy</tt> do? In which exercises from last chapter would <tt>deepcopy</tt> have come in handy?</li> <li><p>Create a module named <tt>mymodule1.py</tt>. Add attributes <tt>myage</tt> set to your current age, and <tt>year</tt> set to the current year. Create another module named <tt>mymodule2.py</tt>. Add attributes <tt>myage</tt> set to 0, and <tt>year</tt> set to the year you were born. Now create a file named <tt>namespace_test.py</tt>. Import both of the modules above and write the following statement:</p> When you will run <tt>namespace_test.py</tt> you will see either <tt>True</tt> or <tt>False</tt> as output depending on whether or not you've already had your birthday this year.</li> <li><p>Add the following statement to <tt>mymodule1.py</tt>, <tt>mymodule2.py</tt>, and <tt>namespace_test.py</tt> from the previous exercise:</p> <p>Run <tt>namespace_test.py</tt>. What happens? Why? Now add the following to the bottom of <tt>mymodule1.py</tt>:</p> Run <tt>mymodule1.py</tt> and <tt>namespace_test.py</tt> again. In which case do you see the new print statement?</li> <li><p>In a Python shell try the following:</p> What does Tim Peter's have to say about namespaces?</li> <li>Use <tt>pydoc</tt> to find and test three other functions from the <tt>string</tt> module. Record your findings.</li> <li>Rewrite <tt>matrix_mult</tt> from the last chapter using what you have learned about list methods.</li> <li>The <tt>dir</tt> function, which we first saw in Chapter 7, prints out a list of the ''attributes'' of an object passed to it as an argument. In other words, <tt>dir</tt> returns the contents of the ''namespace'' of its argument. Use <tt>dir(str)</tt> and <tt>dir(list)</tt> to find at least three string and list methods which have not been introduced in the examples in the chapter. You should ignore anything that begins with double underscore (__) for the time being. Be sure to make detailed notes of your findings, including names of the new methods and examples of their use. ( ''hint:'' Print the docstring of a function you want to explore. For example, to find out how <tt>str.join</tt> works, <tt>print str.join.__doc__</tt>)</li> <li><p>Give the Python interpreter's response to each of the following from a continuous interpreter session:</p> <dl> <dt>a.</dt> <dd></dd> <dt>b.</dt> <dd></dd> <dt>c.</dt> <dd></dd> <dt>d.</dt> <dd></dd> <dt>e.</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <p>Be sure you understand why you get each result. Then apply what you have learned to fill in the body of the function below using the <tt>split</tt> and <tt>join</tt> methods of <tt>str</tt> objects:</p> Your solution should pass all doctests.</li> <li><p>Create a module named <tt>wordtools.py</tt> with the following at the bottom:</p> <p>Explain how this statement makes both using and testing this module convenient. What will be the value of <tt>__name__</tt> when <tt>wordtools.py</tt> is imported from another module? What will it be when it is run as a main program? In which case will the doctests run? Now add bodies to each of the following functions to make the doctests pass:</p> Save this module so you can use the tools it contains in your programs.</li> <li>[[resources/ch10/unsorted_fruits.txt|unsorted_fruits.txt]]_ contains a list of 26 fruits, each one with a name that begins with a different letter of the alphabet. Write a program named <tt>sort_fruits.py</tt> that reads in the fruits from <tt>unsorted_fruits.txt</tt> and writes them out in alphabetical order to a file named <tt>sorted_fruits.txt</tt>.</li> <li><p>Answer the following questions about <tt>countletters.py</tt>:</p> <ol style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <li><p>Explain in detail what the three lines do:</p> What is would <tt>type(text)</tt> return after these lines have been executed?</li> <li>What does the expression <tt>128 * [0]</tt> evaluate to? Read about [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII ASCII]_ in Wikipedia and explain why you think the variable, <tt>counts</tt> is assigned to <tt>128 * [0]</tt> in light of what you read.</li> <li><p>What does</p> do to <tt>counts</tt>?</li> <li>Explain the purpose of the <tt>display</tt> function. Why does it check for values <tt>10</tt>, <tt>13</tt>, and <tt>32</tt>? What is special about those values?</li> <li><p>Describe in detail what the lines</p> do. What will be in <tt>alice_counts.dat</tt> when they finish executing?</li> <li><p>Finally, explain in detail what</p> <p>does. What is the purpose of <tt>if counts[i]</tt>?</p></li></ol> </li> <li><p>Write a program named <tt>mean.py</tt> that takes a sequence of numbers on the command line and returns the mean of their values.:</p> <pre>$ python mean.py 3 4 3.5 $ python mean.py 3 4 5 4.0 $ python mean.py 11 15 94.5 22 35.625</pre> A session of your program running on the same input should produce the same output as the sample session above.</li> <li><p>Write a program named <tt>median.py</tt> that takes a sequence of numbers on the command line and returns the median of their values.:</p> <pre>$ python median.py 3 7 11 7 $ python median.py 19 85 121 85 $ python median.py 11 15 16 22 15.5</pre> A session of your program running on the same input should produce the same output as the sample session above.</li> <li><p>Modify the <tt>countletters.py</tt> program so that it takes the file to open as a command line argument. How will you handle the naming of the output file?</p></li></ol> {{BookCat}} pjtwk7nkuz7yg6nri3l0bjfvpjlmeci 0 236570 4095499 4070583 2022-08-23T18:32:19Z Atul mandia 3399968 /* The Field */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} [[wikipedia:Football|Football]] or soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world. One of the reasons is that the only equipment the sport needs is a ball, cleats, shinguard, and any markers for the goals. Bring in two teams and the game is on. Informal games can therefore be very easily set up. The game consists of two teams of 11 players. One of the players is considered a goalkeeper (goalie) and that player's objective is not to allow the ball to go into the goal. The goalkeeper is the only player who may handle the ball but only in the penalty area that (s)he is defending. The other ten field players' objective is to score by putting the ball into their opponent's goal, while trying to avoid conceding goals. They do this by dribbling, passing, and eventually shooting the ball. The field players can use any part of their body except their hands or arms. The duration of the game is 90 minutes, with a change of ends and an interval of not more than 15 minutes after 45 minutes. The referee may make allowance for time lost in each half. Once the game is over, the team that scores the most goals (the number of times the ball goes in the goal) is declared the winner. In the case of a draw, and depending on the rules of the competition, a result may be reached by extra time (of 30 minutes duration) or a penalty shoot-out. == The Field == [[File:Football pitch metric.svg|thumb|300px|A typical football field]] The field must be rectangular and either natural or artificial. The field size is directly proportional in league and international matches. Generally, the football field should be 105 x 68 meters (115 yd × 74 yd), but often each field has different dimensions. The longer sides of the field are called touch lines, while the shorter sides are called goal lines. Fields are divided into two halves with each team defending their own goal. Adjacent to the goal lines are the 18-yard and 6-yard boxes, which signify where the penalty and goalkeeper area. The 18-yard box is also known as the penalty area, from where penalty shots can be taken after a foul is committed by the defending team. == The Ball == The ball used in football is spherical, 27-28cm in circumference and 14-16 oz (410-450g) mass. The balls used in a league or international match have to be approved by FIFA. Each professional league around the world uses its own specific ball. There is some overlap, for example both the Spanish La Liga and the English Premier League use the Nike Odrem (2015). Furthermore, each World Cup offers a new and unique ball reflecting to the host country's culture. == The Players == The players are 11 on both sides of teams in a match, however substitutes are also available. There are four classes in which the 11 players are divided:- *'''Goalkeepers''': He/She has to try and stop the other team from scoring (kicking the ball into his goal). The goalkeeper is the only player who can touch the ball with his/her hands. *'''Defenders''': They try and stop the other team from scoring by protecting their goal. *'''Midfielders''': They are the players in between the defenders and strikers. They pass the ball to the strikers so they can score. Midfielders also help defenders (by defending their goal) and strikers (by trying to score themselves). *'''Strikers''' (also known as '''forwards''' or '''attackers'''): They try to score goals by kicking the ball into the other team's goal. == The Formations == Although there are 11 players on a team there are several commonly used ways to arrange them. The three most commonly used formations today are probably the 4-5-1, 4-3-3, and the 4-4-2 (note: first # is the # of defenders, the second midfielders, and third forwards) although there are some different variations of each. Two variations of a 4-4-2 are the "flat back four" and a "diamond back" or "sweeper, stopper" where the back four defenders form a diamond with the stopper ahead of the sweeper. Other less commonly used formations are the 3-6-1, 4-2-4, and the 3-5-2. Changes can be made in the formations according to the position of the game. If a team has scored only one goal, they can change formations in the closing stages of the match or they can put more players forward to score more goals when they are trailing by a goal. == The Referees == There are four referees. The centre referee has sole authority, but two assistant referees who officiate from the touchline may advise him, particularly on issues of offsides and whether the ball has left the pitch, or draw his attention to infringements that he may have missed. The fourth referee stands off the pitch in between both teams' benches and controls substitutions and keeps track of the games goals, bookings and ejections. == The Duration == A football match consists of two halves and each half is 45 minutes long. Between the two halves, there is an interval, which is not more than 15 minutes long. ''Stoppage time'' (also called ''injury time'') is the time added on at the end of each half at the discretion of the referee. The stoppage time added is roughly proportional to the length of delays in the game. These delays may be due to injuries, time lost through substitutions, general time wasting etc. Although these may seem insignificant, stoppage time can be crucial for losing teams to equalize or even win. A notable example is the 2013-14 UEFA Champions League Final between Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid. Atletico Madrid was leading 1-0 when Sergio Ramos of Real Madrid equalized in stoppage time. The game went into extra time whereby Real won 4-1 leading to their 10th European title. Another instance in point is the 1998-99 UEFA Champions League Final between Bayern Munich and Manchester United. Bayern Munich scored an early goal and controlled most of the match, until Manchester United turned things around with two goals in the 91^st and 93rd minutes of the game to win 2-1. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Brazil scored two goals against Costa Rica. Countinho scored a goal in the 91^st minute, and another by Neymar in the 97^th. Also, in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Korea scored two goals against Germany, making it the earliest exit for the defending champions since 1938. Kim Young-gwon scored in the 92^nd minute; Son Heung-min scored in the 96^th minute. If tied at the end of regular time, '''in some competitions''' the game may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, the teams proceed to penalty shoot outs (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine the winner. Note that goals scored during extra time periods are considered part of the final score of the game, unlike kicks from the penalty mark which are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next stage of the tournament. In competitions in which each round involves the two teams playing each other twice, known as ''two-legged ties'', the winner is the team with the highest aggregate score over the two matches. If this results in a draw, the ''away goals rule'' is usually applied to determine which team progresses: the goals scored by each team away from their nominated venue being compared. Should results still be equal following this calculation, the game will go into extra time. If the score is still tied after extra time, kicks from the penalty mark are usually required. Other competitions may require a tied game to be replayed, but that is a very rare rule. == Scoring == <!-- I don't know if this is a good place or not -->[[Imagoes nhein.gif|130px|right]] A goal is scored when the ball crosses the goal line entirely, between the goalposts and under the crossbar, provided the attacking side has not committed an offence. Obviously, the most common way of scoring is by kicking the ball, but the next most common way is to hit the ball with a player's head, more commonly known as 'heading the ball'. Soccer balls headed by highly skilled players can travel over 20 miles per hour. == Offside == The application of the offside law is best considered in three steps: Offside position, Offside offence, and Offside sanction. === Offside position === A player is in an '''offside position''' if "he is nearer to his opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent", unless he is in his own half of the field of play. A player level with the second last opponent is considered to be in an onside position. Note that the last two defenders can be either the goalkeeper and another defender, or two ordinary defenders. Also note that offside position is determined when the ball is touched/played by a team-mate - a player's offside position status is not then altered by subsequent runs by players of either side. It is important to note that ''being in an offside position is not an offence in itself''. === Offside offence === A player in an offside position is only committing an '''offside offence''' if, "at the moment the ball touches or is played by one of his team", the player is in the referee's opinion involved in '''active play''' by: interfering with play; interfering with an opponent; or gaining an advantage by being in that position. Determining whether a play is in "active play" can be complex. A player is not committing an offside offence if the player receives the ball directly from a throw-in, goal kick or corner kick. FIFA issued new guidelines for interpreting the offside law in 2003 and these were incorporated in law 11 in July 2005. The new wording seeks to more precisely define the three cases as follows: * Interfering with play means playing or touching the ball passed or touched by a teammate. * Interfering with an opponent means preventing an opponent from playing or being able to play the ball by clearly obstructing the opponent's line of vision or movements or making a gesture or movement which, in the opinion of the referee, deceives or distracts an opponent. * Gaining an advantage by being in an offside position means playing a ball that rebounds to him off a post or crossbar or playing a ball that rebounds to him off an opponent having been in an offside position. The referees' interpretation of these new definitions is still proving controversial till this day, largely over what movements a player in an offside position can make without being judged to be interfering with an opponent. === Offside sanction === The '''sanction''' for an offside offence is an indirect free kick to the opposing team, from where the offence occurred. === Officiating === In enforcing this law, the referee depends greatly on his assistant referee, who generally keeps in line with the second last defender in his relevant end. The assistant referees' task with regards to off-side can be difficult, as they need to keep up with attacks and counter attacks, consider which players are in an offside position when the ball is played (often from the other end of the field), and then determine whether the offside positioned players become involved in active play. The risk of false judgement is further enhanced by the foreshortening effect, which occurs when the distance between attacking player and the assistant referee is significantly different from the distance to the defending player, and the assistant referee is not directly in line with the defender. The difficulty of off-side officiating is often underestimated by spectators. Trying to judge if a player is level with an opponent at the moment the ball is kicked is not easy: if an attacker and a defender are running in opposite directions, they can be two metres apart in a tenth of a second. == Free Kicks == Free kicks are of two types: * Direct Free Kick * Indirect Free Kick Direct free kick is most probably rewarded to a team if the opponent's player touches the ball with his hands or arms (unless he is the goalkeeper within the penalty area) or fouls a player on the other team. An indirect free kick is usually awarded for an infraction of the rules, not necessarily aimed at a player of the opposing team. Direct free kicks are allowed to go into the goal with only one person touching the ball. Indirect free kicks are indicated by the referee raising his arm from the time the foul is awarded until it is first touched by a player other than the taker of the free kick. If a shot from an indirect free kick goes into the opponents' goal without having been touched by another player, no goal is scored and a goal kick is awarded to the defending team. A difficult concept for many to grasp is advantage, a player may foul another player and yet a foul may not be called if that players team does not lose the advantage. An example would be if a player was knocked down in the course of passing the ball to the team mate who scored. == Penalties == A penalty kick is the kick rewarded to a team whose opponent's player commits a foul inside its own box for which the sanction is a direct free kick. The ball is kept at a spot marked 12 yards from the centre of the goal. No player other than the penalty taker is allowed within 10 yards of the ball until it has been struck: the goalkeeper is the only other player allowed in the penalty area during this time, and he may not advance from his line until the penalty has been taken. The taker cannot touch the ball again until another player has touched it. A goal is rewarded if the ball goes in the net. == Throw-ins == If the ball leaves the field of play at the side-line, play is restarted with a throw-in (or throw-on). The thrower must have both feet on the ground, outside of the playing area, and must throw the ball from behind his head with two hands. A goal is not scored if the ball is thrown into the goal from a throw-in without it touching another player. == Goal Kick == If a member of the other team is the last person to touch the ball before it crosses the goal line or if the ball enters the goal directly from a goal-kick, throw in or indirect free kick, a member of the defending team restarts play with a kick from inside the area marked by a line 6 yards from the goal. The ball is not in play until it leaves the penalty area. == Corner Kick == If a member of the defending team is the last person to touch the ball before it crosses the goal line or if the ball enters the goal directly from a goal-kick, throw in or indirect free kick taken by the defending team, a member of the attacking team restarts play with a kick from the quarter circle at the corner of the pitch nearest to where the ball left the pitch. For more information on the basics, see [https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/3f3e15cc1ab8977b/original/datdz0pms85gbnqy4j3k-pdf.pdf FIFA Laws Of The Game] or Football Online. {{BookCat}} gt0ht5vvldeicguzh4xajym9qkikscl 4095503 4095499 2022-08-23T18:49:56Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 Introduces grammar mistakes. Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/Atul mandia|Atul mandia]]) and restored revision 4070583 by 1.53.218.132 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} [[wikipedia:Football|Football]] or soccer is one of the most popular sports in the world. One of the reasons is that the only equipment the sport needs is a ball, cleats, shinguard, and any markers for the goals. Bring in two teams and the game is on. Informal games can therefore be very easily set up. The game consists of two teams of 11 players. One of the players is considered a goalkeeper (goalie) and that player's objective is not to allow the ball to go into the goal. The goalkeeper is the only player who may handle the ball but only in the penalty area that (s)he is defending. The other ten field players' objective is to score by putting the ball into their opponent's goal, while trying to avoid conceding goals. They do this by dribbling, passing, and eventually shooting the ball. The field players can use any part of their body except their hands or arms. The duration of the game is 90 minutes, with a change of ends and an interval of not more than 15 minutes after 45 minutes. The referee may make allowance for time lost in each half. Once the game is over, the team that scores the most goals (the number of times the ball goes in the goal) is declared the winner. In the case of a draw, and depending on the rules of the competition, a result may be reached by extra time (of 30 minutes duration) or a penalty shoot-out. == The Field == [[File:Football pitch metric.svg|thumb|300px|A typical football field]] The field must be rectangular and either natural or artificial. The field size is directly proportional in league and international matches. Generally, the football field should be 105 x 68 meters (115 yd × 74 yd), but often each field has different dimensions. The longer sides of the field are called touch lines, while the shorter sides are called goal lines. Fields are divided into two halves with each team defending their own goal. Adjacent to the goal lines are the 18-yard and 6-yard boxes, which signify where the goal and goalkeeper are. The 18-yard box is also known as the penalty area, from where penalty shots can be taken after a foul is committed by the defending team. == The Ball == The ball used in football is spherical, 27-28cm in circumference and 14-16 oz (410-450g) mass. The balls used in a league or international match have to be approved by FIFA. Each professional league around the world uses its own specific ball. There is some overlap, for example both the Spanish La Liga and the English Premier League use the Nike Odrem (2015). Furthermore, each World Cup offers a new and unique ball reflecting to the host country's culture. == The Players == The players are 11 on both sides of teams in a match, however substitutes are also available. There are four classes in which the 11 players are divided:- *'''Goalkeepers''': He/She has to try and stop the other team from scoring (kicking the ball into his goal). The goalkeeper is the only player who can touch the ball with his/her hands. *'''Defenders''': They try and stop the other team from scoring by protecting their goal. *'''Midfielders''': They are the players in between the defenders and strikers. They pass the ball to the strikers so they can score. Midfielders also help defenders (by defending their goal) and strikers (by trying to score themselves). *'''Strikers''' (also known as '''forwards''' or '''attackers'''): They try to score goals by kicking the ball into the other team's goal. == The Formations == Although there are 11 players on a team there are several commonly used ways to arrange them. The three most commonly used formations today are probably the 4-5-1, 4-3-3, and the 4-4-2 (note: first # is the # of defenders, the second midfielders, and third forwards) although there are some different variations of each. Two variations of a 4-4-2 are the "flat back four" and a "diamond back" or "sweeper, stopper" where the back four defenders form a diamond with the stopper ahead of the sweeper. Other less commonly used formations are the 3-6-1, 4-2-4, and the 3-5-2. Changes can be made in the formations according to the position of the game. If a team has scored only one goal, they can change formations in the closing stages of the match or they can put more players forward to score more goals when they are trailing by a goal. == The Referees == There are four referees. The centre referee has sole authority, but two assistant referees who officiate from the touchline may advise him, particularly on issues of offsides and whether the ball has left the pitch, or draw his attention to infringements that he may have missed. The fourth referee stands off the pitch in between both teams' benches and controls substitutions and keeps track of the games goals, bookings and ejections. == The Duration == A football match consists of two halves and each half is 45 minutes long. Between the two halves, there is an interval, which is not more than 15 minutes long. ''Stoppage time'' (also called ''injury time'') is the time added on at the end of each half at the discretion of the referee. The stoppage time added is roughly proportional to the length of delays in the game. These delays may be due to injuries, time lost through substitutions, general time wasting etc. Although these may seem insignificant, stoppage time can be crucial for losing teams to equalize or even win. A notable example is the 2013-14 UEFA Champions League Final between Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid. Atletico Madrid was leading 1-0 when Sergio Ramos of Real Madrid equalized in stoppage time. The game went into extra time whereby Real won 4-1 leading to their 10th European title. Another instance in point is the 1998-99 UEFA Champions League Final between Bayern Munich and Manchester United. Bayern Munich scored an early goal and controlled most of the match, until Manchester United turned things around with two goals in the 91^st and 93rd minutes of the game to win 2-1. In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Brazil scored two goals against Costa Rica. Countinho scored a goal in the 91^st minute, and another by Neymar in the 97^th. Also, in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Korea scored two goals against Germany, making it the earliest exit for the defending champions since 1938. Kim Young-gwon scored in the 92^nd minute; Son Heung-min scored in the 96^th minute. If tied at the end of regular time, '''in some competitions''' the game may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, the teams proceed to penalty shoot outs (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine the winner. Note that goals scored during extra time periods are considered part of the final score of the game, unlike kicks from the penalty mark which are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next stage of the tournament. In competitions in which each round involves the two teams playing each other twice, known as ''two-legged ties'', the winner is the team with the highest aggregate score over the two matches. If this results in a draw, the ''away goals rule'' is usually applied to determine which team progresses: the goals scored by each team away from their nominated venue being compared. Should results still be equal following this calculation, the game will go into extra time. If the score is still tied after extra time, kicks from the penalty mark are usually required. Other competitions may require a tied game to be replayed, but that is a very rare rule. == Scoring == <!-- I don't know if this is a good place or not -->[[Imagoes nhein.gif|130px|right]] A goal is scored when the ball crosses the goal line entirely, between the goalposts and under the crossbar, provided the attacking side has not committed an offence. Obviously, the most common way of scoring is by kicking the ball, but the next most common way is to hit the ball with a player's head, more commonly known as 'heading the ball'. Soccer balls headed by highly skilled players can travel over 20 miles per hour. == Offside == The application of the offside law is best considered in three steps: Offside position, Offside offence, and Offside sanction. === Offside position === A player is in an '''offside position''' if "he is nearer to his opponents' goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent", unless he is in his own half of the field of play. A player level with the second last opponent is considered to be in an onside position. Note that the last two defenders can be either the goalkeeper and another defender, or two ordinary defenders. Also note that offside position is determined when the ball is touched/played by a team-mate - a player's offside position status is not then altered by subsequent runs by players of either side. It is important to note that ''being in an offside position is not an offence in itself''. === Offside offence === A player in an offside position is only committing an '''offside offence''' if, "at the moment the ball touches or is played by one of his team", the player is in the referee's opinion involved in '''active play''' by: interfering with play; interfering with an opponent; or gaining an advantage by being in that position. Determining whether a play is in "active play" can be complex. A player is not committing an offside offence if the player receives the ball directly from a throw-in, goal kick or corner kick. FIFA issued new guidelines for interpreting the offside law in 2003 and these were incorporated in law 11 in July 2005. The new wording seeks to more precisely define the three cases as follows: * Interfering with play means playing or touching the ball passed or touched by a teammate. * Interfering with an opponent means preventing an opponent from playing or being able to play the ball by clearly obstructing the opponent's line of vision or movements or making a gesture or movement which, in the opinion of the referee, deceives or distracts an opponent. * Gaining an advantage by being in an offside position means playing a ball that rebounds to him off a post or crossbar or playing a ball that rebounds to him off an opponent having been in an offside position. The referees' interpretation of these new definitions is still proving controversial till this day, largely over what movements a player in an offside position can make without being judged to be interfering with an opponent. === Offside sanction === The '''sanction''' for an offside offence is an indirect free kick to the opposing team, from where the offence occurred. === Officiating === In enforcing this law, the referee depends greatly on his assistant referee, who generally keeps in line with the second last defender in his relevant end. The assistant referees' task with regards to off-side can be difficult, as they need to keep up with attacks and counter attacks, consider which players are in an offside position when the ball is played (often from the other end of the field), and then determine whether the offside positioned players become involved in active play. The risk of false judgement is further enhanced by the foreshortening effect, which occurs when the distance between attacking player and the assistant referee is significantly different from the distance to the defending player, and the assistant referee is not directly in line with the defender. The difficulty of off-side officiating is often underestimated by spectators. Trying to judge if a player is level with an opponent at the moment the ball is kicked is not easy: if an attacker and a defender are running in opposite directions, they can be two metres apart in a tenth of a second. == Free Kicks == Free kicks are of two types: * Direct Free Kick * Indirect Free Kick Direct free kick is most probably rewarded to a team if the opponent's player touches the ball with his hands or arms (unless he is the goalkeeper within the penalty area) or fouls a player on the other team. An indirect free kick is usually awarded for an infraction of the rules, not necessarily aimed at a player of the opposing team. Direct free kicks are allowed to go into the goal with only one person touching the ball. Indirect free kicks are indicated by the referee raising his arm from the time the foul is awarded until it is first touched by a player other than the taker of the free kick. If a shot from an indirect free kick goes into the opponents' goal without having been touched by another player, no goal is scored and a goal kick is awarded to the defending team. A difficult concept for many to grasp is advantage, a player may foul another player and yet a foul may not be called if that players team does not lose the advantage. An example would be if a player was knocked down in the course of passing the ball to the team mate who scored. == Penalties == A penalty kick is the kick rewarded to a team whose opponent's player commits a foul inside its own box for which the sanction is a direct free kick. The ball is kept at a spot marked 12 yards from the centre of the goal. No player other than the penalty taker is allowed within 10 yards of the ball until it has been struck: the goalkeeper is the only other player allowed in the penalty area during this time, and he may not advance from his line until the penalty has been taken. The taker cannot touch the ball again until another player has touched it. A goal is rewarded if the ball goes in the net. == Throw-ins == If the ball leaves the field of play at the side-line, play is restarted with a throw-in (or throw-on). The thrower must have both feet on the ground, outside of the playing area, and must throw the ball from behind his head with two hands. A goal is not scored if the ball is thrown into the goal from a throw-in without it touching another player. == Goal Kick == If a member of the other team is the last person to touch the ball before it crosses the goal line or if the ball enters the goal directly from a goal-kick, throw in or indirect free kick, a member of the defending team restarts play with a kick from inside the area marked by a line 6 yards from the goal. The ball is not in play until it leaves the penalty area. == Corner Kick == If a member of the defending team is the last person to touch the ball before it crosses the goal line or if the ball enters the goal directly from a goal-kick, throw in or indirect free kick taken by the defending team, a member of the attacking team restarts play with a kick from the quarter circle at the corner of the pitch nearest to where the ball left the pitch. For more information on the basics, see [https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/3f3e15cc1ab8977b/original/datdz0pms85gbnqy4j3k-pdf.pdf FIFA Laws Of The Game] or Football Online. {{BookCat}} 2uqp7r1fcis7jtjse85eaafy9melv4y 2 255152 4095626 4094617 2022-08-24T05:13:22Z Benrattray 374685 Replaced content with "<references/>" wikitext text/x-wiki <references/> e0our8yucegye73tf8f5vc194akuuza 4095627 4095626 2022-08-24T05:16:41Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki its like a '''word''' document<references/> avbh5h5oa18be1ia1w7w27hhw1dkgny 4095628 4095627 2022-08-24T05:17:53Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki PLEASE write a reference of the article you are critiquing at the top of the page. == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code <references /> (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}})<references/> 6w75fm04jy0nii8ankw7t6d0vxrc7c2 4095630 4095628 2022-08-24T05:24:27Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki PLEASE write a reference of the article you are critiquing at the top of the page. == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about,<ref name=":0">Smith (2020). Some title for the article. Journal of journal name. 23(3): 234.</ref> * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study?<ref name=":0" /> * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}})<references/> ttuvgcpeg590cyazkr98qh3rhstq1yo 4095632 4095630 2022-08-24T05:32:46Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki PLEASE write a reference of the article you are critiquing at the top of the page. == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about,<ref name=":0">Smith (2020). Some title for the article. Journal of journal name. 23(3): 234.</ref> * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study?<ref name=":0" /> * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * [[File:3D medical animation still of Type One Diabetes.jpg|thumb]]What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}})<references/> 0ph6h1a6ikfm0zk1nd7moxf7smqbbtg 0 255153 4095639 4095402 2022-08-24T05:42:13Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} h7j6l4d70ftmpye6k4w3bk055cc4ccx 4095643 4095639 2022-08-24T05:46:23Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} 8spkxfc7y4t439ccnuupcg0a5c049ok 4095651 4095643 2022-08-24T05:52:07Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Association of physical activity levels and the prevalence of COVID-19 associated hospitalization/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} 9rmn3fuvyw1dqfmr2t0fl95s4mgutdb 4095656 4095651 2022-08-24T05:57:20Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] * [[/Daily physical activity and exercise as it relates to COPD/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Association of physical activity levels and the prevalence of COVID-19 associated hospitalization/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} 7v2cokhb1pcrg051st0uto16r8a7yql 4095661 4095656 2022-08-24T06:01:30Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on bone turnover in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] * [[/Daily physical activity and exercise as it relates to COPD/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Association of physical activity levels and the prevalence of COVID-19 associated hospitalization/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} jtxlsbgv00975j56rw36mvbt8winzvv 4095662 4095661 2022-08-24T06:02:36Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on bone turnover in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] * [[/Daily physical activity and exercise as it relates to COPD/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Impact of a long term exercise intervention on participants with type 2 diabetes/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Association of physical activity levels and the prevalence of COVID-19 associated hospitalization/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} rhdocfiw7txdkk4j4fue7yrg77hjh4c 4095677 4095662 2022-08-24T06:08:57Z Benrattray 374685 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOEDITSECTION__ Exercise in disease is a resource where implications for exercise as they relate to different chronic diseases, and their treatments are explored. The wikis are created by students, as part of a University assignment, and should not be taken as medical advice. <!-- ' STOP - READ THIS BEFORE ADDING A NEW LINK TO THIS PAGE - STOP Students: Your pages must comply with the Wikibooks naming policy, otherwise they will be removed. Please ensure that when creating a new page/link here, it is in this format: [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] and NOT just [[Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy]]. Thanks! - Wikibooks Administrators --> 2022 Wiki pages are due to be completed in September. In the interim students will be drafting these article critiques. == 2022 Article Critiques == * [[/Exemplar template/]] === Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population] === * [[/Is the use of wearable technological devices a valid strategy to increase physical activity in Preschoolers?/]] * [[/What are the most effective exercise recommendations for promoting physical activity among postpartum mothers?/]] * [[/The use of pedometers to enhance physical activity with COPD patients/]] === Cardiovascular health === * [[/The effect of resistance training on cardiovascular function in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease/]] * [[/What type of stress causes the increased risk of episodes occurring in Long QT syndrome/]] * [[/Can strength training help improve cardiovascular function?/]] === Musculoskeletal health === * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training in patients living with psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on older adults to reduce the risk of falling/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on bone turnover in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors/]] === Brain health === * [[/The impact of resistance training on balance and gait in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Response to vigorous exercise in a PTSD diagnosed military and first responder population/]] * [[/The importance of physical activity in improving mental health outcomes in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for anxiety symptoms/]] * [[/Physical activity patterns of people affected by depressive and anxiety disorders/]] * [[/Post-Concussion Syndrome; prescribing exercise to reduce symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty/]] * [[/The effect of Tai Chi on postural stability in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise to help slow the process of cognitive impairment in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Does playing the Wii Fit video game assist the balance of children with Cerebral Palsy?/]] * [[/Prevalence of anxiety and depression for team sport athletes in comparison to individual sport athlete/]] * [[/Does Pilates improve walking and balance in people with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/How non-contact boxing affects functional mobility in people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/Effects of a swim program for children with Autism/]] * [[/Cognitive effect of aerobic exercise in older adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/An exercise intervention for improving mental health/]] === Respiratory health === * [[/The importance of aerobic fitness in patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise and diet as an intervention for non-obese asthma patients/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in older adults with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis/]] * [[/Yoga’s effect on asthmatic university students/]] * [[/Daily physical activity and exercise as it relates to COPD/]] === Metabolic health === * [[/Steps in the right direction for improved metabolic health in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Diabetes and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Impact of a long term exercise intervention on participants with type 2 diabetes/]] === Cancer-related health === * [[/Effects of chemotherapy on oxidative stress and exercise tolerance/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients/]] * [[/Inflammation effects following exercise in chemotherapy patients/]] === Other === * [[/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise/]] * [[/Exercising during pregnancy: Comparing attitudes between Australian and Chinese pregnant women/]] * [[/The effects that physical activity has on chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Association of physical activity levels and the prevalence of COVID-19 associated hospitalization/]] ==2021 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Are there health benefits for dog owners?/]] * [[/Motivating physical activity in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The role of psychological predictors and physical activity apps in promoting physical activity during the Covid-19 lockdown in Australia /]] * [[/The effects of cancer at the end of the acute treatment phase has on motor performance/]] * [[/What is the contribution of sport to Australians overall health-enhancing physical activity?/]] * [[/Pokèmon GO as an intervention to increase physical activity in young adults/]] * [[/Barriers that prevent people with epilepsy from exercising/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions and high school female students/]] * [[/Sports participation and health-related behaviours among US youth/]] * [[/Exercise motivation in young adult females/]] * [[/Promoting exercise with cognitive behavioural strategies in people with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/The importance of mental health and well-being among top-performing male and female footballers/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Does high-intensity exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise method effects on glycemic control, physical fitness and micro/macro vascular function in elderly type 2 diabetic patients/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/How physical activity affect mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is HIIT training an effective intervention for blood pressure and central obesity? A comparison of males and females/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on physical disability in chronic heart failure/]] * [[/High-intensity resistance training to improve cardiovascular health in individuals with type 2 diabetes/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Lowering the odds of sarcopenia through physical activity in older adults?/]] * [[/Does strengthening exercises improve hand strength and functionality in rheumatoid arthritis patients?/]] * [[/The effect of lumbar stabilization and walking exercises on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/Improving mobility in older people through exercise/]] * [[/Effect of a low-impact exercise program on bone mineral density in Crohn’s Disease/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on bone mineral density in female adolescents/]] * [[/The effect of the GLA:D program on individuals with hip or knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/The efficacy of cross-sectional lumbar strengthening in spinal stabilization for pain reduction and disability in patients with degenerative disc disease/]] * [[/Nintendo Wii training as a method for improving postural balance and lower body strength in community-dwelling older adults/]] * [[/Importance of physical activity and skeletal muscle fat infiltration in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of high-intensity resistance and impact training on women with Osteopenia and Osteoporosis/]] * [[/What are the adaptations of strength training with blood flow restriction in women with osteoporosis?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise have an impact on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis management?/]] * [[/Effects of swimming and cycling for people with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training improve muscle strength and pain intensity in Fibromyalgia?/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on hip osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Can resistance training improve muscle strength, mobility and balance in older people with hip fracture?/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity resistance exercise on patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Effectiveness of Tai Chi on non motor symptoms of Parkinsons disease/]] * [[/The effects of swimming on pain and function in patients with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves physical fatigue in women with fibromyalgia/]] * [[/How physical activity affects the symptoms of depression in young adults/]] * [[/Aerobic home-based exercise program and its impact on Parkinson's symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of a Hatha Yoga program on a small group of Alzheimer's patients/]] * [[/Can cognitive and leisure activities reduce the risk of dementia in the elderly?/]] * [[/The language and cognitive benefits of exercise for those with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on young adults mental health/]] * [[/Does the pattern of team sport participation from adolescence to young adulthood positively impact mental health?/]] * [[/The effects of community-based exercise interventions in people with Alzheimer’s Disease/]] * [[/Exercise and the mind: the psychological benefits of exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cerebrovascular health and episodic migraines/]] * [[/Swimming training as a physical intervention for children with ADHD/]] * [[/Improving behavior and cognitive functions in children with ADHD with a physical activity program/]] * [[/Resistance training as a treatment for anxiety symptoms in young adults/]] * [[/The association between physical activity and depression in adolescents/]] * [[/Physical activities role in mental health among twins/]] * [[/Does hand-based resistance training improve handwriting ability in patients with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an alternative treatment for PTSD?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training in improving motor performance and corticomotor excitability in people with early Parkinson’s/]] * [[/Exercise participation and its effects on mental health and quality of life in overweight individuals/]] * [[/How effective is collective exercise on the mental health of elderly hypertensive patients?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on older military veterans With PTSD/]] * [[/Can physical activity and decreased sedentary behaviours reduce associated symptoms of ADHD?/]] * [[/Does physical activity improve mental wellbeing and reduced symptoms of mental disorders in adolescents?/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Effects of exercise on pulmonary arterial hypertension/]] * [[/Effects of swimming on children with asthma/]] * [[/Does combined aerobic strength training have a greater impact in COPD patients than fitness education programs?/]] * [[/HIIT - a new method for improving exercise capacity in adults with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on inactive adults with asthma/]] * [[/Do specifically targeted exercise programs improve the symptoms of asthma in children?/]] * [[/Benefits of nasal breathing compared to oral breathing in regards to exercise-induced Asthma/]] * [[/How swimming helps children with asthma and other illnesses/]] * [[/Physical activity and application of breathe technique during exercise effect on young children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to vigorous physical activity on the risk of upper respiratory tract infections/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Does being physically active lower the risk of diabetes in adolescents?/]] * [[/Exercise prescription post hospitalization for minor diabetes-related amputations to avoid re-amputation/]] * [[/Is regular aerobic exercise alone effective for weight loss in sedentary adults?/]] * [[/High-intensity interval training as an intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects it has on preventing metabolic syndrome in morbid obesity/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High-intensity exercise through chemotherapy for breast cancer, is it worth it?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of high-intensity training following lung cancer surgery/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on breast cancer patients/]] ===Other=== * [[/Is physical activity during pregnancy influential on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes?/]] * [[/The integration of Yoga to treatment plans of eating disorders/]] * [[/Does recreational physical activity during pregnancy reduce the risk of preeclampsia?/]] * [[/Investigating the effects of Resistance Training on Crohn's disease clients regarding the prevention of early mortality/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise during pregnancy on infant neuromotor skills/]] * [[/Physical activity and renal function decline in patients with kidney disease/]] * [[/Can exercise help stop the chance of catching Covid-19?/]] * [[/Impact of an exercise intervention on wellbeing in older adults/]] * [[/Table Tennis as a physiological intervention for elderly males/]] * [[/Decreasing the risk of perinatal depression through a physical exercise program during pregnancy/]] * [[/The significance of exercise in reducing postpartum chronic disease/]] == 2020 Article Critiques == ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Exploring strategies that influence children's physical activity self-efficacy/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity in commercial truck drivers/]] * [[/Do adolescents understand the impact of PA on mental health?/]] * [[/Do focus groups work to improve physical activity engagement in cognitive impairment?/]] * [[/Finding the motivation to exercise/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity and reducing sedentary time in children with developmental disabilities/]] * [[/Does being happy lead to a more active lifestyle?/]] * [[/Does access to outdoor gyms increase physical activity levels in low socioeconomic areas?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity and nutrition program on retirement villages/]] * [[/Determinants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children/]] * [[/The effect of disability on physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity intervention for people living with HIV and AIDS of low socioeconomic status/]] * [[/Do walking strategies to increase activity reduce reported sitting in workplaces?/]] * [[/Physical activity involvement in lower limb amputee populations/]] * [[/Adaptive physical activity intervention for overweight adults/]] * [[/Effectiveness of physical fitness through virtual reality in individuals with intellectual and developmental disability/]] * [[/Physical activity trends in an older population post-stroke/]] * [[/Transtheoretical model intervention vs standard therapy in increasing physical activity in sufferers of chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The effects of exercise programing on adolescents and children with visual impairments/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effectiveness of eccentric strength exercise in individuals after a stroke/]] * [[/Changes in Pulmonary Exercise Haemodynamics in Scleroderma/]] * [[/Exercise and respiratory training on patients with chronic pulmonary hypertension/]] * [[/Children’s overall fitness in relation to their exercise behaviour and body composition/]] * [[/Age-related effectiveness of endurance training as it relates to diastolic function in systolic heart failure patients/]] * [[/Does aerobic and resistance exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in women with early-stage breast cancer?/]] * [[/Effects of school-based physical activity on cardiovascular disease risk factors in children/]] * [[/Enhancing aerobic and anaerobic fitness in asthmatic children/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/The reliability of HIIT as a worthwhile accessory to standard cardiac rehabilitation/]] * [[/Which type of exercise modality best enhances quality of life and return to health in patients post myocardial infarction?/]] * [[/Exercise for chronic heart failure patients, Continuous vs Intermittent/]] * [[/Effects of upper body strength training, dynamic training and advice to train at home on peripheral arterial disease/]] * [[/Exercise and it’s ability to prevent cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Interventions to improve cardiovascular health in primary school children/]] * [[/Association between video games and blood pressure and lipids in overweight and obese adolescents/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of scoliosis specific exercise (SEAs) on Adult Idiopathic Scoliosis?/]] * [[/Can physical activity delay the onset of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women?/]] * [[/Pilates and Yoga group exercises to relieve neck pain/]] * [[/Can physical activity slow the development of sarcopenia as we age?/]] * [[/Can home-based exercises help reduce knee pain?/]] * [[/Can strength training preserve bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/How knee osteoarthritis in older adults can be improved from home/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on children with spinal muscular atrophy/]] * [[/How resistance training can help with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Treating osteosarcopenia through high-intensity resistance training. Is it the Holy Grail of treatment options?/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for arthritis sufferers/]] * [[/Resistance and agility training to reduce falls risk in women aged 75 to 85 with low bone mass/]] * [[/Pilates based intervention for post-menopausal women living with osteoporosis/]] * [[/Physical activity levels in men and women arthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training help with rheumatoid arthritis?/]] * [[/Effects of short-term physical training on rheumatoid arthritis sufferers/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Is HARP an effective intervention for individuals with serious mental illnesses?/]] * [[/Effect of resistance versus balance training on postural control in Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Does exercise benefit patients with early to mid-stage Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/Physical activities impact on depression/]] * [[/How aerobic activity affects anxiety sensitivity/]] * [[/Resistance training and depression: does intensity matter?/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise versus mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety/]] * [[/Can physical function and mental health of brain cancer survivors be improved by exercise?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on major outcomes associated with Alzheimer's dementia/]] * [[/How vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with an increase in mental health/]] * [[/The impact of progressive resistance exercise on symptoms of Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise as a therapy in the management in fibromyalgia symptoms/]] * [[/Childhood Activity for lifelong mental health/]] * [[/Can lowering inflammation through exercise be used as an effective treatment for depression?/]] * [[/Does aerobic exercise improve quality of life in people with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Group exercise treatment for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Does aquatic exercise effect fatigue and quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects exercise has on individuals diagnosed with chronic primary insomnia/]] * [[/Does balance training and high intensity resistance training benefit people with idiopathic Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on mental health outcomes of pre- and early-school-aged children/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve cognitive and motor function in patients with Dementia?/]] * [[/The effect of acute physical activity on executive functions in children with ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise as relief of stress-related fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Physical activity treatment in multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The impact of intensive exercise on depression in young males/]] * [[/Affecting cognition and quality of life via aerobic exercise in Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on preventing Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Relationship between physical fitness, BMI and cognitive function in school children/]] * [[/Health benefits of sport and exercise on PTSD survivors/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Improving executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder through mixed martial arts/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on functional capacity in older individuals with Parkinson's/]] * [[/The impact of hiking on high-risk suicide patients/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Correlation amongst physical activity and lung health in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on upper respiratory tract infections on subjects that are sedentary/]] * [[/Effects of physical training on land and in water on cardiorespiratory adaptation in COPD patients/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The effect of different modes of training on glycaemic control?/]] * [[/Short-term high-intensity interval training on body composition in overweight and obese young women/]] * [[/Effects of diet and exercise intervention for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Can exercise help children with type 1 diabetes gain control of their overnight glycemic levels?/]] * [[/A former career as a male elite athlete - does it protect against type 2 diabetes later in life?/]] * [[/The importance of exercise in treating diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise in overweight chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/The relationship metabolic syndrome has with physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness/]] * [[/The effects of HIIT on aerobic fitness, cardiac function and insulin resistance in healthy older adults/]] * [[/Which is more effective in reducing type 2 diabetes in women; walking or vigorous-intensity activity?/]] * [[/Intensity of exercise in men for optimal fat oxidation/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults/]] * [[/Exercise and its essential role in long-term health – How 30 minutes of walking every day is the perfect ‘first step’ to improve health outcomes of individuals with type II diabetes/]] * [[/Is high-intensity interval exercise preferential for people with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Video games leading to obesity among youths/]] * [[/Adherence to physical activity in young people with Type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The effect of high-intensity progressive resistance training on adiposity in children/]] * [[/The effects of functional exercise in older adults with diabetes/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/Physical activity intervention for middle age women living with metastatic breast cancer/]] * [[/Exercise program intervention for children with leukaemia/]] * [[/Strength and endurance training in the treatment of advanced lung cancer/]] * [[/Long-term follow-up after cancer rehabilitation using high-intensity resistance training: persistent improvement of physical performance and quality of life/]] * [[/Reviewing the cardiac and stress response to high intensity interval training on breast cancer survivors/]] * [[/Endometrial cancer survivors and its association with exercise, body weight and quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activities effect on the development of lung cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/The effect of chronic fatigue on a women’s capacity to exercise/]] * [[/Maximal strength training used to target strength, balance and walking, in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Endometriosis and Exercise: Could exercise be the key to improving pelvic pain and posture?/]] * [[/Can physical activity improve health-related quality of life in residential aged care?/]] * [[/Reducing functional decline in very-elderly hospital patients through exercise prescription/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on quality of life of inflammatory bowel disease patients/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for drug addiction/]] * [[/Can exercise during pregnancy reduce the risk of a miscarriage?/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity and weight gain in obese pregnant women/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on patients with Lupus/]] * [[/The effects of vitamin D deficiency in athletes/]] * [[/Does increase in intensity and frequency of physical activity reduce fear of falls in older adults?/]] * [[/Adolescents at risk of endometriosis - Does physical activity reduce the risk?/]] * [[/Effects from a supervised exercise intervention for depressed female smokers/]] * [[/Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults/]] * [[/Menstrual cycle disruptions in response to strenuous exercise training/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on women experiencing post-partum depression/]] ==2019 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/The power of re-establishing cultural identity when promoting health in Indigenous communities/]] * [[/The tools for fun in school/]] * [[/Is Pokemon Go-ing to increase exercise?/]] * [[/Quantifying occupational physical activity manual labour vs office workers/]] * [[/Workplace revolution; method to engage adults in physical activity during their working hours/]] * [[/Does the structure of the school day impact children's levels of physical activity outside of school?/]] * [[/The effect of Body dissatisfaction on exercise avoidance/]] * [[/Can 'finding our center' help to reduce the size of our center?/]] * [[/Classroom-based Physical Activity: The impact of teacher-directed exercise in elementary school children/]] * [[/Does playing active video games increase energy expenditure in children?/]] * [[/How detrimental can office work be on health and wellbeing?/]] * [[/A comparison of efficient treatments regarding workplace sitting time and its impact/]] * [[/Measuring physical activity in obese prolonged sedentary older adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Effects of aerobic endurance and strength training in obese adults/]] * [[/How childhood motor skills lead to an active life/]] * [[/The impact of reducing sitting time in college students on cardiometabolic health/]] * [[/The relation of cardiovascular health to fitness and physical activity in children and adults/]] * [[/The effects of high vs moderate-intensity exercise on coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic and nutritional intervention in overweight, obese and hypertensive adults/]] * [[/The effects of interval training on cardiovascular health in adults with coronary heart disease/]] * [[/Cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations through different training intensities within middle-aged men and the considerations associated with cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Is walking an effective exercise intervention in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in elderly women?/]] * [[/The relationship between physical activity and coronary heart disease in men/]] * [[/The importance of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for coronary heart disease/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Home based exercise to improve quality of life in elderly women with osteoporosis-related vertebral fractures/]] * [[/The effect of implementing a resistance training program to improve strength and mobility in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Implications of physical activity for women with Ehlers Danlos syndrome hypermobility type/]] * [[/Obesity and the rise in the incidence of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Physical training on Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Effects of physical therapy on the management of pain and symptoms associated with Sciatica/]] * [[/Aerobic and resistance exercise improves physical fitness in older adults with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/ Effects of aerobic exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training and how it affects the pain and function among adults with osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Does resistance training impact bone mineral density in postmenopausal women?/]] * [[/The impact of resistance training on young people with cerebral palsy/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Can Exercise Really Help Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effects of lingual exercise in stroke patients with Dysphagia/]] * [[/The better Ageing Project and sustaining mental well-being of elderly people through physical activity/]] * [[/Does the context of physical activity have an effect on mental health in early adulthood?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise behaviour and mental health/]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory fitness and depression among Middle School Adolescents/]] * [[/Can exercise training improve the quality of life for individuals living with schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson Disease: Comparing tango, treadmill, and stretching/]] * [[/Is exercise making children smarter?/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity Improve Walking Efficiency For Elderly Dementia Patients?/]] * [[/Parkinson's Disease: Finding Rhythm in Your Step/]] * [[/Can exercise trans-form the mental health of gender variant people?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on neuroplasticity for spinal cord injuries/]] * [[/Exercise and postnatal depression and fatigue, how affective can it be?/]] * [[/Can Table Tennis improve motor skills and executive functions in children with ADHD?/]] * [[/Aerobic training's effect on cognitive performance in elderly individuals with dementia/]] * [[/Cognitive impact of resistance training on the elderly/]] * [[/Effect of Hippotherapy on functionality in children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of coordination training on cerebellar disease/]] * [[/PTSD: moving forward with exercise/]] * [[/Effect of strength training in clients with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/The hidden benefits of team sport in youth self-esteem/]] * [[/The effect of pilates training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity on epilepsy outpatients/]] * [[/The effect of exercise intensity on women with depression/]] * [[/School-based Physical Education: The key to improving cognitive and academic performance among adolescents/]] * [[/Does the inclusion of physical activity within nursing homes, increase self-efficacy for those with dementia?/]] * [[/The effects of progressive resistance training on individuals with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise helps patients with panic disorder/]] * [[/The effects of resistance exercise training on anxiety/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on hyperarousal in veterans diagnosed with PTSD/]] * [[/Can a single bout of exercise improve mood and self esteem?/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training improves gait initiation in individuals with Parkinson's disease/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Cystic Fibrosis: Physical exercise versus chest physiotherapy/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on asthma control in children/]] * [[/The effects of outpatient rehabilitation on quality of life and exercise tolerance in COPD/]] * [[/Pulmonary Function and Response to Exercise in Cystic Fibrosis/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Sprinting and Obesity... Can it work?"/]] * [[/Resistance exercise and controlling glycemic levels in gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Does incorporating more physical activity into everyday lifestyle improve body composition, thyroid function, and structure in obese children?/]] * [[/High volume‐low intensity exercise camp and glycemic control in diabetic children/]] * [[/Obesity-exercise dose response - How much is enough?/]] * [[/Can playing physically-engaging video games be beneficial for metabolic health?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on glycemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Oxidation of fats due to green tea and sprinting intervals/]] ===Cancer-related health=== * [[/High Intensity Interval Exercise and Colon Cancer/]] ===Other=== * [[/Power of exercise throughout retirement/]] * [[/The effect of exercise in reducing the falls risk of older people with Parkinson’s Disease/]] * [[/The importance of exercise during pregnancy to decrease the likelihood of hypertension and gestational weight gain/]] * [[/Promoting functional independence and well-being through physical activity in spinal cord injury patients/]] * [[/Tai Chi and its implications on elderly health/]] * [[/Feeling hot for health/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in increasing strength and CD4 lymphocyte levels for HIV patients/]] * [[/The warrior way: weekend exercise helps you live longer/]] ==2018 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Strategies for increasing recess-time physical activity for children/]]** * [[/Targeting Cerebral Palsy in children, introducing virtual reality to active video game interventions/]] * [[/Light the fire to exercise/]] * [[/Mobile monitoring and feedback to stimulate physical activity in people with chronic disease/]] * [[/Measuring Physical Activity within Schools/]] * [[/The effect of Rheumatoid Arthritis on physical activity ability/]] * [[/Stepping to reduce the detrimental health effects of excessive occupational sitting/]]** * [[/Built for bigger waistlines? Association of the built environment with physical activity and obesity in older adults/]] * [[/Can the protection motivation theory help predict exercise behaviours? Exploring the notion in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Physically interactive video games vs sedentary alternative in children/]] * [[/You Got To Move It- The relationship between motor proficiency and pedometer-determined physical activity in children/]] * [[/Interventions for obese patients with knee osteoarthritis - Underwater vs. home exercise?/]] * [[/Changing the school environment to increase physical activity in children/]] * [[/More play: physical activity results in happier and healthier kids/]] * [[/The energy expenditure from combat sports and martial arts training and how it can help reach health recommendations/]] * [[/Importance of social support in youth to enhance physical activity/]] * [[/A behavioural intervention to increase physical activity amongst chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients/]]** * [[/Can smartphone apps increase physical activity?/]] * [[/Enhancing physical activity using an internet intervention for adults with metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Vitamin D status, muscle mass and physical activity in elderly people/]] * [[/Do pedometers increase physical activity in youth with chronic kidney disease/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise Training to reduce the risk of Cardiovascular Disease associated with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/How important is exercise duration, intensity & volume in the reduction of cardiovascular disease?/]] * [[/The small-scale effects of exercise and its large-scale implications in coronary artery disease/]]** * [[/Cardiovascular effects of aerobic training strategies for heart failure patients/]] * [[/Can physical activity and fitness levels during adolescence predict the risk of cardiovascular disease during young adulthood?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training for the rehabilitation of patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercising with heart failure; does it result in pulmonary hypertension and exercise intolerance?/]]** * [[/The effect of exercise training on vascular function in yype 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Walking and vigorous exercise to prevent the risk of coronary heart disease in women/]]** * [[/Fitness and fatness as reliable predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality/]] * [[/Can school-based physical activity interventions decrease CVD risk factors?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Does the prescription of regular exercise decrease the pain and decreased ROM associated with Arthritis?/]] * [[/Exercise, an inexpensive way of preventing osteoporosis in later life?/]] * [[/Just walk it off? The prospect of physical activity reducing osteoarthritic pain/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis in postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on children with chronic arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise habits on sarcopenia and its association with a lower prevalence within the elderly/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on elderly patients with osteoporosis/]] * [[/The impact of physical activity in children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Benefits of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on anxiety/]] * [[/The effects of moderate to high intensity exercise on Dementia/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic exercise on major depression/]] * [[/Does physical activity reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic and strength exercise programs for patients with Dementia/]] * [[/Parkinson's: Exercise improves movement initiation!/]] * [[/The role of cardiovascular fitness in patients with narcolepsy/]] * [[/Responses towards exhaustive acute physical exercise in participants with temporal lobe epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and major depression in older patients/]] * [[/Physical activity effect on mental health in people with chronic lower back pain/]] * [[/Physical exercise as an additional therapy for sleep apnea/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise on Parkinson disease/]] * [[/Does exercise make you happy? The dose-response relation to exercise and reduction of depression symptoms/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity for multiple sclerosis patients with fatigue/]] * [[/Can exercise beat Parkinson’s?/]] * [[/The effect of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on depression in an elderly population/]]** * [[/Improving exercise tolerance in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Can aerobic training help?/]] * [[/Positive effects of strength training on people with down syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise, a positive influence on young Autistic children before class/]] * [[/Exercise and the connection between mood regulation and trait emotional intelligence/]] * [[/Treatment of major depression: Can exercise help?/]]** * [[/Benefits of physical exercise in older people with Parkinson's/]] * [[/Can walking stabilise cognitive function in Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on depression and anxiety/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and post traumatic stress disorder/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise for treating Alzheimers disease/]] * [[/Investigating effects of moderate-high intensity exercise on Alzheimer's patient's/]] * [[/The effect of physical exercise on adolescent women with depression/]] * [[/The long term effects of exercise on major depressive disorder/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/A burden on physical activity – How extrapulmonary effects cause negative implications on patients with COPD/]] * [[/Land or sea? Ideal exercise type for COPD patients with physical co-morbidities/]] * [[/A splash in the right direction for COPD sufferers/]]** * [[/The effect of an aerobic conditioning program on fitness attributes in patients with mild asthma/]] * [[/Physical activity in urban school-aged children with asthma/]]** * [[/The significance of exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Inspiratory muscle training in patients with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Home-based exercise programs in Cystic Fibrosis: are they sustainable?/]] * [[/Effectiveness of home-based exercise in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/How does regular physical activity play a role in the incidence of asthma in adult women?/]] * [[/Exercise as a means to reduce hospital admission and respiratory mortality due to COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/The impacts of TV viewing and physical activity, on metabolic syndrome in Australian Adults/]] * [[/The impact of exercise and altering dietary intake in health and fitness/]] * [[/Effect of physical activity on Diabetes Mellitus/]] * [[/Reducing obesity in children by adjusting TV viewing habits/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour risks linked to metabolic syndrome in rural Australia/]] * [[/The effects of increased screen time on childhood obesity/]] * [[/A lifestyle change could prevent type 2 diabetes in high risk individuals!/]] * [[/The affect active travel has on the BMI's of children/]] * [[/Childhood obesity and the effects of a combined dietary–behavioral–physical activity treatment/]] * [[/Sleep duration and sedentary behaviour's effect on weight of children/]] * [[/Physical activity for the prevention of diabetes in adults with IFG/]] * [[/Effect on exercise intensity on fat loss in obese and overweight postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Sixty minutes of exercise per week decreases the risk of metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic circuit exercise training on insulin-dependent adolescents with diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Could adjusting TV viewing habits reduce obesity in children?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Aerobic Exercise can Increase Physical and Mental Health in Men with Bone Metastatic Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Tired of cancer; exercise as a means of reducing fatigue in chemotherapy patients/]] * [[/Effects of cognitively challenging Parkinson's Patients during exercise/]]** * [[/Tortise vs hare....does walking faster have better health outcomes?/]]** * [[/Effects of aerobic and resistance exercises in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the survival of diagnosed breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Effect of high intensity training exercise as an intervention in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Green exercise on mental and physical health/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on improving quality of life in Leukemia patients undergoing chemotherapy/]] * [[/A Breath of Exercise: Feasibility of a combined exercise intervention for inoperable lung cancer patients/]]* * [[/Does aquatic exercise training impact the functional capacity, balance and fatigue in female patients with Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/The effect of exercise training on renal function in chronic kidney disease patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on three common cancers/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on immune function and mental health in HIV positive patients/]] * [[/The role of physical activity in the progression and development of Myopia/]] * [[/Exercise interventions to improve physical fitness and decrease markers of oxidative stress amongst cancer patients/]] * [[/Recovery from cancer, the effect of physical activity on patients quality of life/]] * [[/Physical activity amongst spinal cord injured subjects/]] * [[/Screen time vs active play in young children/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in breast cancer patients /]] ==2017 Article Critiques== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increasing physical activity of office workers using treadmill workstations/]] * [[/Getting back your stride: How pedometers can increase physical fitness in COPD patients/]] * [[/Sport participation and overall health in children/]] * [[/Virtual Reality Improves Physical Function in Elderly Adults/]] * [[/Exercise and Children: Fat future or fit future?/]] * [[/Mum or Dad? Who makes the biggest difference?/]] * [[/Does chronic disease reduce physical activity in older adult?/]] * [[/A school-based intervention: Physical Education...is it physical enough?/]] * [[/Exercise adherence in sedentary women: The SWEAT Study/]] * [[/Exercising at home to counteract physical restrictions in overweight populations suffering from Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Promoting children's physical activity in primary school - SWEATING THE SMALL STUFF/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in Sedentary People - Decreasing the inner Couch Potato/]] * [[/Decreasing Sedentary Time in Office Workers: Utilizing a Multi Component Intervention/]] * [[/The use of text messages to decrease sedentary behaviour in University students/]] * [[/ Adolescents: improving physical activity and sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity in the Student Population through the use of Pedometers/]] * [[/Cycling workstations; an approach to increasing energy expenditure in office settings/]] * [[/Increased social media use cant really improve physical activity, can it?/]] * [[/The impact of Active video games on children's physical activity during recess/]] * [[/Game Time: Exergames and Improving Fitness in Adults with Down syndrome/]] * [[/Enablers and Barriers to Physical Activity with the Lower Limb Amputee Population/]] * [[/A Cultural Influence on Knowledge and Attitude towards Diet and Physical Activity in Children/]] * [[/The effect of JUMP-in, in promoting physical activity in primary school students/]] * [[/The impact of a community-based exercise intervention on African-American breast cancer survivors/]] * College students' motivation for physical activity. Men and women's motives for participation in sport and exercise ===Brain health=== * [[/The Effects of Moderate Aerobic activity on middle aged sufferers of primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Walking to Improve Health and Fitness in Stroke Survivors/]] * [[/ Positive Impact of Exercise on Cerebral Palsy Children /]] * [[/Cardiorespiratory Fitness: is it the answer to reduce brain atrophy in early-stage Alzheimer’s Disease?/]] * [[/Chronic Stroke Survivors - How can Exercise Help?/]] * [[/Improving Mobility in Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Exercise/]] * [[/High intensity eccentric resistance training decreases bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Exercise on Persons with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise and Parkinson's Disease: Improving Gait Speed, Strength and Fitness/]] * [[/Effects of long-term exercise on post-stroke patients/]] * [[/The Role of Muscular Endurance Strength Training Post Stroke/]] * [[/The link between exercise and Alzheimer's disease in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on children with ADHD/]] * [[/Tai Chi's Ability to Improve Postural Stability for Patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is Hydrotherapy the new therapy for Parkinson's Disease?/]] * [[/The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Depression in Young Adults/]] * [[/The role of physical activity to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Is hydrotherapy superior to conventional land-based exercise after stroke?/]] * [[/Enhancing health and well being: physical activity and nutrition in children and youth with intellectual disability and autism/]] * [[/Benefits of Running on the Ageing Brain/]] * [[/Alzheimer’s Disease: The Role of Physical Activity at Midlife/]] * [[/Multiple Sclerosis and the Subsequent Effects of Resistance Training/]] * [[/Does exercise improve mental health outcomes in younger people?/]] * [[/Could hippotherapy have beneficial effects on walking ability in children with cerebral palsy?/]] * [[/Reducing falls in MS patients: Exercise beyond the therapy room/]] * [[/The Association between Physical Activity and Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise and it's role in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on ADHD/]] * [[/Alzheimer's and the effect of physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity and it's relation to depression in adolescent females/]] * [[/The Effect of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults/]] * Increasing Aerobic Capacity and Muscular Strength/Endurance in Children With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities * [[/Exercise and chronic insomnia/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Night Time Blood Pressure Dipping in Adults with Coronary Heart Disease/]] * [[/The Effect of Aerobic Exercise Intensity on Cardiovascular Risk in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/The benefits of a yoga regime on lung function in Indian Cardiovascular Artery Disease (CAD) patients/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise Training on Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD)/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce coronary heart disease in patients with Schizophrenia?/]] * [[/Short-term exercise-training and aortic systolic pressure augmentation in overweight individuals/]] * [[/Getting Fit with Heart Failure - a waltz in the park/]] * [[/Does a home based exercise program improve physical activity levels in patients with Peripheral Artery Disease?/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Physical Activity and Glycemic Control in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Blood Glucose Control for Pediatric Type 1 Diabetics/]] * [[/The Relationship between physical activity and poor Glycemic control in type 1 diabetic women/]] * [[/High Intensity interval training for Type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/HIIT or Prolonged Continuous Exercise- Which is better for obese young women?/]] * [[/The Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Inactivity. A closer look at Inactive Indigenous Australian Men/]] * [[/Can Leisure time physical activity help prevent type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/Treating the metabolic syndrome: aerobic interval training vs. continuous moderate exercise/]] * [[/Exercise to Prevent Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/Mums and bubs: the benefits of physical activity during pregnancy and the prevalence of gestational diabetes/]] * [[/Reducing obesity through school based interventions/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic exercise as an adjunct therapy for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus/]] * [[/Effects of HIIT on insulin levels of young women/]] * [[/Childhood Obesity: How television is causing a fat epidemic among kids/]] * [[/How High Intensity Resistance training effects Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 1 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia post exercise/]] * [[/High intensity exercise in diabetic population/]] * [[/Is Fasting The Key To Pre Exercise Fat Loss?/]] ===Musculo-skeletal health=== * [[/Effects of HRT and high-impact exercise on skeletal muscle in post-menopausal women/]] * [[/Increasing the activity of women in our aged care facilities with low bone mass/]] * [[/Get cracking: The treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis with exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Effects on Females with Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The therapeutic effects of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effects of aquatic and traditional exercise programs on persons with knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Exercise in Female Osteoporosis Sufferers/]] * [[/Do sporting injuries in your youth lead to arthritis in older age?/]] * [[/Pilates as treatment for symptoms related to Osteoporosis/]] * Positive effects of weight bearing exercises on postmenopausal women * [[/Chronic lower back pain and the effect of exercise rehabilitation/]] ===Respiratory health=== * [[/Going eccentric is good for COPD patients: benefits of eccentric ergometer training/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on patients with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Lifting for the Lungs - Resistance Training in COPD Patients During Periods of Acute Exacerbation/]] * [[/The Improvement in Asthma, As Related to Physical Activity, Vitamins, and Antioxidant Loads/]] * [[/Ground-based walking training to improve quality of life and exercise capacity in COPD/]] * [[/Long-term Exercise Effect on FEV1 in Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Self-administered Exercise in Asthmatic Adults/]] * [[/Exercise As a Means to Improve Health and Wellbeing In Patients with Advanced Pulmonary Hypertension/]] ===Cancers=== * [[/The role of exercise training in cancer survivors/]] * [[/Physical Activity Intervention for People with Advanced Lung Cancer/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Prostate Cancer Patients undergoing treatment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Limitations for Breast Cancer Survivors to Protect Against Arm Lymphedema/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise for Treatment Related Fatigue in Men Receiving Radiotherapy for Localized Prostate Carcinoma/]] * [[/Can a Home-based Physical Activity intervention for early stage Breast Cancer patients improve health or fitness?/]] * [[/Does physical activity limit the level of fatigue experienced in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy?/]] ===Other=== * [[/Running- the key to Longevity?/]] * [[/How Exercise Impacts Those Suffering with Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise training effect on Obstructive Sleep Apnea and sleep quality/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise therapy in the HIV-AIDS positive population/]] * [[/Effects of exercise in Chronic Kidney Disease patients/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Older Adults with HIV/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise Training in Myocardial Myopathy/]] * [[/Physical fitness programmes effects on cardio respiratory function in sedentary students/]] * [[/Exercise Improves Quality of Life in Polynesian Peoples with Chronic Disease/]] * [[/Resistance Training is Safe and Improves Well-being in Patients with Chronic Lyme Disease/]] ==2016 Fact Sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/"Switch-Play" in children: is it effective in reducing sedentary behaviour?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of a school-based physical activity intervention on childhood overweight and obesity/]] * [[/Physical activity barriers and enablers in lower limb amputees/]] * [[/Older Adults embracing Fit-bits when managing chronic illness/]] * [[/The impact of a community based exercise program on cognitive and physical function in adults with Alzheimer’s disease/]] * [[/Playing Exergames at School to Target Weight Loss in Adolescents/]] * [[/‘Sistas’ and Aunties: sport, physical activity, and Indigenous Australian women/]] * [[/Is dancing video game (DDR) an effective way to increase physical activity and to decrease sedentary time?/]] * [[/Putting a leash on your health/]] * [[/The Impact of an Interdisciplinary School-Based Health Behaviour Intervention on Obesity Among Youth/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activities in youth sedentary behaviour/]] * [[/Usefulness and effects of a healthy lifestyle program in a remote Aboriginal community/]] * [[/Exercise for elderly Women with Osteoporosis; Does it Reduce Falls Risks?/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise Programs on Functional Fitness for Older Adults with Arthritis/]] * [[/How walking, cycling or being driven to school influences physical activity levels in children/]] * [[/Treadmills and Infants: Do Stepping Machines work for infants with Down syndrome?/]] * [[/Physical education making kids more fit and healthy/]] * [[/Walking strategies to increase physical activity levels in white-collar workplaces/]] * [[/Exergames - Can they improve the health of children?/]] * [[/The relationship between dog ownership, physical activity and chronic hemodialysis/]] * [[/Decline in physical activity among biracial adolescent girls/]] * [[/Exercising the frail obese elderly - what is possible/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to Increase Physical Activity Levels in Office Workers/]] * [[/Increasing physical activity of youth in the modern world/]] * [[/Reducing sedentary behavior in aging adults using smartphone technology/]] * [[/Can your smartphone help you become more physically active?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Benefits and Barriers for Refugee women/]] * [[/There's an app for that- Mobile applications and the influence of physical activity among young people/]] * [[/Ignorance or Laziness: Why are girls less physically active than boys?/]] * [[/An Intervention to Increase Physical Activity in Children/]] ===Brain health=== * [[/Parkinson’s patients – Can we temp you to tango?/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Robot-assisted training in comparison to conventional training methods in post stroke patients/]] * [[/Exercise, your supplement to a bigger brain in old age/]] * [[/ADHD in children and the impact physical activity plays/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in Parkinson's Disease: does it slow the decline?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical Activity on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder/]] * [[/'Green Exercise' - Outdoor Physical Activity's Effect on Depression/]] * [[/The Potential for Dementia Prevention utilising Multimodal Activity Intervention in the Mildly Cognitively Impaired/]] * [[/Positive Emotion Motivated Tai Chi to reduce falls in Older Adults with Dementia/]] * [[/Is HIIT and CP a match made in heaven? Can high functioning Cerebral Palsy children expect the same results as their peers with circuit training?/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Nursing Home Residents with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Power for Parkinson Patients/]] * [[/Music-based Exercise for Dementia Patients/]] * [[/The effect of intense physical therapy for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Improving cognitive performance and psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia patients through aerobic exercise/]] * [[/Improving gait in people with Dementia after resistance & functional training/]] * [[/Regular resistance training improves strength in multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of dementia for adults 65 years of age and older through exercise/]] * [[/Virtual reality: rehabilitation for stroke patients/]] * [[/Effect of treadmill rehabilitation on ambulation and CV fitness in chronic stroke patients/]] * [[/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: Can exercise help?/]] * [[/Physical Activity and the Psychosocial Benefits in Young Children/]] * [[/Exercise in OCD: a little less obsessed?/]] * [[/The association between walking and future risk of dementia in older men/]] * [[/Walking away from Bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effect of different exercise training programs on individuals living with dementia/]] * [[/Mind over matter; how physical training affects mental health in chemical dependent patients/]] * [[/Fighting Parkinson's, Dance Vs Exercise?/]] * [[/Does intense physical exercise improve the seizure threshold in epileptics?/]] * [[/The effects of different exercise programs on Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Physical Activity with Cognitive Tasks Improves Executive Functioning and Reduces Falls in Elderly with Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Functional Strength Training in Children with Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Don't forget about exercise: physical activity interventions in Alzheimer's management/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Reduce falls and balance your life: is Tia Chi the answer to Parkinson's?/]] * [[/How can high intensity exercise help dementia in nursing homes?/]] * [[/Leisure time physical activity at midlife and subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/Use of Video Games (virtual reality) for rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsy patients/]] * [[/The effect of an exercise therapy intervention for individuals with schizophrenia/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Insomnia in Older Adults: Improved Sleep, Mood and Quality of Life after Aerobic Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise for Patients with Parkinson's Disease- Does it improve spinal function and flexibility?/]] * [[/Home-based treadmill training as a safe form of exercise for individuals with Parkinson’s disease/]] * [[/Can gait patterns improve with resistance training in multiple sclerosis patients?/]] * [[/Effect of Aquatic Exercise on Fatigue and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Depression/]] * [[/Strategies to improve neuroplasticity in Parkinson's disease patients/]] * [[/Regular exercise, anxiety, depression and personality/]] * [[/Progressive resistance training in children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Tai Chi & Parkinson's: Finding the balance within/]] * [[/The implementation of a short term endurance training to improve patient outcomes from major depression/]] * [[/Use it or lose it? Resistance training in ALS patients/]] * [[/Can training the heart combat the risk of cognitive decline and dementia?/]] * [[/Effects of Physical activity on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and Chronic Primary Insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and Activities: Improving the sleep of those in Nursing Homes/]] * [[/Physical Activity and its effect on cognitive function in older women/]] * [[/The effects of Aerobic Exercise on Early Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can exercise be beneficial to people suffering from multiple sclerosis?/]] * [[/Stabilizing memory function with physical activity in older Adults with Alzheimer's disease/]] * [[/The Effects of Resistance Training on Cognitive Decline in Seniors with Mild Cognitive Impairment/]] * [[/Physical Activity Effects on Prevention and Treatment of Dementia in Older Adults/]] ===Cardiovascular health=== * [[/Exercise is for the heart and the mind/]] * [[/Pumping Blood: Can Exercise Improve Arterial Health/]] * [[/Reducing the risk of CVD with daily physical activity in school children/]] * [[/Is low intensity exercise the key to a good health related quality of life for cardiovascular disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The Effect of Training Types on Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/Impact of High intensity and Moderate intensity training on vascular function/]] * [[/Effects of Exercise for Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/The Impact of School-based Walking Interventions on Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/The immediate and long-term effects of exercise on blood pressure in patients with chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Survival of Coronary Patients: Surgery versus Exercise Interventions/]] * [[/Does physical activity help to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease?/]] * [[/Taking Cardiac Rehabilitation Home: Home-Based Interval Training for Heart Failure Patients/]] * [[/How beneficial is physical conditioning of calf musculature in people with Chronic Venous Insufficiency/]] * [[/Intense Exercise - The effects on coronary collateral circulation in patients with coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Moderate Versus High Intensity Aerobic Training in Coronary Heart Disease Patients/]] * [[/Drowning out the pressure: Can swimming help to reduce the effects of hypertension?/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise in Patients with ICD's/]] * [[/The Benefits of High- and Low-Intensity Exercise in Stroke Patients/]] * [[/Effects of exercise intervention on myocardial function in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise implications for red cell deformity in patients with COPD/]] ===Metabolic health=== * [[/Effectiveness of different modalities of exercise on metabolic regulation in obese adolescent boys/]] * [[/Dietary- Behavioral- Physical Activity intervention for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Relationship between Physical inactivity and adiposity in Prepubescent Boys/]] * [[/Physical Activity in the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes/]] * [[/A High Protein Diet With Resistance Training and It's Effect on Body Composition and Type 2 Diabetes in Overweight and Obese Patients/]] * [[/Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Patients fertility improved by lifestyle changes/]] * [[/Improving type 2 diabetes risk factors through exercise/]] * [[/It's not too late to improve Glycemic Control - Exercise Intervention in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Could using an app a day keep diabetes away?/]] * [[/Metabolic Effects of Aerobic Training and Resistance Training in Type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Are Leisure time activities enough to melt away the elderly male beer belly?/]] * [[/Controlling Type 2 Diabetes with High Intensity Interval Training/]] * [[/Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/How can resistance training increase lower limb speed of strength during stair walking for people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy?/]] * [[/Conquering diabetes with daily exercise/]] * [[/Break up your sitting with light-intensity walking to reduce your chances of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of long term aerobic exercise on the development of neuropathy in Diabetic individuals/]] * [[/General vs Vigorous Lifestyle Advice: The effects on the risk of diabetes/]] * [[/Effects of exercise and its cessation on insulin resistance syndrome in obese children/]] * [[/Sedentary Behaviour, a metabolic risk?/]] * [[/The relationship between occupational choice and obesity in adults/]] * [[/Accelerometer measured movement tracking physical activities improvement for diabetes and metabolic syndrome outcomes/]] * [[/Can resistance training have a positive effect on older adults with type 2 diabetes?/]] * [[/American football players not immune to Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Diabetes: Pharmacy vs Fitness/]] * [[/Occupation Sedentary Behaviour: Can Increased Standing Time Reduce Sedentary Associated Diabetes and Obesity?/]] * [[/Smartphone social networks and weight loss/]] * [[/The Importance of Physical Activity in reducing the risk of Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Can aerobic and resistance training benefit late-onset Pompe disease patients undergoing enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)?/]] * [[/Walking Versus Vigorous Physical Activity and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Women/]] ====Musculo-skeletal health==== * [[/Active Diabetic Kids Beat the Bone Density Blues/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Resistance training effects on muscle physiology in elderly postoperative patients/]] * [[/Combating Cardiovascular Disease in Rheumatic Patients: is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) your new defence?/]] * [[/The effects of strength and endurance training in patients with rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Do Stretching Exercises Help Reduce Lower Back Pain?/]] * [[/Cross sectional and longitudinal studies on the effect of water exercise in controlling bone loss in Japanese postmenopausal women/]] * [[/Stabilisation Exercise for those with Chronic Low Back Pain/]] * [[/Is strength the key? The effects of high and low intensity resistance training on knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy or Supreme Ultimate Boxing for Osteoarthritis Management: You Choose/]] * [[/Does the choice between pilates or cycling for chronic lower back pain matter?/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on Older Adults with Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The benefit of hydrotherapy and Tai Chi classes for sedentary osteoarthritis patients/]] * [[/The effects of Pilates on chronic low back pain/]] * [[/The Benefits of Endurance Training in Adult Men with Becker Muscular Dystrophy/]] * [[/Osteocise: Exercise and its impact on bone mineral density and falls risk/]] * [[/Does Pilates benefit lower back pain in the elderly?/]] * [[/The relationship between exercise frequency and bone mineral density development in exercising postmenopausal osteopenic women/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy and juvenile idiopathic arthritis/]] * [[/Arm Ergometer or ROM? Which Upper Extremity Exercise works best for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients/]] * [[/Can exercise assist in the self-management of Rheumatoid Arthritis?/]] * [[/Resistance exercise improves muscle strength, health status and pain intensity in fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Strategic creatine supplementation around resistance training to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in older adults/]] * [[/Endurance training to alleviate the pain of fibromyalgia/]] * [[/Osteoporosis and resistance training. The dense connection/]] ====Respiratory health==== * [[/Clinical effects of active video game exercising on children with asthma/]] * [[/Walking: A step in the right direction for COPD patients/]] * [[/The Benefits of Habitual Physical Activity for Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Impact of regular physical activity on hospital admissions and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/Exercise, Physiotherapy and Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Controlling Young Adult Asthma Through Childhood Exercise/]] * [[/Aerobic Capacities vs. Resistance Training in Children with Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Is pulmonary rehabilitation beneficial for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis patients?/]] * [[/Reduced all cause mortality with increased physical activity in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease patients/]] * [[/Swimming training helps kids breathe easy/]] * [[/Exercising with Emphysema: Bronchoscopic Lung Volume Reduction Benefits/]] * [[/The Effects of Swimming Training on Children with Asthma/]] * [[/The Impact of Self-Directed Exercise in Adults with Partly Controlled Asthma/]] * [[/Exercise as a Treatment for Obstructive Sleep Apnea/]] * [[/Does Moderate Intensity Exercise Improve Fitness and Quality of Life in Adults with Asthma?/]] * [[/Which is more beneficial, physical exercise or chest physiotherapy for those with Cystic Fibrosis?/]] * [[/COPD and Exercise - more activity = less mortality/]] ====Cancer==== * [[/The Benefits of Resistance Training in Breast Cancer Patients Receiving Adjuvant Radiotherapy/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on physical health and quality of life in Cancer Patients/]] * [[/Resistance exercises in the reduction of arm deficits following breast cancer surgery/]] * [[/Can exercise reduce insulin to reduce breast cancer recurrence?/]] * [[/Can exercise be an effective method of treatment of Pancreatic cancer as apposed to other types of therapy?/]] * [[/The Effects of Physical Activity after Urinary Cancer Surgery/]] * [[/Tailor made exercise for Breast Cancer survivors/]] ====Other==== * [[/Physical activity and risk of end-stage kidney disease in the Singapore Chinese Health Study/]] * [[/The relationship between sedentary behavior and mortality/]] * [[/The effects of walking on the lives of Crohn's disease sufferers/]] * [[/The Benefits of Regular Walking on Chronic Kidney Disease/]] * [[/Exercise for Muscular Dystrophy: A new way to prolong independence/]] * [[/Sedentary Time's Effect on Risk for Disease Incidents, All-Cause Mortality and Hospitalization in Adults Independent of Physical Activity/]] * [[/Television viewing time and its association with cardiovascular disease mortality in adults/]] * [[/Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Sleep and Mood Outcomes for People with Insomnia/]] * [[/The Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms/]] * [[/Lifestyle factors effecting people developing multiple chronic diseases/]] * [[/Exercise Therapy in Women With Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The 'Pet Effect' - Can Owning a Pet Improve your Adolescent's Health and Wellbeing?/]] * [[/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Benefits from Aerobic Exercise/]] ==2015 Fact sheets== ===Strategies to increase physical activity for health [in a specific population]=== * [[/Increased physical activity for adult dog owners/]]** * [[/Physical activity counselling interventions in type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Use of smartphone apps to increase physical activity/]] * [[/Using active video games to increase physical activity in youth/]] * [[/Health benefits of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention in sedentary workers/]] * [[/Lifestyle intervention in Remote Australian Aboriginal Community for chronic disease prevention/]] * [[/After School physical activity interventions for school children to prevent obesity/]] * [[/Stairclimbing, is it enough for fitness and health in young, inactive women?/]] * [[/Lifestyle or exercise physical activity, which is better for fitness and health?/]] * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in Samoan communities/]] * [[/Technology and Physical activity motivation/]] * [[/Breast Cancer Survivors' Motives and Adherence to Community Based Activity Programs/]]** * [[/Strategies to increase physical activity in primary aged children during school recess breaks/]] * [[/Fit mums’ and dads’, their role in encouraging children to stay active from an early age/]] * [[/Using Pedometers to increase Physical activity and improve health/]] * [[/Development of fundamental motor skills at school – crucial for continuing physical activity/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve chronic disease/]] ====Brain health==== * [[/Physical activity at mid-life, and dementia risk decades later/]]** * [[/Physical Activity and Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Elderly Persons/]] * [[/Resistance and Aerobic Interventions for Generalised Anxiety Disorder/]] * [[/Combined exercise and cognitive activity to fight dementia in mild cognitive impairment/]] * [[/Multi-component exercise in patients with dementia/]]** * [[/The benefits of exercise on older adults suffering from depression/]] * [[/Effectiveness of exercise Interventions in clients with Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/The functional impacts of strength training in cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Does Physical Activity act as a protective barrier against Depression in adolescents?/]] * [[/Sustaining physical activity engagement in those with autism/]] * [[/The effects of exercise training on individuals suffering from bipolar disorder/]] * [[/Effect of Physical Activity on Cognitive Function in Older Adults at Risk for Alzheimer Disease/]] * [[/Improving strength and function in Parkinson's Disease through eccentric resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise or basic body awareness therapy as add-on treatment for major depression/]] * [[/Balance and High-intensity resistance training on persons with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Can adaptive training and exercise improve balance and mobility in people with Parkinson's disease?/]] * [[/How exercise can improve the quality of life of those who suffer from cognitive impairment/]] * [[/The effects of a muscle endurance exercise program in ALS patients/]] * [[/School based physical activity to reduce hyperactivity and ADHD symptoms/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic and anaerobic training on psychological stress/]] * [[/Sedentary behaviour and its impact on mental health in school aged children/]] * [[/The effectiveness of yoga on the quality of life of multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Does the intensity of resistance training matter in combating depression?/]] * [[/Can physical activity reduce anxiety across gender and age?/]] * [[/How can behavioural management and general exercise programs affect Alzheimer's Disease sufferers?/]] * [[/The effects of walking training on gait in patients with Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Physical Activity as an intervention to ADHD in children/]] * [[User:Damien.ramsden#Research Background|The effects of resistance training on brain plasticity in the elderly]] * [[/ The effects of exercise on the mental health of those with Parkinson Disease/]] * [[/The effects of endurance training, and endurance training when combined with resistance training, on individuals with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Impact of Exercise on Epilepsy in Rats/]] ====Metabolic==== * [[/Resistance training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/The Effect of High Intensity Resistance Training on Glycemic Control in Older Type 2 Diabetics/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and pregnancy outcomes/]]** * [[/Exercise can reduce gestational diabetes mellitus/]]** * [[/The Benefit of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiometabolic Disease/]]** * [[/High intensity interval training for fat loss/]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance for type 1 Diabetics, what is best?/]] * [[/The ant-inflammatory effects of exercise in type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/The Effect of Combination Training on Insulin Secretion and Sensitivity in Overweight Adults/]]** * [[/Walking and working, how treadmill working stations helping obese workers lose 30 kilos a year/]] * [[/Result of Exercise on Overnight Glycemic Control in Children with Type 1 Diabetes/]] * [[/Benefits of Standing Desks on Childhood Obesity/]] * [[/Intervals or steady exercise - what is better for metabolic syndrome?/]] * [[/Effects of cycle training on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Does exercise consultation improve exercise outcomes in type 2 diabetics?/]] * [[/Strength training interventions for older type 2 diabetics/]] * [[/Adding resistance training to aerobic exercise for women with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Barriers to Physical Activity Among Patients With Type 1 Diabetes/]] ====Musculo-skeletal==== * [[/Using exercise as an intervention for obesity-related arthritis/]] * [[/Land or water exercise for arthritis sufferers?/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on bone mineral density/]] * [[/Arthritis Specific Exercise Programs: Do They Work?/]] * [[/Do the US National Arthritis Foundation’s recommendations stack up? Evaluating exercise guidelines against functional outcomes in arthritis/]] * [[/Dancing your way to stronger bones/]] * [[/Effectiveness of Aquatic Physical Therapy for the Improvement of Osteoarthritis of the Hip and Knee/]] * [[/Resistance training and the effects on bone density in premenopausal women/]] * [[/Exercising with Knee Osteoarthritis for Overweight/Obese Older Adults/]] * [[/Effects of different types of exercise on people suffering from knee osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Exercise to Reduce Risk Factors for Falls in Older Women with Osteoporosis/]] * [[/The Benefits of Strength and Endurance Training for Individuals with Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Chronic Neck Pain in the Workplace - The Effectiveness of Resistance Training Interventions/]] * [[/How much physical activity should osteoporotic men get?/]] * [[/Yoga or exercise for chronic lower back pain?/]] * [[/Effects of high resistance training for patients with myotonic dystrophy/]] ====Other==== * [[/Benefits of progressive resistance training in elderly HIV positive patients/]] * [[/Physical activity interventions to improve fitness and psychological well-being in breast cancer patients/]] * [[/Anaerobic training for children with cystic fibrosis/]] * [[/Water-based exercise for kidney disease/]] * [[/Effect of Exercise on Patients Diagnosed with Colorectal Cancer/]] * [[/Concurrent Cardiovascular and Resistance training for health in Older Adults/]] * [[/Strength training in spastic cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Sitting: The Silent Killer of Sedentary Adults/]] * [[/Benefits of Resistance Training for Female Breast Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Yoga Therapy: A way to Improve Functional Performance in People with Chronic Pulmonary Obstruction/]] * [[/Can Resistance Training Improve Skeletal Muscle Health for People Who Suffer From Chronic Heart Failure?/]] * [[/Can Tai Chi improve balance in people suffering from Parkinson's Disease?/]] - * [[/Testosterone supplementation: improving mortality in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease through resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and its impact on Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Can physical activity prevent asthma as we age?/]] * [[/What is the risk of sudden cardiac death in American college athletes?/]] * [[/Effects Of Swimming Training On Children With Asthma/]] * [[/Aquatic exercise interventions for children with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on systemic inflammation in male adults with Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Does physical activity level contribute to asthma?/]] * [[/Effects of physical activity on asthma/]] * [[/Importance of walking on life expectancy among rural elders/]] * [[/The effect of weight loss strategies on obese asthmatics/]] * [[/Is a home-based exercise cardiac rehabilitation program effective for elderly coronary heart disease patients?/]] * [[/The effectiveness of exercise as a part of Cancer rehabilitation/]] ==2014 Fact Sheets== * [[/Aerobic Exercise Benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of physical exercise interventions for Myotonic Dystrophy patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training & Lung Cancer/]] * [[/Resistance Training & HIV/AIDS/]] * [[/Exercise and Hypertension: What is the most beneficial exercise for reducing hypertension/]] * [[/Dance as a means to reduce Depression/]] * [[/The Effect of dance on symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effect of hypothyroidism on exercise/]] * [[/The Benefits of Exercise for People with HIV/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on breast cancer recovery/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)/]] * [[/Exercise and its role in living with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Exercise and prevention of type II diabetes/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training for people with down syndrome/]] * [[/The importance of screening in the athletic population to detect early risk of Sudden Cardiac Disease/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Weight Training vs Aerobic Training For Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/Resistance exercise for patients with end-stage renal disease/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise management for peripheral artery disease/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and obstructive sleep apnea/]] * [[/Resistance training for individuals living with multiple sclerosis/]] * [[/Effect of aerobic exercise training on atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Resistance training for Motor Neuron Disease/]] * [[/The benefits of resistance training in Myotonic Disease Patients/]] * [[/Resistance Training for athletes with Asthma/]] * [[/The role of exercise in reducing the need for joint replacement for people suffering osteoporosis/]] * [[/Plyometric training and Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise for prevention and treatment of Kyphosis/]] * [[/Whole body vibration exercise for patients with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise in the prevention of cancer/]] * [[/Effect of exercise on adiponectin in improving insulin sensitivity/]] * [[/The effects of aerobic training on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/]] * [[/High Intensity Interval Training: effect on Metabolic Syndrome factors/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease/]] * [[/Overcoming sedentary behaviour in combat veterans suffering PTSD through exercise/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on the symptoms of epilepsy/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise on patients with Lupus Erythematosus/]] * [[/Beneficial effects of exercise for individuals suffering Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise and it's effects on Depression/]] * [[/The role of strength training in managing Ehlers Danlos/]] * [[/Exercise and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis/]] * [[/Exercise As A Tool For Managing ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise to Alleviate ADHD Symptoms in Children/]] * [[/Effects of resistance training on Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Dance for Parkinson'sː Improved Gait & Balance/]] * [[/Exercise limitations in athletes with sickle cell disease/]] * [[/The benefits of aerobic training for those suffering from Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise on Ankylosing spondylitis/]] * [[/Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant woman and the benefits of physical activity/]] * [[/Exercise and Thrombosis/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on people with bipolar disorder/]] * [[/The effects of strength training on patients with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/The female athlete triad - are elite athletes at risk/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise in Down Syndrome/]] * [[/Use of virtual reality in balance rehabilitation following acquired brain injury/]] * [[/Exercise as a management tool for depression/]] * [[/Effect of fibrosis on exercise ability and capacity/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for people on Hemodialysis/]] * [[/Aerobic vs Anaerobic exercise for children suffering from Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Is exercise an effective strategy to improve Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Effects of Yoga on Cardiovascular Health/]] * [[/Anorexia Nervosa and Exercise Abuse/]] * [[/resistance training VS aerobic training in diabetics/]] * [[/the effects of physical activity on children with asthma/]] * [[/The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle/]] * [[/Exercise induced asthma/]] * [[/Medication vs. exercise in reducing dyslipidemia/]] * [[/Resistance Exercise Interventions for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis/]] * [[/Osgood-Schlatter Disease and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise vs Drugs as a Prescription for Depression/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Autism/]] * [[/Strength Training and Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on insomnia/]] * [[/The effect that exercise has on Ischemic heart disease/]] * [[/Exercise and Prostate cancer/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise towards positive mental health in those suffering anxiety/]] * [[/the effects of exercise on depression in older adults/]] * [[/The effects of physical activity on people with Dementia/]] * [[/The Role of Exercise in Managing Charcot Marie Tooth Disease/]] * [[/The effects of exercise for women post gestational diabetes in the prevention of the development of diabetes later in life/]] * [[/The effects of exercise and sport on the cognitive function of primary school children/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic training for people with type 2 diabetes/]] * [[/reducing the effects of Cancer related Fatigue through Exercise/]] * [[/The effects of hippotherapy on cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Mobility and Postural Effects of Exercise in Parkinson's Disease Sufferers/]] * [[/Exercise for reducing the risk of stroke/]] * [[/Effect of recreational aerobic exercise on Epilepsy/]] * [[/the role of resistance training in the management of coronary artery disease/]] * [[/Exercise in extreme cold and asthma/]] * [[/The prescription of resistance training for preventing and treating osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/The effects of resistance training on rheumatoid athritis/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on Psoriatic arthritis/]] * [[/Altitude Training and Asthma/]] * [[/High intensity interval training: in coronary heart disease following a stent treatment/]] * [[/Altitude training and asthma/]] * [[/aerobic vs anaerobic exercise with insomnia/]] * [[/Exercise and smoking cessation in women/]] * [[/Thwarting Pulmonary Embolism with Exercise/]] * [[/Motor Neuron Disease and exercise/]] * [[/Excessive sitting inhibits Insulin function in Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise's Effect on Inflammatory Arthritis/]] * [[/Hydrotherapy in relation to rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on the management of Meniere's disease/]] * [[/the effects/benefits of Physical Therapy on the symptoms of Parkinson's Disease/]] * [[/The effects of Physical Activity on Brain Cancer Survivors/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise and its effect on Insomnia/]] ==2013 Fact Sheets== ===Brain health=== * [[/Exercise program prescription for Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise and its relation to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder/]] * [[/Exercise or Diet to manage Alzheimer's Disease?/]] * [[/Exercise as a tool in preventing depression/]] * [[/Exercise as a clinical treatment for depression amongst adolescents/]] * [[/Exercise and depression, reducing symptom severity/]] * [[/Exercise and epilepsy/]] * [[/Exercise and its effects on Schizophrenia/]] * [[/Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise for patients suffering from Alzheimer's Disease/]] * [[/Benefits of aerobic exercise on quality of life after a stroke/]] * [[/Computer gaming for stroke rehabilitation/]] * [[/Exercise as a prescribed treatment for ADHD/]] * [[/Exercise and its Effects on Dementia/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise as an intervention for sleep apnea/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Epilepsy/|The effects of exercise on epilepsy]] * [[/Physical activity to reduce symptoms of Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Resistance Training/]] * [[/Exercise and Team Sports Effects on Depression/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on cognitive abilities in elderly populations/]] * [[/Obstructive Sleep apnea and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise and it effects on the symptoms of Huntingtons's disease/]] ===Cancer related=== * [[/Exercise effects on prostate cancer patients undergoing androgen deprivation therapy/]] * [[/Exercise effects in lung cancer/]] ===Cardiovascular=== * [[/Heart complications in Endurance Athletes/]] * [[/Effective treatment for atherosclerosis - Surgery vs Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Patients with Heart Failure/]] * [[/Preoperative exercise for CABG surgery and subsequent cardiovascular health/]] * [[/Myocarditis and exercise/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines to Prevent Atherosclerosis/]] * [[/Sudden cardiac death in athletes/]] * [[/Exercise-induced ventricular tachycardia/]] * [[/Physical Activity; An effective intervention for cardiovascular disease/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Cardiovascular Ageing/]] * [[/Arrhythmia in Athletes/]] * [[/The effect of exercise on CHD risk factors in smokers/]] * [[/Exercise tolerance with Hemochromatosis/]] * [[/The effect of resistance training on blood pressure/]] * [[/Exercise prescription in obese hypertension patients/]] * [[/Long term affects of resistance training on chronic hypertension/]] * [[/Resistance Training and Stroke/]] * [[/Exercise and Aortic Stenosis/]] * [[/Bradycardia in athletes/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise impact on coronary heart disease/]] ===Metabolic=== * [[/Aerobic or anaerobic: effect of exercise type on blood glucose in type 1 diabetics/]] * [[/Combating Dyslipidaemia: Exercise vs Pharmaceutical intervention/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for the control of Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Lowering Cholesterol Levels: Exercise and Healthy Eating vs Drug Alternatives/]] * [[/Aerobic Training vs Resistance Training and Type 2 Diabetes/]] * [[/Metabolic syndrome and trekking at altitude/]] * [[/Is aerobic exercise the best form of training for preventing/reducing effects of type II diabetes?/]] ===Musculoskeletal=== * [[/Physical Activity intervention as a treatment for Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Utilising exercise in preventing and treating the onset of sarcopenia/]] * [[/Exercise in the management of Rheumatoid Arthritis/]] * [[/Elastic/Theraband use with the Osteoarthritic and Aging Client/]] * [[/Exercise and Duchenne muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/Exercise and osteoporosis/]] * [[/The role aerobic exercise can play as a treatment for osteoporosis/]] * [[/Ankylosing Spondylitis and Exercise/]] * [[/Effects of exercise on Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Exercising with muscular dystrophy/]] * [[/High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis/|High impact exercise and its effects on osteoporosis]] * [[/Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and effective exercise treatments/]] * [[/Exercise and preventing osteoporosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for multiple sclerosis patients/]] * [[/Exercise rehabilitation for paralysis of the legs/]] * [[/Exercise and hypermobility syndrome/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on chronic back pain/]] ===Pulmonary=== * [[/Exercise as a component of treatment for COPD/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for asthmatics/]] * [[/The effect of aerobic exercise on Emphysema/]] * [[/Exercise used to reduce asthmatic symptoms/]] * [[/Asthma and Winter Sport Athletes/]] * [[/Improving the quality of life in multiple sclerosis sufferers with exercise/]] ===Other=== * [[/Exercise effects on Cystic Fibrosis/]] * [[/Exercise prescription and nutrition for Crohn's disease/]] * [[/Exercise as a treatment option for Fibromyalgia/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Smoking Cessation/]] * [[/The menstrual cycle in response to physical exercise in the female athlete/]] * [[/Benefit of exercise for chronic kidney disease/]] * [[/Benefits of exercise for people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/The Effect of Exercise on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Effectiveness of resistance training among people with cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for pregnant women/]] * [[/Excessive exercise and anorexia nervosa/]] * [[/Exercise creating a better quality of life for people with Spina Bifida/]] * [[/Exercise Effects on Substance Addiction/]] * [[/Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise|Fatty Liver and Aerobic Exercise]] * [[/Effects of ROM and resistance programs on Cerebral Palsy/]] * [[/Resistance training guidelines for the elderly/]] ==2012 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Physical activity guidelines, after a Stroke/]] * ^**[[/Effective exercise rehabilitation for stroke patients; aerobic vs resistance training/]] * [[/Exercise and sudden cardiac death/]] * [[/Resistance training and prevention of atherosclerosis/]] * ^**[[/Pills vs exercise: reducing blood pressure in hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise Guidelines for Reducing Risk of Cardiovascular Disease/]] * [[/Exercise post heart transplant/]] * [[/Safe Exercise for Gestational Hypertension/]] === Metabolic === * [[/The Effects of Short Duration, High Intensity Exercise on Metabolic Syndrome/]] * [[/Insulin Resistance: The effect of exercise to reduce Metformin dependence/]] * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on type 1 diabetes/]] * [[/Exercise interventions for childhood obesity/]] * [[/Exercise Prescription for Type 2 Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/The effects of exercise on ADHD/]] * ^**[[/Improvements in General Anxiety Disorder Symptoms with Exercise/]] * [[/General Anxiety Disorder and Aerobic Exercise/]] === Cancer related === * ^**[[/Effects of Exercise on Colon Cancer Metastasis/]] * [[/Benefit of Exercise During Androgen Deprivation Therapy for Prostate Cancer/]] * [[/Exercise prescription for breast cancer survivors/]] === Pulmonary === * [[/Cystic Fibrosis and Exercise/]] * [[/Exercise in the treatment of childhood asthma/]] * ^**[[/Aerobic Training and Exercise-Induced Asthma/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The effect of exercise on rheumatoid arthritis/]] * [[/Effect of resistance training on knee osteoarthritis in the elderly/]] * [[/Osteopenia, delaying progression through exercise/]] * [[/Resistance training and osteoporosis/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise and cerebral palsy/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise benefits on Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/]] * [[/Aerobic exercise and relapsing Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[/Barriers to Exercise in Multiple Sclerosis/]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis|A comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Training on Multiple Sclerosis]] * [[/Aerobic or Resistance training for Multiple Sclerosis?/]] * [[/Physical Activity Guidelines for obesity women during pregnancy/]] * ^**[[/Exercise for Autism?/]] * [[/Exercise effects on Parkinson's Disease/]] * ^**[[/Exercise to improve sleep quality in insomnia/]] * [[/Benefits of moderate aerobic exercise on Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis/]] ==2011 Fact Sheets== === Cardiovascular === * [[/Hypertension: guidelines for exercise prescription/]] * [[/Continuous and interval aerobic exercises for treating hypertension in older people/]] * [[/Guideline for using Resistance exercise with Hypertension/]] * [[/Hypertensive Medication and Implications for exercise/]] * [[/Optimal Physical Activity for the Reduction of Hypertension/]] * [[/Exercise during recovery from Myocardial Infarction/]] === Metabolic === * [[/Reversing the Effects of Insulin Resistance with Aerobic Exercise Fact Sheet/]] * ^**[[/Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) in Indigenous Australians/]] * [[/Preventing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetics during and after exercise/]] * [[/The benefits of exercise for reducing symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)/]] * ^**[[/Resistance Training and Insulin Sensitivity in Type II Diabetics/]] * [[/Walking to control type 2 diabetes/|Walking to control type 2 diabetes]] * [[/The effects of Resistance Training on the HbA1c of Type II Diabetes/]] * [[/Type 2 diabetes and resistance exercise/]] * [[/The relationship between type 1 diabetes and heavy exercise/]], * [[/Effects of aerobic exercise on metabolic syndrome/]] * [[/Benefits of Exercise for Women with Gestational Diabetes/]] === Mental health === * ^**[[/Kick the blues with exercise/]] * ^**[[/Alzheimer's Disease and Exercise/]] * ^**[[/Improving the Quality of Life With Alzheimer's Disease Through Exercise/]] * ^**[[/An Active Mind - Aerobic Exercise and Depression for Health Professionals/]] * [[/Exercise in the Treatment of Depression/]] * [[/Depression and green exercise/]] === Cancer related === * [[/Breast Cancer Related Lymphoedema and Resistance Exercise/]] === Pulmonary === * ^**[[/The importance of exercise for patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)/]] * ^**[[/Asthma, exercise and cold environments/]] * [[/Long-term use of oral corticosteroids in treatment of COPD and exercise prescription/]] * [[/Long Slow Distance Training to Improve Aerobic Capacity in Cystic Fibrosis Patients/]] * [[/The use of Salbutimol (Ventolin) in controlling Asthma when doing Cardio-respiratory exercise/]] * [[/The Effects of Exercise on Smoking Induced COPD/]] === Musculoskeletal === * [[/The use of resistance training in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in the elderly/]] * [[/Effects of Resistance Training on the Reduction of Sarcopenia/]] * [[/The effects of exercise on osteoporosis sufferers/]] * [[/Osteoarthritis and Resistance Training as an Intervention Strategy|Osteoarthritis and resistance training as an intervention strategy]] * [[/Weight training in the treatment of osteoporosis/]] * [[/Aerobic Exercise in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis/]] * [[/Guidelines for Resistance Training in Children/]] === Other === * [[/Exercise to improve mobility in Parkinson's disease/]] * [[/Exercise to prevent falls in the elderly/]] * [[/The Affects of Resistance Exercise on Parkinson's Disease/]] == Medical Disclaimer == {{Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer}} {{shelves|class projects|health sciences}} {{alphabetical|E}} {{status|75%}} gfsgfmxq208cugrv4ajd7dud358l3ai 0 264507 4095446 3797699 2022-08-23T15:27:29Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typo wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== A Search Warrant is an Order issued by a Justice of the Peace under statute that authorizes a person to enter into a location and seize specified evidence that is relevant and material to an offence.<ref>Nova Scotia v. MacIntyre, [1982] 1 S.C.R. 175 at p.179[http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/1982/1982canlii14/1982canlii14.html 1982 CanLII 14]</ref> The warrant is a substitute for consent to enter a private premises or any other places with reasonable expectations of privacy.<ref>R. v. Pugliese (1992), 71 CCC 295 (Ont.CA)[http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onca/doc/1992/1992canlii2781/1992canlii2781.html 1992 CanLII 2781]</ref> The criminal code provides for several types of search warrants: {| cellpadding="2" class="wikitable" |- | * General Search Warrant ( [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html#sec487 s. 487])<ref>R. v. Multiform Manufacturing Co, , [1990] 2 S.C.R. 624 [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/1990/1990canlii79/1990canlii79.html 1990 CanLII 79]; R. v. Grant [1993] 3 S.C.R. 223 [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/1993/1993canlii68/1993canlii68.html 1993 CanLII 68];</ref> * Firearms warrant ( [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html#sec117 s.117.04]) * Obscene materials (s. 164) * Consent wiretap (s. 184.2) * Wiretap (s. 186) * Impaired Driving Blood Samples ([http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html#sec256 s.256]) | * Proceeds of Crime (s. 462.32) * DNA Sample ( [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html#sec487 s. 487.05]) * Tracking (s.492.1) * Number recordings (s. 492.2) * Telephone records ( [http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html#sec492 s. 492.2(2)]) * Bodily impressions (s. 487.091) | * Drug offences (s. 11 CDSA) * Telewarrants ( 487.1) * Explosives Warrant (492) * Entry for Arrest (529, 529.1) * Production Order (.s 487.011-013) |} There are other search and seizure powers found under a variety of other federal Acts that are not directly criminal in nature.<Ref>See Income Tax Act, Excise Act, Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act, Fisheries Act</ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Purpose of a warrant== The purpose of a search warrant is to allow investigators to "locate, examine and preserve all the evidence relevant to events which may have given rise to criminal liability."<ref> R. v. Vu, 2011 BCCA 536 at para. 30 citing CanadianOxy Chemicals Ltd. v. Canada (Attorney General), 1999 CanLII 680 (SCC), [1999] 1 S.C.R. 743 at 20-22</ref> A search warrant can be used not only for collecting evidence supporting a criminal charge but also as an investigative tool for alleged criminal activity.<ref>Descôteaux v. Mierzwinski, [http://canlii.ca/t/1lpc6 1982 CanLII 22] (SCC), [1982] 1 S.C.R. 860 at 891 and R. v. Vu [http://canlii.ca/t/fpfws 2011 BCCA 536] at [http://canlii.ca/t/fpfws#par29 para 29]</ref> The items sought need not necessarily afford evidence of the actual commission of the offence under investigation. Rather it "must be something either taken by itself or in relation to other things, that could be reasonably believed to be evidence of the commission of the crime." <ref> R v Vu at para. 31 citing R. v. Canadian Broadcasting Corp. reflex, (1992), 77 C.C.C. (3d) 341 at 351 (Ont. Ct. (G.D.))</ref> A search warrant makes valid act which would otherwise be considered trespass.<ref> R. v. Pugliese, 1992 CanLII 2781 (ON CA), <http://canlii.ca/t/1npnm> ("entry upon private lands by officials of the state was a trespass unless there was a lawful authorization for the entry.")</ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Procedure for Obtaining a Warrant== An application for a search warrant consists of an "Information to Obtain" (ITO) and usually a draft warrant that presented to a justice of the peace or judge. An ITO consists of a statement under oath or an affidavit of an informant detailing the facts known (both first hand or second hand) that would provide basis to issue a warrant.<ref> R. v. Debot (1986) 30 CCC 207 (Ont.CA)<br> R. v. Richard (1996) 150 NSR 232 (NSCA)</ref> An application for a warrant is an ''ex parte'' motion and as such must "make full, fair and frank disclosure of all material facts".<Ref> R. v. Araujo, 2000 SCC 65 (CanLII), 2000 SCC 65, [2000] 2 S.C.R. 992, at para. 46</ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Issuing of Warrant: Reasonable and Probable Grounds== The Charter requires that for all warrants police must provide "reasonable and probable grounds, established upon oath, to believe that an offence has been committed and that there is evidence to be found at the place of the search"<ref>Hunter v. Southam Inc., 1984 CanLII 33 (SCC), 1984 CanLII 33 (SCC), [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145, at p. 168<br> See also R. v. Vella (1984) 14 CCC 513<br> R. v. Harris, [http://www.canlii.org/en/on/onca/doc/1987/1987canlii181/1987canlii181.html 1987 CanLII 181 (ON CA)]<br> </ref> These requirements set out the "minimum standard, consistent with s. 8 of the Charter, for authorizing search and seizure"<ref>Hunter v Southam at p. 168</ref> In more recent times the standard is called "reasonable grounds to believe". <ref> Mugesera v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2005 SCC 40[http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2005/2005scc40/2005scc40.html#para114] at para. 114</ref> The standard of reasonable grounds to believe is greater than mere suspicion but less than on a balance of probabilities when the totality of the circumstances are considered.<ref>ibid.; R. v. Le [http://www.canlii.org/en/bc/bcca/doc/2006/2006bcca298/2006bcca298.html 2006 BCCA 298]; [http://www.canlii.org/en/bc/bcca/doc/2006/2006bcca463/2006bcca463.html 2006 BCCA 463]</ref> It is a standard of reasonable probability and is credibility based. It must be more than mere possibility or suspicion.<ref> Hunter et al. v. Southam Inc., 1984 CanLII 33 (SCC), [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145<Br> Baron v. Canada, 1993 CanLII 154 (SCC), [1993] 1 S.C.R. 416)<br> </ref> It is a standard of "credibly-based probability" <ref>R. v. Hosie [1996] O.J. No. 2175 (ONCA) at para. 11; Hunter v. Southam Inc., 1984 CanLII 33 (SCC), [1984] 2 S.C.R. 145 at p. 167</ref> The key elements to credibility-based probability includes:<ref> R. v. Morris 1998 CanLII 1344 (NS CA), (1998), 173 N.S.R. (2d) 1 (C.A.) at para. 31</ref> #The Information to obtain the warrant must set out sworn evidence sufficient to establish reasonable grounds for believing that an offence has been committed, that the things to be searched for will afford evidence and that the things in question will be found at a specked place<ref>R. v. Sanchez 1994 CanLII 5271 (ON SC), (1994), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 357 (Ont. Ct. Gen. Div.) at 365</ref> #The Information to obtain as a whole must be considered and peace officers, who generally will prepare these documents without legal assistance, should not be held to the “specificity and legal precision expected of pleadings at the trial stage.”<ref>Sanchez, supra, at 364</ref> # The affiant’s reasonable belief does not have to be based on personal knowledge, but the Information to obtain must, in the totality of circumstances, disclose a substantial basis for the existence of the affiant’s belief: R. v. Yorke 1992 CanLII 2521 (NS CA), (1992), 115 N.S.R. (2d) 426 (C.A.); affd 1993 CanLII 83 (SCC), [1993] 3 S.C.R. 647. The court may consider the experience of a police officer when assessing whether the officer's subjective belief was objectively reasonable.<ref>R v. MacKenzie 2011 SKCA 64 at para. 27, see also R v. Navales 2011 ABQB 404<br> R. v. Sanchez (1994), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 537 (Ont.Gen. Div.) </ref> The Justice of the Peace may draw reasonable inferences from the information found in the ITO.<ref> See R. v. Durling, 2006 NSCA 124 (CanLII) at paras. 27-28; R. v. Vu at para. 40</ref> The approving justice must be satisfied that there is a connection between the grounds for belief of the offence and that evidence of or information related to the offence will be found on the premises to be searched.<ref> R. v. Turcotte 1987 CanLII 984 (SK CA), (1987), 39 C.C.C. (3d) 193 (Sask.C.A)</ref> The Information to Obtain the search warrant (ITO) does not need to state every step a police officer takes in obtaining information.<ref>R. v. Sanchez, [1994] OJ No. 2260 at para. 20</ref> An ITO can be read in a practical, non-technical, common-sense fashion.<ref> R. v. Whitaker, 2008 BCCA 174 at 41-42</ref> The officer’s are not held to the same drafting quality as counsel.<ref> Re Lubell and the Queen (1973), 11 C.C.C. (2d) 188 (Ont. H.C.), at p.190;<Br> R. v. Durling 2006 NSCA 124 , (2006), 214 C.C.C. (3d) 49 (N.S.C.A.), at para. 19;<Br> R. v. Sanchez 1994 CanLII 5271 (ON SC), (1994), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 357 (Ont. Ct. Gen. Div.), at p. 364;<Br> Re Chapman and the Queen, (1983), 6 C.C.C. (3d) 296 (Ont. H.C.), at p. 297.<Br> </ref> The document should be reliable, balanced and material. It should also be clear, concise, legally and factually sufficient, but it need not include “every minute detail of the police investigation”. <ref>C.B.C. v. A.-G. for New Brunswick 1991 CanLII 50 (SCC), (1991), 67 C.C.C. (3d) 544 (S.C.C.), at p. 562<br> R. v. Araujo [http://canlii.ca/t/5231 2000 SCC 65], (2000), 149 C.C.C. (3d) 449 (S.C.C.), at p. 470;<br> R. v. Ling [http://canlii.ca/t/22jfr 2009 BCCA 70], (2009), 241 C.C.C. (3d) 409 (B.C.C.A.), at para. 43 (leave to appeal refused, [2009] S.C.C.A. No. 165)<br> </ref> The ITO cannot be based on any information that was learned through an warrantless search of an agent of the state. Where the basis of the warrant relies on a confidential informer, the requirement from R v Debot must be considered.<Ref> R. v. Hosie [1996] O.J. No. 2175 (ONCA) at para. 12<br> See R. v. Debot 1989 CanLII 13 (SCC), 1989 CanLII 13 (SCC), (1989), 52 C.C.C. (3d) 193 at page 215 (S.C.C.)</ref> Generally, the requirement will increase "the level of verification required" where "credibility cannot be assessed", "fewer details are provided", and "the risk of innocent coincidence is greater". <ref>R v Debot, at page 218</ref> Generally, an approving justice should be satisfied that:<ref>R v Adams [http://canlii.ca/t/1grg4 2004 CanLII 12093] (NL PC) at para. 24</ref> # that the items specified exist; # that the items specified will be found in the place to be searched at the time of the search; # that the offence alleged has been, or will be, (depending on the type of search warrant being sought) committed; # that the items specified will afford evidence of the offence alleged; and # that the place to be searched is the location where the items will be located. The document should be reliable, balanced and material. It should also be clear, concise, legally and factually sufficient, but it need not include “every minute detail of the police investigation” <ref>C.B.C. v. A.-G. for New Brunswick 1991 CanLII 50 (SCC), (1991), 67 C.C.C. (3d) 544 (S.C.C.), at p. 562<br> R. v. Araujo 2000 SCC 65 (CanLII), (2000), 149 C.C.C. (3d) 449 (S.C.C.), at p. 470<br> R. v. Ling 2009 BCCA 70 (CanLII), (2009), 241 C.C.C. (3d) 409 (B.C.C.A.), at para. 43 (leave to appeal refused, [2009] S.C.C.A. No. 165)</ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Standard of Review: The Garofoli Application== A "Garofoli Application" refers to the defence motion to exclude evidence collected under a search warrant. Before a party can make such an application, they must have standing, which requires that there be an established [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Reasonable Expectation of Privacy|Reasonable Expectation of Privacy]]. '''Presumptions and Burdens'''<br> A warrant is presumed valid. The applicant bears the burden to establish that there was insufficient basis for issuing the warrant. <ref> R. v. Campbell, [http://canlii.ca/t/2c4pf 2010 ONCA 558], at para. 45. (aff’d, 2011 SCC 32)<br> R v Shier, [1998] OJ No 5751 at para. 48<br> Quebec (Attorney General) v. Laroche, [http://canlii.ca/t/50d5 2002 SCC 72] (CanLII), [2002] 3 S.C.R. 708<br> </ref> This presumption applies not only to the warrant but the ITO as well.<ref> R v Collins (1989) 48 CCC (3d) 343 at p. 356</ref> '''Degree of Deference'''<br> The reviewing judge is not examining police conduct with great attention to minor details or dissection. <ref> R. v. Grant [http://canlii.ca/t/1f973 1999 CanLII 3694] (ON CA), (1999), 132 C.C.C. (3d) 531 (Ont. C.A.) at 543 (leave to appeal refused [1999] S.C.C.A. No. 168 (Q.L.), 150 C.C.C. (3d) vi); R. v. Chan, [1998] O.J. No. 4536 (Q.L.) at para. 4, 40 W.C.B. (2d) 143 (C.A.)<br> R. v. Melenchuk and Rahemtulla, [1993] B.C.J. No. 558 at para. 15-18<br> Simonyi Gindele et al. v. British Columbia (Attorney General) (1991), 2 B.C.A.C. 73 (C.A.) at 79.</ref> Rather the judge must look at whether there is sufficient evidence for the warrant.<ref>R. v. Nguyen, 2011 ONCA 465 at 57</ref> The test on review is not whether the reviewing judge would have granted the warrant but whether there was "reliable evidence that might reasonably be believed" on which the warrant could have been issued.<ref> R. v. Araujo, [http://canlii.ca/t/5231 2000 SCC 65] (CanLII), [2000] 2 SCR 992 at para. 54<br> See also R. v. Witaker [http://canlii.ca/t/1wqgl 2008 BCCA 174]<Br> R. v. Garofoli, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fss5 1990 CanLII 52] (SCC), [1990] 2 SCR 1421 at para. 56<br> R. v. Grant, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fs0r 1993 CanLII 68] (SCC), [1993] 3 SCR 223 at para. 49<br> R v. Veinot (1995), 144 N.S.R. (2d) 388 (C.A.) at p. 391, [http://www.canlii.org/en/ns/nsca/doc/1995/1995canlii4262/1995canlii4262.html 1995 CanLII 4262]<br> R v Morelli, [http://canlii.ca/t/28mrg 2010 SCC 8] at para. 40<br> </ref> The reviewing judge should not "substitute his or her own view for that of the authorizing judge."<ref> R v Garofoli 1990 CanLII 52 (SCC)</ref> A search of a private premises "is a derogation from common law rights of ownership. The necessary formalities in the execution of the warrant must, therefore, be strictly observed".<ref> R. v. B.(J.E.), (1989), 52 C.C.C. (3d) 224 (N.S.C.A.)</ref> '''Quality of Drafting'''<br> Flaws are to be expected. <ref>Nguyen, at 58</ref>Inaccuracies or material facts not disclosed does not necessarily detract from the existence of statutory preconditions.<ref> R v Pires [http://canlii.ca/t/1m021#par30 2005 SCC 66 at 30]</ref> Errors in the information, "whether advertent or even fraudulent, are only factors to be considered in deciding to set aside the authorization and do not by themselves lead to automatic vitiation of the ... authorization."<ref>R. v. Bisson, [http://canlii.ca/t/1frp6 1994 CanLII 46] (S.C.C.), [1994] 3 S.C.R. 1097; (1995), 94 C.C.C. (3d) 94 at p. 1098</ref> The ITO is examined as a whole and not one piece of evidence at a time. <Ref> R. v. Whitaker, [http://canlii.ca/t/1wqgl 2008 BCCA 174] <br> R. v. Brachi, 2005 BCCA 461 <br> Re Church of Scientology & the Queen (No. 6) 1987 CanLII 122 (ON CA), (1987), 31 C.C.C. (3d) 449 (Ont. C.A.))<br> </ref> '''Excised Portions of ITO'''<br> Inaccurate or omitted information in an ITO does not necessarily render it invalid. Inaccurate information can be excised from the ITO, and re-evaluated without the offending information.<ref> See R v Bisson [http://canlii.ca/t/1frp6 1994 CanLII 46] (SCC), [1994] 3 SCR 1097, (1994) 94 CCC (3d) 94 at pp. 95-96<br> R. v. Budd, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fbj8 2000 CanLII 17014] (ON CA) at para. 20-23<br> R. v. Agensys International Inc., [http://canlii.ca/t/1hd0h 2004 CanLII 17920] (ON CA) at para. 32<br> </ref> '''Amplification Evidence'''<br> Where information was omitted from an ITO or where information has been excised for other reasons, it is possible to remedy it by adducing amplification evidence. This form of evidence can be adduced to correct innocent, minor or technical errors. {{reflist|2}} ==Contents of an ITO== ===Basic elements=== It was suggested by Justice Hill in R. v. Chhan, [http://canlii.ca/t/1nsh1 1996 CanLII 7025 (SK QB)] that there are five basic questions that all ITO's must address at a minimum: #What are the grounds for believing the things to be searched for exist? #What are the grounds for saying that the things to be searched for are at the place to be searched? #What are the grounds for saying the offence has been committed as described? #How will the things to be searched for afford evidence of the commission of the offence alleged? #What are the grounds for saying that the place to be searched is at the location identified? It has also been suggested the justice must be satisfied:<ref> R. v. Turcotte, [http://canlii.ca/t/1prwx 1987 CanLII 984](SK CA) at p. 14</ref> #that an offence has been committed or is suspected of being committed; #that the location of the search is a building, receptacle or place; #that the item sought will provide evidence of the commission of the offence or that the possession thereof is an offence of itself; # that the grounds stated are current so as to lead credence to the reasonable and probable grounds; # that there is a nexus between the various considerations set out. A search warrant must specify the premises that is to be searched.<Ref> s. 487(1)[http://canlii.ca/t/7vf2#sec487] <br> R v McGregor 1985 23 CCC 266 (QB) </ref> The ITO must specify a particular offence that is being investigated.<ref>R. v. Dombrowski (1985) 18 CCC 164</ref> As well, it must not simply include "conclusory" statements but rather the factual grounds for the conclusions.<ref> R. v. Stockton Financial Services Co. (1990) 60 CCC 527 (Man CA); R. v. Harris (1987) 35 CCC 1 (Ont.CA)</ref> An unsigned affidavit supporting a wiretap warrant is not necessarily fatal to the application.<Ref> R. v. Dixon, 2012 ONSC 181</reF> {{reflist|2}} ===Drafting Practices=== A properly drafted warrant, as a best practice, should generally involve the following elements: # identify the ''type'' of warrant sought as well as relevant sections. # the judicial authority the request is made to (JP, Superior Court Justice, Provincial Court Judge) # detail the identity of the affiant ## name, title, rank, length of employment, ##working group, mandate, my role in ground, type of offences investigated ## personal relevant experience # sources of information ## databases relied upon ## personal sources (name, age, residence, criminal record) # persons of interest (name, age, residences, charges, criminal record) # property at issue: (if forfeiture or seizure) ## describe it (location, size, who is in possession of item, all information on ownership/owners) ## avoid over-breadth, vagueness # location to be searched ## address, region, description of location # summary of investigation # previous applications # reasons for any special requests (telewarrant, night-time search) # conclusion / requested order Tips for contents: * make the source of information clear for each statement of fact * if any evidence was obtained unconstitutionally, indicate what amount if any that evidence formed the basis of the warrant * make sure to sign the document {{reflist|2}} ===Full, Frank and Fair Disclosure=== The affiant must make "full, frank and fair" disclosure of all information known to the officer relevant to the matter before the authorizing justice.<ref> R. v. Moore [http://canlii.ca/t/1d9w9 1993 CanLII 17] (BC CA), (1993), 81 C.C.C. (3d) 161 (B.C.C.A.) aff'd on appeal<br> R. v. Kensington Income Tax, [1917] 1 K.B. 486 (C.A.)<br> Church of Scientology and The Queen (No. 6), Re, [http://canlii.ca/t/1npn2 1987 CanLII 122] (ON CA)<br> United States of America v. Friedland, [1996] O.J. No. 4399 (Gen.Div.), at paras. 26-29<br> </ref> This obligation arises due to the ''ex parte'' nature of the application.<ref> Araujo at para. 46-47<br> </ref> This does not require disclosing every fact that might possibly be relevant.<ref> R. v. Chambers [http://canlii.ca/t/23m18 1983 CanLII 245] (BC CA), (1983), 9 C.C.C. (3d) 132 (B.C.C.A.) at p. 143 aff'd 1986 CanLII 22 (SCC), (1986), 26 C.C.C. (3d) 353 (S.C.C.)<br> R. v. Concepcion (1994), 48 B.C.A.C. 44 (B.C.C.A)<br> </ref> {{reflist|2}} ===Procedure=== A judge or justice of the peace rejecting a search warrant application can provide the applicant with a list of errors or omissions that make the warrant deficient without losing their responsibility as a neutral arbiter.<ref>R. v. Truong, 2012 ABQB 182 </ref> {{reflist|2}} ===Description of the Place to be Searched=== A warrant of a premises must accurately describe the location to be searched. If it fails to do so the warrant will be invalid.<ref> Re McAvoy (1970) 12 C.R.N.S. 56 (NWTSC) at para. 57 ("To avoid search warrants becoming an instrument of abuse it has long been understood that if a search warrant ... fails to accurately describe the premises to be searched ... then it will be invalid")</ref> The sufficiency of the description of the place must be assessed based on the face of the warrant, separately from the contents of the ITO or the manner it was executed.<ref> R. v. Parent, [http://canlii.ca/t/1p1h5 1989 CanLII 217] (YK CA) - no address whatsoever on warrant, but address present in ITO </ref> Failure to name a place on the warrant "is not a mere matter of procedural defect, but so fundamental as to render the document of no legal effect."<ref> Parent</ref> {{reflist|2}} ====Error in Addresses==== If the address in the warrant is wrong, the search becomes warrantless.<Ref> see R. v. Krammer, [http://canlii.ca/t/4wxn 2001 BCSC 1205] (CanLII), [2001] B.C.J. No. 2869 (S.C.)<br> R. v. Silvestrone [http://canlii.ca/t/23276 1991 CanLII 5759] (BC CA), (1991), 66 C.C.C. (3d) 125 (B.C.C.A.), at pp. 130-132 </ref> For a search of an apartment building, the warrant must specify the unit number.<ref> R. v. Wisdom, [http://canlii.ca/t/fpvkb 2012 ONCJ 54] (CanLII) at para. 44 ("The warrant fails to specifically authorize a search of apartment 303 which is where the applicants resided")<br> </ref> A warrant is still valid where the address is wrong or vague in one section of the ITO but valid in another section.<ref> R. v. Sexton, [http://canlii.ca/t/fnl3l 2011 NBCA 97] (CanLII) at paras 4-9 </ref> Where the ITO is inconsistent with the warrant some level of error is permissible as long as the location remains sufficiently clear.<ref> R. v. Parker, [http://canlii.ca/t/1q6fs 2006 NBPC 38] (CanLII) - address on warrant varied from address in ITO. ITO address was correct. Warrant found valid.<br> R. v. Jacobson, [http://canlii.ca/t/22fnp 2009 ONCA 130] (CanLII) - correct address in ITO, error in warrant address. Warrant valid to search car only, lower expectation of privacy in car<br> </ref> {{reflist|2}} ===Description of Thing(s) to be Seized=== The warrant's description of things to be seized "operates as a guide for the officers conducting the search."<ref> R. v. Du, [http://canlii.ca/t/1j9ff 2004 ABQB 849] (CanLII) at para. 12</ref> The justice of the peace loses jurisdiction where the description is over-broad or too vague such that it essentially allows the officer to conduct a "carte blanche" search for any evidence within the premises.<ref> Du at para. 12</ref> It has been recommended the following principles be considered:<ref>Du at para. 12</ref> #peace officers should be given some latitude in describing things as they are still at the investigative stage; #the description may be limited to classes of documents if it is sufficiently limited to the crime for which they are alleged to afford evidence; #the Information sworn to obtain the Search Warrant must be read together with the Search Warrant; #the nature of the offence(s) must be considered; #in considering all of the factors, appropriate inferences may be made; #there need not always be a time limit set out with respect to the documents sought; #overly broad or vague descriptions can be severed leaving validly described things remaining; #each case must be considered on its own facts. see also R. v. Church of Scientology, supra; Re: Lubell and The Queen (1973), 11 C.C.C. (2d) 188 (Ont. H.C.J.); R. v. Silverstar Energy Inc., [2004] B.C.J. No. 1767 (B.C.S.C.); R. v. Sanchez and Sanchez [http://canlii.ca/t/1p79n 1994 CanLII 5271] (ON SC), 1994 CanLII 5271 (ON SC), (1994), 93 C.C.C. (3d) 357 (Ont. Ct. Gen. Div.); R. v. PSI Mind Development Institute Ltd. (1977), 37 C.C.C. (2d) 263 (Ont. H.C.)) {{reflist|2}} ==Types of Evidence Used== ===Statement by Accused=== Where the ITO contains a statement from the accused, the document must also show that the accused was properly cautioned and given a right to counsel. <ref> R. v. Allen, [http://canlii.ca/t/2dcd3 1995 ABCA 384] at para. 5<Br> R. v. Campbell, [http://canlii.ca/t/55zz 2003 MBCA 76] at para. 49-51<Br> R. v. Sonne, [http://canlii.ca/t/fqmdt 2012 ONSC 140] at para. 17 </ref> The statement cannot be involuntary.<Ref> R. v. Ye, [http://canlii.ca/t/fl0wm 2011 ONSC 2278] at para. 40<br> </ref> {{Reflist|2}} ===Criminal Records=== A copy of the informer's criminal record should be included in the ITO except where it may tend to reveal the identity of the informer.<Ref>R. v. Johnston, [http://www.canlii.org/en/ab/abpc/doc/2009/2009abpc315/2009abpc315.html#par44 2009 ABPC 315 at 44]]</ref> Where the ITO states that the informer has a criminal record when in fact the informer was merely charged, it may be sufficient to void the warrant.<ref>R. v. Sismey, [http://canlii.ca/t/1d7fr 1990 CanLII 1483 (BC CA)]</ref> There is no added value in including charges that have been stayed or withdrawn. The prejudicial effect is too great. <ref>R v Johnson [http://canlii.ca/t/1lsw6#par8 2005 BCPC 432 at 8]</ref> {{reflist|2}} ===Hearsay=== The applicant should always indicate whether they are relying on hearsay or direct knowledge.<Ref> e.g. see R. v. Nightingale, [http://canlii.ca/t/1mw8j 2006 ABPC 79] (CanLII) at para. 65 to 67 - officer failed to specify</ref> An ITO relying upon hearsay does does not exclude it from establishing "probable cause".<ref> Eccles v. Bourque, [http://canlii.ca/t/1z1gw 1974 CanLII 191] (SCC), [1975] 2 SCR 739 at p. 746 ( "That this information was hearsay does not exclude it from establishing probable cause") </ref> An ITO may contain hearsay as long as it is sourced and details are given about the source so the Justice can review the source's reliability and weigh its evidentiary value. <Ref> R v. KP, [http://canlii.ca/t/fn3tk 2011 NUCJ 27] at para. 83<br> see also R. v. Philpott, [http://canlii.ca/t/1cc4p 2002 CanLII 25164] (ON SC) at para. 40<br> R. v. Bryan, [http://canlii.ca/t/1vk9r 2008 CanLII 2595] (ON SC) at para. 81</ref> Details on the source should be used to distinguish the information from rumor or gossip.<ref> R. v. Allain, [http://canlii.ca/t/1lrj9 1998 CanLII 12250] (NB CA) at pp. 12-13 ("As a rule, sources of hearsay information must be identified in the supporting Information. This rule is designed to enable the issuing judge to satisfy himself or herself that the information is more than rumour or gossip")</ref> Where the hearsay source is not set out the part of the ITO may be defective.<ref> R. v. Bui and Do, [http://canlii.ca/t/1kwsn 2005 BCPC 210] (CanLII) at para. 57</ref> It has been recommended that where the source is the notes or reports of other officers there should be detail on how it was obtained and why it is reliable.<ref> Bui and Do at para. 57</ref> It has been considered in appropriate to paraphrase or edit the notes of the other officers in materials ways.<ref> R. v. Liang, Yeung, Zhu, Zhai, Wen, Zhou, Jiang, Cheung and Xu, [http://canlii.ca/t/1r3nj 2007 YKTC 18] (CanLII)</ref> It has been further suggested that where it is from a written statement of a witness, details of identity and their involvement should be provided.<ref> ibid.</ref> Whether the confidential informant was paid should be provided as well.<Ref> Build and Do at para. 57</ref> Debot factors are to be applied when considering hearsay. {{reflist|2}} ===Expert Evidence=== For expert evidence to be used in an ITO, it must contain details on the expert's qualifications and experience as well as show the methods the expert used to come to their conclusion.<Ref> Criminal Code s. 487.01, Application of General Warrant, [http://canlii.ca/t/5j96 2002 SKPC 11]<Br> R. v. Morelli, [http://canlii.ca/t/1x08k 2008 SKCA 62] at para. 122 <Br> R. v. Agensys International Inc. 2004 CanLII 17920 (ON CA), (2004), 187 C.C.C. (3d) 481 at para. 44<Br> </ref> {{Reflist|2}} ==Frequent Errors== ===Omissions, mischaracterizations, Material Non Disclosure=== It is improper for the warrant to contain incomplete, misleading or misrepresented information on the investigation. This can occur where the affiant is deliberately kept out of the investigation and only given favourable information to support the warrant. <ref>e.g. R. v. Morelli at para. 58<Br> R. v. M(NN) 2007 CanLII 31570 (ON SC), (2007), 223 C.C.C. (3d) 417 (Ont. Sup. Ct. of Jus.) at para. 354 (“... as a straw man affiant apparently deliberately kept in the dark ...”)</ref> The warrant will typically be invalid if the misstatement or omission was deliberate or a finding of bad faith. <ref> R. v. Melenchuk (1993), 24 B.C.A.C. 97 (BCCA)<br> R. v. Donaldson 1990 CanLII 630 (BC CA), (1990), 58 C.C.C. (3d) 294 (B.C.C.A.) - police deliberated withheld information from the JP<br> R. v. Sismey 1990 CanLII 1483 (BC CA), (1990), 55 C.C.C.(3d) 281 at p. 285<br> R. v. Innocente 1992 CanLII 2449 (NS CA), (1992), 113 N.S.R. (2d) 256 (S.C.)<br> R. v. Silvestrone 1991 CanLII 5759 (BC CA), (1991), 66 C.C.C. (3d) 125 (B.C.C.A.) at p. 136<br> R. v. Brassard, (1992), 77 C.C.C. (3d) 285 (Sask.Q.B.)<br> R. v. Dellapenna (1995), 62 B.C.A.C. 32 (B.C.C.A.)<br> R. v. Fletcher 1994 CanLII 4169 (NS SC), (1994), 140 N.S.R. (2d) 254 </ref> The quashing is necessary to avoid corruption of the process.<Ref> R. v. Maton, [http://canlii.ca/t/1k2jq 2005 BCSC 330] (CanLII) at para. 26<br> R. v. Morris 1998 CanLII 1344 (NS CA), (1998), 134 C.C.C. (3d) 539 (N.S.C.A.) at para. 44</ref> However, where the justice "could have" granted the warrant regardless of the deception, it may still be valid.<ref> R. v. Bisson 1994 CanLII 46 (SCC), (1994), 94 C.C.C. (3d) 94 (S.C.C.) upholding Proulx J.A. in 1994 CanLII 5328 (QC CA), (1994), 87 C.C.C. (3d) 440 (Que.C.A.)</ref> However, at times a poorly drafted and misleading warrant will, on its own, invalidate the warrant.<ref> e.g. R. v. Norris (1993), 35 B.C.A.C. 133 (B.C.C.A.) </ref> {{Reflist|2}} ===Nexus between Offence Evidence and Premises=== The informant must pledge that the items not simply "could" be found but would be found. <ref> R. v. Kelly 2010 NBCA 89 at para. 39</ref> {{Reflist|2}} ===Overbroad Authority=== It is essential that the warrant not be overly broad. The description of the targets of the search should not be so vague as to give the police the ability to rummage through the premises. <ref>Church of Scientology and The Queen (No. 6), Re, [http://canlii.ca/t/1npn2 1987 CanLII 122] (ON CA): ("The description of what is to be searched for must not be so broad and vague as to give the searching officers carte blanche to rummage through the premises of the target. The things must be described in such a way as to guide the officer or officers carrying out the search and assist them in identifying the object.") </ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Special Issues== ===Computer Investigations=== The connection of an IP address with an ISP account can form reasonable grounds to believe that a computer will be present at the address, but will often need something more.<ref>see R. v. Weir (2001), 156 C.C.C. (3d) 188 (ABCA): ("While it is possible that the computer may have been at a different location than the billing address, it was not unreasonable to conclude that something as sensitive as child pornography would be kept on a computer in a person’s home.")</ref> Where a warrant permits the police to search a residence and seize computers, the police are permitted to complete full forensic analysis on the computer without any additional warrants needed.<ref> R. v. Ballendine, [http://canlii.ca/t/fl8xf 2011 BCCA 221] (CanLII) </ref> The searching officer may draw the inference upon learning of the download of suspected child pornography that the files may remain on the computer well after download and even where efforts to delete the materials have been made.<ref> R. v. Ward, [http://canlii.ca/t/ft0ft 2012 ONCA 660] (CanLII) at para. 114"...extensive technical evidence to the effect that files downloaded by the appellant on the computer could be recovered by police technicians even if the appellant had made efforts to delete those files. This evidence offered some basis for an inference that the prohibited material remained on the computer long after it was downloaded and could be recovered if the police were given access to the computer" </ref> The searching officer may in some cases also rely upon their experience "of individuals who access and possess child pornography on their computers" which tells them that "often these individuals kept images for “long periods of time” and “rarely deleted collections”." <ref>Ward at para. 115</ref> {{reflist|2}} ===Law Offices=== A justice of the peace should follow the following principles when considering a search of a law office os that [[Canadian_Criminal_Evidence/Privilege#Solicitor_Client_Privilege|solicitor-client privilege]] is protected:<ref> Lavallee, Rackel & Heintz v. Canada 2002 SCC 61 at para. 49</ref> # No search warrant can be issued with regards to documents that are known to be protected by solicitor-client privilege. # Before searching a law office, the investigative authorities must satisfy the issuing justice that there exists no other reasonable alternative to the search. # When allowing a law office to be searched, the issuing justice must be rigorously demanding so to afford maximum protection of solicitor-client confidentiality. # Except when the warrant specifically authorizes the immediate examination, copying and seizure of an identified document, all documents in possession of a lawyer must be sealed before being examined or removed from the lawyer’s possession. # Every effort must be made to contact the lawyer and the client at the time of the execution of the search warrant. Where the lawyer or the client cannot be contacted, a representative of the Bar should be allowed to oversee the sealing and seizure of documents. # The investigative officer executing the warrant should report to the justice of the peace the efforts made to contact all potential privilege holders, who should then be given a reasonable opportunity to assert a claim of privilege and, if that claim is contested, to have the issue judicially decided. # If notification of potential privilege holders is not possible, the lawyer who had custody of the documents seized, or another lawyer appointed either by the Law Society or by the court, should examine the documents to determine whether a claim of privilege should be asserted, and should be given a reasonable opportunity to do so. # The Attorney General may make submissions on the issue of privilege, but should not be permitted to inspect the documents beforehand. The prosecuting authority can only inspect the documents if and when it is determined by a judge that the documents are not privileged. # Where sealed documents are found not to be privileged, they may be used in the normal course of the investigation. # Where documents are found to be privileged, they are to be returned immediately to the holder of the privilege, or to a person designated by the court. A "law office" includes "any place where privileged documents may reasonably be expected to be located".<ref> Festing v. Canada (Attorney General), [http://canlii.ca/t/5d31 2003 BCCA 112] (CanLII) at para. 24</ref> A search warrant of law office must impose conditions to protect potential privilege "as much as possible". Without proper protections the warrant is invalid.<ref> R. v. Piersanti & Company, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fbjv 2000 CanLII 17032] (ON CA) </ref> Section 488.1 concerning search of law offices was found to be unconstitutional.<ref> Lavallee, Rackel & Heintz v. Canada (Attorney General); White, Ottenheimer & Baker v. Canada (Attorney General); R. v. Fink, [http://canlii.ca/t/51rj 2002 SCC 61] (CanLII), [2002] 3 SCR 209</ref> {{reflist|2}} ==Sealing and Unsealing of Warrants== Once a warrant is executed, it and the ITO must be made available to the public unless the warrant is placed under a sealing order.<Ref>Toronto Star Newspaper Ltd. v Ontario, 2005 SCC 41</ref> Under s. 487.3(1), an application to seal a warrant and ITO can be made prohibiting disclosure of any information related to the warrant on the basis that access to it would subvert the ends of justice or the information would be put to an improper purpose. Under s. 487.3(2), set out the basis of how the ends of justice would be subverted. The applicant must be specific on the grounds of sealing, there must be "particularized grounds". Generalized assertions are not enough.<ref> Toronto Star v Ontario, 2005 SCC 41 at 36 to 42</ref> Under s. 487.3(4), the sealing order may be varied or terminated. {{reflist|2}} ===Vetting Procedure=== Where unsealing an unvetted ITO, the court should follow the procedure set out in Garofoli:<ref> R. v. Garofoli, [http://canlii.ca/t/1fss5 1990 CanLII 52] (SCC), [1990] 2 SCR 1421</ref> #Upon opening of the packet, if the Crown objects to disclosure of any of the material, an application should be made by the Crown suggesting the nature of the matters to be edited and the basis therefor. Only Crown counsel will have the affidavit at this point. #The trial judge should then edit the affidavit as proposed by Crown counsel and furnish a copy as edited to counsel for the accused. Submissions should then be entertained from counsel for the accused. If the trial judge is of the view that counsel for the accused will not be able to appreciate the nature of the deletions from the submissions of Crown counsel and the edited affidavit, a form of judicial summary as to the general nature of the deletions should be provided. #After hearing counsel for the accused and reply from the Crown, the trial judge should make a final determination as to editing, bearing in mind that editing is to be kept to a minimum and applying the factors listed above. # After the determination has been made in (3), the packet material should be provided to the accused. # If the Crown can support the authorization on the basis of the material as edited, the authorization is confirmed. # If, however, the editing renders the authorization insupportable, then the Crown may apply to have the trial judge consider so much of the excised material as is necessary to support the authorization. The trial judge should accede to such a request only if satisfied that the accused is sufficiently aware of the nature of the excised material to challenge it in argument or by evidence. In this regard, a judicial summary of the excised material should be provided if it will fulfill that function. It goes without saying that if the Crown is dissatisfied with the extent of disclosure and is of the view that the public interest will be prejudiced, it can withdraw tender of the wiretap evidence. {{reflist|2}} ==Topics== * [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Warrant Searches/Execution|Execution of Warrants]] *Specific Types of Warrant ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/General Warrants|General Warrants]] ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Bodily Samples|Bodily Samples]] (including s.256, s. 487.05, s. 487.091) ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Wiretaps|Wiretaps]] ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Tracking Warrant|Tracking Warrant]] (492.1) ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/CDSA Warrants|CDSA Warrants]] ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Foreign Warrants|Foreign Warrants]] ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Telewarrants|Telewarrants]] ** [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Warrant Searches/Production Orders|Production Orders]] ==See Also== * [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Cases/Warrant Searches|Case law]] * [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Seizure of Property|Seizure of Property]] * [[Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Appendix/Search Warrant Chart|Search Warrant Chart]] {{BookCat}} 06cahvecg7ub05zlqkq97296p7s3k3m 10 267501 4095587 2293893 2022-08-24T00:07:46Z RogueScholar 847443 Update documentation to reflect implementation of a new parameter syntax intended to supercede the original one wikitext text/x-wiki {{Documentation subpage}}<!-- PLEASE ADD CATEGORIES AND INTERWIKIS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE --> {{Possible-risk}} __NOTOC__ == Usage == The examples below of the new and old parameter names attempt to illustrate the relationship between the two by generating the same navigation links using each of them. The theory of operation behind the change to the new syntax was primarily to split each of the old parameters into a link target and a display name, the same way that a piped wikilink has the hidden link target on the left of the pipe and the display text to the right. {{Ombox|text=Templates that require parsed wikicode to be supplied to the parameters (as in the case of needing to supply complete wikilinks to the old syntax) are brittle by nature and fail to make use of some of the most powerful advantages offered by the MediaWiki parser. This has hopefully been addressed and the new syntax currently offers much better logic for determining which pages to link when parameters are left unset, as well as several new ways to manipulate its visual appearance.}} === New syntax === {| style="width: 90%;" | <pre style="margin-left: 2.5em; max-width: 36em; white-space: pre;">{{Simple Page Navigation | book = Wikibooks:Templates | prev = Wikibooks:Templates/Deletion | next = Wikibooks:Templates/User pages | book_disp = Templates | prev_disp = Deletion | next_disp = User pages | current = Navigation | bgcolor = PaleTurquoise | bordercolor = SlateBlue | borderstyle = groove | borderwidth = 0.75em }}</pre> | style="font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: 700; padding: 0 1em; text-align: center;" | ▶▶▶▶<br />Parsed<br />Output<br />▶▶▶▶ | style="width: 90%;" | {{Simple Page Navigation|book=Wikibooks:Templates|prev=Wikibooks:Templates/Deletion|next=Wikibooks:Templates/User pages|book_disp=Templates|prev_disp=Deletion|next_disp=User pages|current=Navigation|bgcolor=PaleTurquoise|bordercolor=SlateBlue|borderstyle=groove|borderwidth=0.75em}} |- | colspan="3" | ''The new syntax has introduced the ability to manipulate its appearance using CSS3 declarations as well, which is also demonstrated above. To learn more about what values are valid to pass to those parameters, see the [[#TemplateData|'''''TemplateData section''''']] below.'' |} === Old syntax (deprecated) === {| style="width: 90%;" | <pre style="margin-left: 2.5em; max-width: 36em; white-space: pre;">{{Simple Page Navigation | BookName=[[Wikibooks:Templates|Templates]] | CurrentPage=Navigation | PrevPage=[[Wikibooks:Templates/Deletion|Deletion]] | NextPage=[[Wikibooks:Templates/User pages|User pages]] }}</pre> | style="font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: 700; padding: 0 1em; text-align: center;" | ▶▶▶▶<br />Parsed<br />Output<br />▶▶▶▶ | style="width: 90%;" | {{Simple Page Navigation|BookName=[[Wikibooks:Templates|Templates]]|CurrentPage=Navigation|PrevPage=[[Wikibooks:Templates/Deletion|Deletion]]|NextPage=[[Wikibooks:Templates/User pages|User pages]]}} |- | colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | ''This shows the template with all of its styling parameters at their defaults.'' |} == TemplateData == {{TemplateData header}} <templatedata>{ "description": "Creates a centered, rectangular navigation box showing the name of the current page and with links to the previous and next pages in a book, as well as the book's main page, or any other valid pages supplied to its parameters", "format": "{{_\n| ___________ = _\n}}", "paramOrder": [ "book", "prev", "next", "book_disp", "prev_disp", "next_disp", "current", "bgcolor", "bordercolor", "borderstyle", "borderwidth", "BookName", "PrevPage", "NextPage" ], "params": { "bgcolor": { "label": "Background color", "description": "The color used to fill inside the box's border and behind its contents; can be formatted as: CSS color name keywords, #rrggbb[aa] red-green-blue 8-bit hexadecimal numbers [with optional transparency] or your choice of rgb(red, green, blue[, transparency]) or hsl(hue, saturation, lightness[, transparency]) 8-bit decimal numbers.", "example": "Moccasin", "type": "line", "suggestedvalues": [ "Black", "Silver", "Gray", "White", "Maroon", "Red", "Purple", "Fuschia", "Green", "Lime", "Olive", "Yellow", "Navy", "Blue", "Teal", "Cyan", "AliceBlue", "AntiqueWhite", "Aquamarine", "Azure", "Beige", "Bisque", "BlanchedAlmond", "BlueViolet", "Brown", "BurlyWood", "CadetBlue", "Chartreuse", "Chocolate", "Coral", "CornflowerBlue", "Cornsilk", "Crimson", "DarkBlue", "DarkCyan", "DarkGoldenRod", "DarkGray", "DarkGreen", "DarkKhaki", "DarkMagenta", "DarkOliveGreen", "DarkOrange", "DarkOrchid", "DarkRed", "DarkSalmon", "DarkSeaGreen", "DarkSlateBlue", "DarkSlateGray", "DarkTurquoise", "DarkViolet", "DeepPink", "DeepSkyBlue", "DimGray", "DodgerBlue", "FireBrick", "FloralWhite", "ForestGreen", "Gainsboro", "GhostWhite", "Gold", "Goldenrod", "GreenYellow", "Honeydew", "HotPink", "IndianRed", "Indigo", "Ivory", "Khaki", "Lavender", "LavenderBlush", "LawnGreen", "LemonChiffon", "LightBlue", "LightCoral", "LightCyan", "LightGoldenrodYellow", "LightGray", "LightGreen", "LightPink", "LightSalmon", "LightSeaGreen", "LightSkyBlue", "LightSlateGray", "LightSteelBlue", "LightYellow", "LimeGreen", "Linen", "MediumAquaMarine", "MediumBlue", "MediumOrchid", "MediumPurple", "MediumSeaGreen", "MediumSlateBlue", "MediumSpringGreen", "MediumTurquoise", "MediumVioletRed", "MidnightBlue", "MintCream", "MistyRose", "Moccasin", "NavajoWhite", "Navy", "OldLace", "OliveDrab", "Orange", "OrangeRed", "Orchid", "PaleGoldenrod", "PaleGreen", "PaleTurquoise", "PaleVioletRed", "PapayaWhip", "PeachPuff", "Peru", "Pink", "Plum", "PowderBlue", "RebeccaPurple", "RosyBrown", "RoyalBlue", "SaddleBrown", "Salmon", "SandyBrown", "SeaGreen", "SeaShell", "Sienna", "SkyBlue", "SlateBlue", "SlateGray", "Snow", "SpringGreen", "SteelBlue", "Tan", "Teal", "Thistle", "Tomato", "Turquoise", "Violet", "Wheat", "WhiteSmoke", "YellowGreen", "Transparent" ], "default": "#ffffe6" }, "bordercolor": { "label": "Border color", "description": "The color used for the box's border; can be formatted as: CSS color name keywords, #rrggbb[aa] red-green-blue 8-bit hexadecimal numbers [with optional transparency] or your choice of rgb(red, green, blue[, transparency]) or hsl(hue, saturation, lightness[, transparency]) 8-bit decimal numbers.", "example": "SlateBlue", "type": "line", "suggestedvalues": [ "Black", "Silver", "Gray", "White", "Maroon", "Red", "Purple", "Fuschia", "Green", "Lime", "Olive", "Yellow", "Navy", "Blue", "Teal", "Cyan", "AliceBlue", "AntiqueWhite", "Aquamarine", "Azure", "Beige", "Bisque", "BlanchedAlmond", "BlueViolet", "Brown", "BurlyWood", "CadetBlue", "Chartreuse", "Chocolate", "Coral", "CornflowerBlue", "Cornsilk", "Crimson", "DarkBlue", "DarkCyan", "DarkGoldenRod", "DarkGray", "DarkGreen", "DarkKhaki", "DarkMagenta", "DarkOliveGreen", "DarkOrange", "DarkOrchid", "DarkRed", "DarkSalmon", "DarkSeaGreen", "DarkSlateBlue", "DarkSlateGray", "DarkTurquoise", "DarkViolet", "DeepPink", "DeepSkyBlue", "DimGray", "DodgerBlue", "FireBrick", "FloralWhite", "ForestGreen", "Gainsboro", "GhostWhite", "Gold", "Goldenrod", "GreenYellow", "Honeydew", "HotPink", "IndianRed", "Indigo", "Ivory", "Khaki", "Lavender", "LavenderBlush", "LawnGreen", "LemonChiffon", "LightBlue", "LightCoral", "LightCyan", "LightGoldenrodYellow", "LightGray", "LightGreen", "LightPink", "LightSalmon", "LightSeaGreen", "LightSkyBlue", "LightSlateGray", "LightSteelBlue", "LightYellow", "LimeGreen", "Linen", "MediumAquaMarine", "MediumBlue", "MediumOrchid", "MediumPurple", "MediumSeaGreen", "MediumSlateBlue", "MediumSpringGreen", "MediumTurquoise", "MediumVioletRed", "MidnightBlue", "MintCream", "MistyRose", "Moccasin", "NavajoWhite", "Navy", "OldLace", "OliveDrab", "Orange", "OrangeRed", "Orchid", "PaleGoldenrod", "PaleGreen", "PaleTurquoise", "PaleVioletRed", "PapayaWhip", "PeachPuff", "Peru", "Pink", "Plum", "PowderBlue", "RebeccaPurple", "RosyBrown", "RoyalBlue", "SaddleBrown", "Salmon", "SandyBrown", "SeaGreen", "SeaShell", "Sienna", "SkyBlue", "SlateBlue", "SlateGray", "Snow", "SpringGreen", "SteelBlue", "Tan", "Teal", "Thistle", "Tomato", "Turquoise", "Violet", "Wheat", "WhiteSmoke", "YellowGreen", "Transparent" ], "default": "#c5c58b" }, "borderstyle": { "label": "Border style", "description": "One of the eight (four 2D and four 3D) border styles defined in CSS3, or 'none'. The two-dimensional styles are: 'solid', 'dashed', 'dotted' and 'double'. The three-dimensional styles perform an algorithmic color shift to the defined border color and apply it asymetrically along both axes to achieve their effect and are named: 'groove', 'ridge', 'inset' and 'outset'.", "example": "groove", "type": "line", "suggestedvalues": [ "solid", "double", "dashed", "dotted", "groove", "ridge", "inset", "outset", "none" ], "default": "double" }, "borderwidth": { "label": "Border width", "description": "A measurement of the desired width of the box's border, formatted as a floating point decimal value followed immediately by the symbol or abbreviation for one of the 15 valid CSS3 units of distance (five absolute and ten relative to the user's device/display environment, though the absolute units are discouraged from use on WikiBooks as they are intended primarily for material to be physically printed) with no whitespace between them. The relative units are: '%' (percentage of parent object's size on the same axis), 'em' (width of lowercase m at page's default font size), 'rem' (width of lowercase m at browser's default text size), 'px' (display pixels, integer values only), 'vw', 'vh', 'vmin', 'vmax' (percentage of: display width, height, or smaller and larger of the display axes, respectively), 'ex' (height of lowercase x at page's default font size) and 'ch' (width of 0 at page's default font size). Absolute units are: 'pc' (picas), 'pt' (points), 'cm' (centimeters), 'mm' (millimeters) and 'in' (inches).", "example": "0.75em", "type": "line", "default": "4px" }, "PrevPage": { "label": "Previous page link", "type": "content", "description": "Accepts a (piped) wikilink to the book's previous page, include the double square brackets on each end.", "deprecated": "Use 'prev' and 'prev_disp' parameters, instead." }, "BookName": { "label": "Book link", "type": "content", "deprecated": "Use 'book' and 'book_disp' parameters, instead.", "description": "Accepts a (piped) wikilink to the book's main page, include the double square brackets on each end.", "default": "[[{{NAMESPACE}}:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]" }, "NextPage": { "label": "Next page link", "type": "content", "deprecated": "Use 'next' and 'next_disp' parameters, instead.", "description": "Accepts a (piped) wikilink to the book's next page, include the double square brackets on each end." }, "prev": { "label": "Previous page target", "description": "The full page name (and namespace, if necessary) of the previous page in the book", "type": "wiki-page-name", "required": true }, "prev_disp": { "label": "Previous page link text", "description": "The text you wish to be linked to the previous page in the book. (optional)", "type": "line" }, "book_disp": { "label": "Book link text", "description": "The text you wish to be linked to the book's main page. (optional)", "type": "line", "suggested": true }, "book": { "label": "Book target", "description": "The full page name (and namespace, if necessary) of the book's main page", "type": "wiki-page-name", "default": "{{NAMESPACE}}:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}", "suggested": true }, "next": { "label": "Next page target", "description": "The full page name (and namespace, if necessary) of the next page in the book", "type": "wiki-page-name", "required": true }, "next_disp": { "label": "Next page link text", "description": "The text you wish to be linked to the next page in the book. (optional)", "type": "line" }, "current": { "label": "Current page display text", "description": "The text you wish to appear unlinked beneath the book name, if not the actual {{SUBPAGENAME}} of the page it appears on. (optional)", "type": "line", "default": "{{SUBPAGENAME}}", "aliases": [ "CurrentPage" ] } } }</templatedata> == See also == * [[Wikibooks:Templates/Navigation]] <includeonly><!-- CATEGORIES AND INTERWIKIS HERE, THANKS --> [[Category:Navigational templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Exclude in print|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly> thgjnm38m4hcvpd9nv17x2euyfsd51a 0 278202 4095604 2694122 2022-08-24T01:45:45Z Kaltenmeyer 715252 typo wikitext text/x-wiki ==== Other Web sites for Development Cooperation Knowledge Sharing ==== *[http://www.comminit.com/c-change-orc The capacity building online resource centre] *[http://www.eldis.org/ Eldis] *[http://www.ecdpm.org/ European Center for Development Policy Management] *[http://www.impactalliance.org/ev_en.php Impact Alliance] *[http://www.intrac.org/ INTRAC] *[http://www.train4dev.net/ Train4Dev.Net] *[http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu Capacity4Dev - The European Commission's website for Capacity Development] *[http://www.lencd.org/ Learning Network on Capacity Development - LenCD] *[http://www.capacity.org/ Capacity.org - A gateway for capacity development] See also ⇒ [[File:600X WIKIPEDIA LOGO.svg|14px]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_development Capacity development] * EuropeGate - [https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/aidco/index.php/Main_Page Civil Society Participation Homepage] *[http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/case-studies/index_en.htm EuropeAid's Case studies] *[https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/aidco/index.php|Thematic programme Non State Actors and Local Authorities]] *[https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/aidco/index.php|Brochures, Publications and Movies]] *[http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu Capacity4dev] *[http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/understanding-decentralisation-and-how-support-it!Understanding Decentralisation and How to Support it] *[http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/survey-support-local-governance-and-decentralisation Survey on support to Local Governance and Decentralisation] *PADOR and its [http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/work/onlineservices/pador/index_en.htm Online registration website] = Web Sites = *http://www.mdgmonitor.org/ <br>The MDG Monitor shows how countries are progressing in their efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). With the 2015 target date fast approaching, it is more important than ever to understand where the goals are on track, and where additional efforts and support are needed, both globally and at the country level. The MDG Monitor is designed as a tool for policymakers, development practitioners, journalists, students and others.<br> *[http://www.unmillenniumproject.org http://www.unmillenniumproject.org]<br>The Millennium Project was commissioned by the United Nations Secretary-General in 2002 to develop a concrete action plan for the world to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and to reverse the grinding poverty.<br> *[http://likeamanonearth.blogspot.com/ http://likeamanonearth.blogspot.com/] <br>A film by Andrea Segre, Dagmawi Yimer&lt;/span&gt; and Riccardo Biadene (2008, Italy). <span style="font-family: Arial;">Giving voice to the Ethiopian refugees living in Rome, the film provides a direct insight into the brutal ways in which Libya, aided also by Italian and European funds, is operating to control the immigration movements of people from Africa.&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;" /&gt;</span><br> *[http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals]&nbsp;<br>A gateway to the United Nations System's work on the MDGs<br> *http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm <br>The Millennium Declaration, the Resolution adopted by the UN&nbsp;General Assembly *[http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_goals.asp http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/default.aspx<br>]the official MDG Indicators website. This site presents the official data, definitions, methodologies and sources for more than 60 indicators to measure progress towards the Millennium Development Goals<br> *http://www.undg.org/<br>The UN Development Group unites the 32 UN funds, programmes, agencies, departments, and offices that play a role in development. Our common objective is to deliver more coherent, effective and efficient support to countries seeking to attain internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals.[http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ <br>] *http://www.unric.org/<br>The United Nations Regional Information Centre was opened in Brussels on 1 January 2004. The Regional Centre replaces the nine Information Centres that were based in Europe. UNRIC is intended to cover all of Western Europe and provide information and documentation to the countries of the region with increasing effectiveness with the gradual stabilisation of its nascent structure.<br> *http://www.cespi.it/home.html <br>CeSPI, Centre for International Policy Studies, is an independent and non-profit organisation founded in 1985, which makes policy-oriented studies and research.<br> *http://www.msfaccess.org/about-us/<br>Official website of Medecins Sans Frontieres' campaign for access to essential medicines. <br> *http:// www.millenniumcampaign.org<br>Website of the Millennium Campaign "End poverty by 2015". *http://www.cooperazioneallosviluppo.esteri.it/pdgcs/<br>Development Cooperation arises from the need to ensure respect for human dignity and ensure the economic growth of all peoples.<br> *http://www.volontariperlosviluppo.it/cms/index.php<br>A central space today, both the site and the magazine, dedicated to journalists in the southern hemisphere, with the intent of going beyond the idea that it is always the Italian or Western journalist who writes on countries often ignoring the language, the context and background<br> *http://www.ong.agimondo.it<br> The Italian Press Agency is among the major Italian news agencies. AGImondoONG is the first news portal reporting on non-governmental organisations. It originated from a joint initiative of Link 2007 and AGI with the support of the Directorate General of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs for Cooperation and Development. It is open to the entire world of cooperation. <br> *http://www.ifad.org/<br> The International Fund for Agricultural Development is a specialized agency of the United Nations dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in developing countries<br> *http://www.apd.ro <br>Pro Democracy Association.<br> *http://ipsnotizie.it/index.php<br>The Inter Press Service (IPS) is the main source of independent information on the Global South. Reports and studies are published daily by IPS - which has a network of 500 correspondents stationed in 150 countries - especially regarding the process of globalisation and its effects on economic, social and political development, especially in developing areas of the planet.<br> *http://www.campaignforeducation.org/en/about/about-gce/<br> Global campaign for education (GCE) is a civil society movement that aims to end the global education crisis.<br> *[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=45166&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php]<br>Sharp drop in aid to basic education jeopardizes school chances for millions <br> *http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport/<br>EFA Global Monitoring Report. Several interesting documents about education in the world are contained in this website.<br> *http://www.sdc-health.ch/<br>A good example of cooperation in the health sector and projects implemented by the SDC, Switzerland. <br> *http://www.2010againstpoverty.eu/ <br>Almost 80 million Europeans live at risk of poverty, which means they face insecurity, and go without what most people often take for granted. Living in poverty may result in a variety of problems, from not having enough money to spend on food and clothes to suffering poor housing conditions and even homelessness. Poverty also means having to cope with limited lifestyle choices that may lead to social exclusion.<br> *http://www.patrir.ro <br>Programs and projects developed in fields such: peacebuilding and conflict transformation action, gender equality, peacebuilding and conflict transformation training, peace education<br> *http://www.provobis.ro<br>National Volunteer Center exists to promote and develop volunteerism as a viable and irreplaceable resource in solving the problems the Romanian society is now facing. Pro Vobis National Volunteer Center, through its members, volunteers and employees respects and militates for equal rights for all people without discrimination, promotes active involvement in community life and believes in the unlimited ability of each community member to participate in solving the community problems<br> *http://www.centras.ro<br> Projects aimed at building a community in which the public sector, the business environment and the civil society are cooperating for the citizens' welfare, all in the spirit of the European democracy's values. *http://www.fondromania.org<br> Having as main objective the responsible and effective involvement of Romanian civil society and Government in international development cooperation and humanitarian aid and coordinating projects and programs in this specific field in Romania.<br> *http://www.eldis.org<br>The biggest database to share the best in development, policy, practice and research. Eldis offers: 26,000 full text documents free to download - maintaining an ever-growing collection of editorially selected and abstracted full-text, online documents selected by the editors from more than 7,500 different publishers. All documents are available free of charge,<br> *[http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/Resources/FeatureStories/archive/2009/20091118_UNFPA.asp http://www.unaids.org/en/]<br>UNFPA report: Exploring links between HIV and climate change <br> *http://www.pluralism.ro<br> for educational programs in the integration field *http://www.fdsc.ro<br> for trainings and projects regarding the civil society development *http://www.stiriong.ro<br> for a complete database of the non-governmental organizations in Romania and their projects, activities, fields of actions. New database of the NGO fields *http://www.fpdl.ro,<br> A Romanian Non Governmental Organization having as mission is to enhance the democratic processes of governance and support the local development, to strengthen the civil society, to promote a new culture of change and conflict management. To be considered for the projects in the development field and the training manuals *http://www.soros.org<br> For their general initiatives in the development fields and useful resources *http://www.concordeurope.org<br> The European NGO Confederation for Relief and Development. Its 18 international networks and 22 national associations from the European Member States represent more than 1600 European NGOs vis-à-vis the European Institutions.The main objective of the Confederation is to enhance the impact of European development NGOs vis-à-vis the European Institutions by combining expertise and accountability. *http://ec.europa.eu/development/geographical/cotonouintro_en.cfm,<br> The Cotonou Agreement is the most comprehensive partnership agreement between developing countries and the EU. Since 2000, it has been the framework for the EU's relations with 79 countries from Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP) . <br> *http://www.whiteband.org,<br> the website of the Global Call to Action against Poverty (GCAP) *http://www.cwish.org.np/<br>CWISH (Children – Women in Social Service and Human Rights) is a religiously and politically non-aligned NGO striving to protect rights of the Nepali children, youth and women. <br> *http://www.deeep.org/whatisde.html<br>DEEEP (Developing Europeans' Engagement for the Eradication of the global Poverty) is a programme initiated by the Development Education Forum of CONCORD that aims at strengthening capacities of NGDOs to raise awareness, educate and mobilise the European public for world-wide poverty eradication and social inclusion. <br> *http://www.eurostep.org:80/wcm/content/view/423/162/<br>Mission of EUROSTEP (European Solidarity Towards Equal Partecipation of People) is&nbsp; re-affirmation as the NGO network focusing on European development co-operation with a politically progressive secular identity committed to promoting a forward looking agenda.<br> *http://www.developmentportal.eu/wcm/index.php<br> (European Development Portal) *http://www.devwire.eu/<br> Media Portal to EU Development Aid. *http://www.trialog.or.at<br>&nbsp;A project to strengthen civil society and raise awareness of development issues in the enlarged EU. *&nbsp;http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/what/delivering-aid/funding-instruments/index_en.htm<br> Instruments adopted by the EU in imlementing external assistance. *http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/children/fsj_children_intro_en.htm <br>EU strategy on the Rights of the Child *http://www.er-consumabile.it<br>The Emilia Romagna region (Italy) has arranged a web site specifically dedicated to support Environmental Sustainability, providing information about the different behaviors we can assume, and the relative advantages we can get, in our daily life, to fight Environmental issues, with details about what we can eat, how much money we can save, which natural resources we can regenerate, which way we can move, how much energy we can save in our homes.<br> *http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/gc/ <br>Oxfam Education website for Global Citizenship, to look for useful information, support and ideas for developing a Global Citizenship approach in your school, plenty of material to help any teacher develop both his thinking and his practice.<br> *http://www.mdg-gateway.org/MDG-Blog/ <br>MDG BLOG RATIONALE This Blog has been set up to reach out a broader audience to participate in discussions on major thematic areas related to the Millennium Development Goals prior to the High-Level Event on MDGs<br> = Pdf Resources<br> = *[http://www.cosv.org/public/download/IndiceGlobaleFame2009.pdf http://www.cosv.org/public/download/IndiceGlobaleFame2009.pdf] <br>The fourth edition of the Global Hunger Index 2009, the second to be translated in Italian translation by ''Link 2007'', enhances the discussion on the Global Hunger Index 2008 report on the multiple causes of hunger and strategies for addressing it. Thanks to the collaboration between Link 2007 and three leading organisations in addressing issues of food security the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in Washington, the German NGO Welthungerhilfe and the Irish NGO Concern1, this edition will be available to the Italian public so that they can study indepth the links between the challenge of hunger, the global financial crisis and gender issues.<br> *http://www.dossierimmigrazione.it/schede/pres2009--scheda.pdf<br>The data of the 2009 Caritas Dossier point out that foreigners are not people with the highest crime rates, are not giving rise to an invasion of a religious nature, do not consume more public resources than they pay in taxes and contributions, are not alienated from the country that has welcomed them and ... in contrast, are an effective demographic and employment shock absorber. "<br> *[ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp7/ssh/docs/euro-indian_workshop_2009_en.pdf ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp7/ssh/docs/euro-indian_workshop_2009_en.pdf]<br>Cultures of Governance and Conflict Resolution – A Euro-Indian Workshop. The proceedings of this workshop - which was convened by DG Research, in cooperation with the Delegation of the European Commission to India, The Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, with the support of the Transcultura International Institute, Paris - present some highlights of research conducted in Europe and India on issues of common interest and high policy relevance such as governance, democracy and conflict resolution where mutual learning can enhance current and future analytical work. The debate at the workshop was organised around four interconnected themes: Cultures of Governance and Perspectives on Diversity; Global Governance and the Universal Values Quest; Cultures of governance and Mutual Perceptions; Conflict Resolution and Human Rights; and Cultural Traditions and the Road Ahead. <br> *[http://www.parcodiveio.it/_ita/servizi/_doc/ag21/ag21_manuale_Apat.pdf http://www.parcodiveio.it/_ita/servizi/_doc/ag21/ag21_manuale_Apat.pdf&nbsp;]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>Manual for environmental protection and the local implementation of Agenda 21.<br> *[http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2009/en/pdf/EN_SOWP09.pdf http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2009/en/pdf/EN_SOWP09.pdf], <br>Report: The State of World Population 2009, released by the United Nations Population Fund <br> *[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563857_eng.pdf http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563857_eng.pdf], <br>Report Women and health: today's evidence tomorrow's agenda <br> *http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140372e.pdf: <br>International implementation scheme for the United Nations decade of education for sustainable development <br> *[http://web.archive.org/web/20030403214912/http://www.un.org/aboutun/chartlg.html UN system]<br>A pdf file containing a scheme of the UN system *[http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/unintro/unintro5.htm UN system – an introduction by students]<br> = YouTube and Media Providers = *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ohda4GcZf-I <br>CONFIDENZE al FAROL: prostitution and sexual exploitation at Fortaleza - by Fina Bianco, Giulia Matzè - A documentary shot in Fortaleza, Brazil, 2008, where children sexual abuse is a serious social evil. Action of APROCE (Brasil Prostitute Association) and MODENA TERZO MONDO (Italian NGO) to give children education and move them away from prostitution. Documentary based on interviews. Language: Portoguese; Subtitles: Italian *&nbsp;[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuej-4KZS6E&eurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Ecgil%2Eit%2F&feature=player_embedded http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tuej-4KZS6E] <br>UGUALMENTE DIVERSI Interviews to Italians and immigrants living in Italy, in order to investigate about: power and influence of media, relationship between Italians and immigrants, the way how you look at the other and how the other looks at you, suggestions for media operators. References: CGIL, Leonardo Carocci for Progetto Mediazione Intercultuarle, Federazione delle Associazioni Cinesi. Language: Italian *http://FORA.tv <br>Helps intelligent, engaged audiences get smart. We gather the web's largest collection of unmediated video drawn from live events, lectures, and debates going on all the time at the world's top universities, think tanks and conferences. To find out more, browse our extensive program archives, or join our community,<br> *http://vimeo.com/7355738<br>HIV in Modena (Italy), an interview to Giovanni Guaraldi (Director of Cuscos).<br> *http://www.videovolunteers.org <br>They envision an alternative media landscape in which tens of thousands of people around the world, living in slums and villages, are producing high quality video content that brings awareness to communities and empowers members to take action. Their mission is to empower the world’s poorest citizens to participate in the community media movement so they can right the wrongs they witness and become players in the global media revolution. Providing disadvantaged communities with the journalistic, critical thinking and creative skill they need, we create financially self-sustaining, locally-owned grassroots projects that teach people to articulate and share their perspectives on the issues that matter to them, on a local and a global scale.<br> *http://fora.tv/2009/02/13/Francois_Bourguignon_on_the_Millennium_Development_Goals<br>Francois Bourguignon, former Chief Economist at the World Bank, presents his research on the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. He explains where the goals are being met and where they're not, and also describes ways in which the goals can be achieved more efficiently.<br> *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eih_ybKdVXU&amp;f<br>Make poverty history by Bono Vox<br> *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_CvW42MC-14&amp;f<br>The ONE Campaign - ONE's new ad "Voices" features Matt Damon with different Americans' voices - among them Michelle Obama, Cindy McCain and Mayor Bloomberg.<br> *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agP0W_kdpgw<br>International Women's Day Clip<br> *http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaFL-Vlvj10<br>Over 43.7 million people, in 127 countries have broken the Guinness World Record – set last year at 23.5 million – for the largest number of people to “STAND UP AGAINST POVERTY” in 24 hours. The “Stand Up and Speak Out” record attempt took place over 16th and 17th October and was jointly organised by the United Nations Millennium Campaign (UNMC) and the Global Call to Action against Poverty (GCAP) with a wide range of other partners. The challenge saw millions of people physically and intentionally standing up against poverty, inequality and in support of the Millennium Development Goals. They spoke out to demand a more urgent political response to the growing crisis of global poverty<br><br><br><br> {{BookCat}} gryykymggmgf23qilzixuedzzxgctht 0 282061 4095683 3969824 2022-08-24T06:17:00Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki [[wide image:Spindle chromosomes-en.png thumb Spindle chromosomes-en |thumbnail|[[File:Spindle chromosomes-en.png|Spindle chromosomes-en]]]] BUB1 and BUBR1 The BUB1 and BUBR1 are the two kinases involved in the checkpoint during mitosis. As seen in the picture, before the two sister chromatids separate in anaphase to create chromatids of two cells, the checkpoint is to ensure that they are separated accurately. This checkpoint is necessary to avoid mutations where cells do not divide which can cause aneuploidy. Aneuploidy results when there is an abnormality in the is number of chromosomes in a human embryo. One of the most well known conditions is Down Syndrome where there is a mutation in the chromosome 21 of a human. The sister chromatids do not separate resulting in a third copy present in the embryo. The spindle assembly checkpoint is the regulatory checkpoint that allows a dividing cell to continue its division process if everything is going according to planned and the chromosomes align properly along the metaphase plate and attach to microtubules via kinetochores at each of the centromeres. It is essential because if the chromosomes in a cell that is undergoing mitosis do not align and separate correctly, one daughter cell will get two copies of a chromosome, while the other daughter cell completely lacks that same chromosome. This is the cause of many defects in newborns. It is also seen in over 90% of solid tumors. Many different problems arise from incorrect chromosome splitting, depending on the certain chromosomes that does not separate correctly. [[File:Drosophila metaphase chromosomes.jpg|600px|center|Drosophila metaphase chromosomes]] There are two kinases which play central roles in the spindle assembly checkpoint that occurs during metaphase in mitosis that we will discuss, even though there are at least fifteen proteins involved in this process altogether. Kinases are enzymatic proteins that transfer phosphate groups from high energy donors, to lower energy acceptors. The two that are highly involved in the checkpoint are BUB1, which stands for budding uninhibited by benzimidazole 1, and BUBR1, which stands for budding uninhibited by benzimidazole-related 1, also called BUB1B. These two proteins, BUB1 and BUBR1, are very similar, due to the fact that they are paralogs, meaning they came from the same ancestor and evolved to slightly different proteins. /but even for paralogs these two share many common attributes and their amino acid composition is basically the same, yet they perform different functions. This is due to the difference in their structures. In regards to BUB1, it undergoes phosphorylation, the addition of a phosphate group. By doing so, it abolishes the CDC20 gene in order to stop SAC and put a pause to mitosis. This phosphorylation as well as that done by BUBR1 have yielded a few hypothesis and are still in research. UB1 catalytic activity is of paramount importance because BUB1-mediated CDC20 phosphorylation inhibits APC/C–CDC20 in human cells [[File:PDB 1bub EBI.png|500px|center|PDB 1bub EBI]] Both of these enzymes have three main regions in them, an N terminal region and two C regions, one of which is terminal and another that is intermediate. These different regions are involved in different steps, such as spindle checkpoint on one terminus and chromosome congregation on the other. There are several differences in these region in each of the two molecules. The importance of the C region is seen to be insignificant as compared to the N terminal in BUBR1 due to the lack of the C terminus by the Mad3. Mad3, mitotic-arrest deficient, replaces the BUBR1 in in yeast, worms and plants. The Mad3 does not have a C region and since no animals have both BUBR1 and Mad3, the functions of the Mad3 remain the same without the presence of the C region. BUB1 BUB1 is bound to the kinetochores at it's N-Terminus region. Both BUB1 and BUBR1 contain KEN boxes, which are protein motifs that mediate protein recognition. Two KEN boxes, are located in the N-terminus of BUB1 that are involved in and required for the phosphorylation of CDC20. CDC20 phosphorylation is one of the main tasks of BUB1, which first phosphorylates BUB3 then along with the help of BUB3, it phosphorylates Cdc20. It also plays many other major roles. One of these is the recruitment of BUBR1, Mad1 and Mad2. Upon spindle damage BUB1 is also triggered to phosphorylate Mad1. This kinase is also highly involved in the organization of the centromere. BUBR1 BubR1 has many roles as well and contains KEN boxes that it depends on to function properly too. It helps connect kinetochores to microtubules and keep the attachment stable. It regulates mitosis by inhibiting anaphase when chromosome segregation is incomplete or incorrect. It also regulates prophase one during meiosis one in eggs. Effects of Bub1 and BubR1 -Loss of BUB1 can result in aneuploidy, which is the abnormal number of chromosomes resulting from faulty mitosis. Aneuploidy is seen in about 90% of solid tumors. -Deletion of Bub1 in some species increases the rate of incorrect chromosome segregation while in other species it results in slow growth and loss of chromosomes. -Many forms of cancer have been related to cell with improper spindle checkpoints Sources BUB1 and BUBR1: multifaceted kinases of the cell cycle Victor M. Bolanos-Garcia, Tom L. Blundell This image is a derivative work of the following images: File:Spindle_chromosomes.png licensed with Cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0, GFDL "Spindle checkpoint." Wikipedia. 7 December 2012. 7 December. 2012 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spindle_checkpoint#Metaphase_to_Anaphase_Transition>. {{BookCat}} abm0fdwij1toygq1o1xnmpk7d0n6ofz 0 289158 4095437 4095311 2022-08-23T12:52:14Z Danielravennest 13526 Update through start list 14 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:left;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">Section 5.5 - Starter and Expansion Sets</span>}} <div style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> &emsp;The goal of the personal production example is supplying a range of basic products for a community of owner-operators. They do this as individuals or through joint effort for larger tasks. Product types include furniture, home improvements, food, and utilities. They start with smaller and simpler items and work up to bigger projects. We assume they start with limited funds, time, equipment, and experience. So part of the effort is improving themselves as people to overcome these limits. &emsp;A community project may start with as little as one person's part-time effort and no equipment or skills. So we describe a range of starter sets from very minimal to more substantial, with suggestions on use and gaining skills. Project owners can then select their starting points based on their available people and resources. We then include several expansion sets for projects growing beyond these starting points. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">1.0 - Necessary Inputs</span>== &emsp; &emsp;We can consider a starter set as a product. It must first be assembled and set up before it can be used to make improvements for itself, and end products for the owners and others. Like any functional system, it requires inputs and emits outputs of various kinds. These include: * '''Time''' - from one or more people to make plans, look for and acquire needed items, operate equipment, train others, or learn skills as needed. * '''Supply sources''' - for parts, materials, tools, machines, training materials, plans, and instructions. * '''Money''' - for items which can't be made internally, or for outside labor that project members can't supply. * '''Sheltered Space''' - to store and use the equipment. Even outdoor equipment should be protected when not in use. * '''Energy''' - such as electric power or human muscles, to make, set up, and operate the equipment. * '''Maintenance Items''' - like water, cleaning supplies, and waste disposal during and after operations. &emsp;We suggest starting by assessing which of these you have and which are lacking. The next step is to make a plan for getting enough of the inputs to get started, and how you will continue from there. For example, if you don't have all the basic tools from List 1 (below), you can make a shopping list of the missing items, then either buy them, start saving to buy them, or find a makerspace/hackerspace, community group, or neighbor that allows you to use them. &emsp;In modern society, money can commonly be traded for most other things people need and want. If lack of money is an obstacle, there are a couple of ways around that. One is to cut expenses, such as eating out less or sharing living space. The other is to increase income, such as doing basic jobs for other people in addition to current work, or upgrading your knowledge and skills so you can find better work. Reaching a goal may seem like a big challenge. Breaking it down into smaller steps, then taking them one at a time is more manageable. But you have to take the first step to get anywhere. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">2.0 - Starter Set Lists</span>== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Tool_use_by_animals|Some species]]''' besides ours use tools. We are unique in the variety and complexity of our tools, and that we use tools to make other tools. So which of the many options should be included in a starter set? The answer for a particular project and self-improvement path will vary. &emsp;The lists below are provided as a starting point for consideration and selection. '''<u>You don't need every item to start making things</u>'''. But the more of them you have, the more kinds of projects you can do. The lists also don't cover every possible project. They are starter sets to build on, not complete lists of every possible tool. Additional items may be needed for particular projects. For large and complex projects you may need multiples of each item, either different sizes and types, or for multiple people to use. For example, a saying in woodworking is "you can never have too many clamps". '''[NOTE:]''' Some of these lists or portions of them will be moved later to other chapters. They are currently here for ease of editing. &emsp;The lists are compiled from 18 existing tool and equipment lists. The intent is a sampling from a wide variety of sources which are then sorted to form starter and expansion sets for the various examples in these books. The source lists are from several makerspaces, a tool bank (who lend out tools to nonprofit projects), a book on rural workshops, the phased equipment list for the Seed Factory Project, a pamphlet from manufacturer Porter Tools, a course on "manual arts" (later called "shop class" in schools), a compiled list of equipment for industrial training classes, a website for beginning machinists, the author's personal tool list, a contributed list to these books, recommended tool brands from an online forum, a woodworking list from a YouTube channel, and a study of small industry in India. [[File:Personal Production Starter Set Path.png|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 5.5-1 - Suggested tool set paths for different types of projects. Figures can be enlarged by clicking the lower right -->.]] &emsp; &emsp;'''List Types''' - There are basic tools that have proved useful in many circumstances, from general home use to industrial production. Others are more specialized for specific tasks. For example, an axe is useful in dealing with trees, but useless for cutting steel reinforcement for concrete. So lists 1 and 2 below are the basic sets for general home use and home improvement/do it yourself projects. This is followed by expansion sets for more advanced and specialized projects. The lists are additive, meaning you should start with the basic ones, then add to them from the later lists as needed. Figure 5.5-1 shows a suggested path from the basic sets to more advanced ones. They are grouped into small indoor, large indoor, outdoor, and construction. The last of these produces more indoor space. Depending on the needs and interests of the personal production community, they can get items from any or all of these lists, and go beyond them. &emsp;Tools and machines can be classified according to size, power level, and cost. The general groups are (1) manual hand tools, (2) portable power tools, (3) stationary equipment, either powered or not, and (4) mobile equipment that is towed or can move itself. Cost and space needed tend to increase with each group. The lists are generally in order from the smaller, less expensive, and most needed first, but some items are needed together to complete a task. An example is drill bits for an electric drill. We try to note when that is the case. &emsp;To go beyond these lists, you will need to know what projects and products you want to make, and the methods and equipment needed for them. Many instructional books and articles have explicit lists of the equipment needed. Others implicitly identify useful tools by discussing their use. Tool and supply catalogs, and the tool sections of general online marketplaces can also be reviewed to identify candidate items. &emsp;'''Choosing Equipment''' - A given tool type, like a claw hammer, can be found in many versions with different quality, weight, intended usage, and cost. So the first thing is to understand what you will be using it for. Is it occasionally hanging pictures, or working full time as a carpenter? Larger and heavier tools can work with heavier materials, but can require more body strength and endurance to use. Smaller and lighter tools can be more precise, and used in tight spaces. So it can be useful to have several versions of a given type. &emsp;Cost is often a factor. You can get started with less expensive but adequate ones, and upgrade later. However very cheap tools may break or wear out quickly, and not be able to handle whatever you are working on. For personal production on a regular basis they should be hobbyist or professional grade rather than lowest grade. Used tools are typically less expensive, and often are perfectly fine for this type of use. Recognizing tool quality is a learned skill, as is knowing what grade you need for a given purpose. You may want to get recommendations from more experienced people, books, articles, instructional videos, online reviews, and discussion forums if you are new to it. &emsp;'''Supplies, Parts, and Materials''' - To complete a project you need more than just equipment like tools and machines. Equipment is not generally used up in a single project. But some supplies, like sandpaper, wear out with use. Others, like paint, end up as part of the finished item. If you are merely tightening something that has come loose, or are assembling a packaged kit that comes with everything needed, you may not need any added parts and materials. But most projects will need materials like lumber, and parts like screws, that end up in the finished item. &emsp;There is such a wide variety of these items that we cannot list them all. Instead we will note categories of supplies, parts, and materials as part of the lists below. Instructional and reference sources have more specific information on what is needed. Published project plans will often include a detailed materials and parts list. When starting a custom project you can develop a list as you plan it. Then you can look at what you already have, and identify what else is needed to complete it. &emsp;Shopping for every small project takes time, and buying in quantity can be less expensive. So it can be helpful to keep some supplies, parts, and materials on hand. These can be leftovers from previous projects, packaged hardware assortments, or accumulated from second-hand sources. We will try to indicate what is helpful to stock as a starting point, but suggest getting other items as needed for particular projects. There are many types of these items, so some way to keep them organized is useful. This can be '''[[w:Organizer_box|Organizer Boxes]]''' with compartments and drawers, empty jars and cans, or sometimes the box they came in. &emsp;In addition to purchased inventory, you can reuse items you already have but don't need, like old furniture, and items from your property like fallen or cut tree branches. Free and cheap outside sources can be found almost anywhere. Particularly good ones include scrap and wrecking yards, leftovers and removals from construction and renovation projects, and business trash. Always ask permission when scavenging from private property. You can also offer to clean up/remove/move items for people. For example, someone may have fallen tree branches which you can get free for the asking, or even get paid for removing them. Discarded or second-hand furniture can be used as work tables or storage, or as a source of lumber. &emsp;'''Making and Improving Your Own Items''' - The basic idea in these books is self-improvement. So if finances are more limited than time, or simply because you enjoy it, you can make or improve your own equipment. This lets you customize them to better fit your needs. For example, a workbench can be fit to your body size, what you are working on, and the available work space. A basic table saw consists of a motor, and an adjustable blade emerging from a cutting surface. But you can add different blades to suit the material, assorted guides for moving what you are cutting, and extension tables for managing larger pieces. To make or upgrade equipment requires already having some to work with, or access to other people's. However making everything from basic materials will take much longer than buying. So project members should consider what to make vs finding/buying already functional items. &emsp;Simple self-made woodworking projects include saw benches and saw horses, a stationary workbench, bench hook, miter box, and wooden mallets. A blacksmith can make many of their own tools, including a forge, chisels, hammers, punches, drifts, and fullers. A skilled one can make tongs, specialized hammers, hardies, flatters, and swages. Combining wood and iron work can produce cutting tools like axes and chisels, planes, drawknives, spokeshaves, claw hammers, and screwdrivers. '''[[w:David_J._Gingery|David Gingery]]''' even wrote a book series on how to build metalworking machines from scrap. At a more advanced level, a well-equipped machine shop can make many of the parts for another machine shop. &emsp;'''Ready-Made Equipment''' - Places to find new tools include home improvement and hardware stores, online marketplaces, industrial suppliers, and direct from the manufacturers. Used tools can be found online on trading sites like '''[[w:EBay|eBbay]]''' or '''[[w:Craigslist|craigslist]]''', or locally in the for-sale sections of social media. Pawn shops, flea markets, estate and garage sales are good sources for used tools. If you join a community of hobbyists or a '''[[w:Hackerspace|Makerspace]]''', you may find people who are upgrading or changed interests and are selling off/giving away items. You can sometimes borrow or rent tools, or use ones at community arts centers. A dedicated space for your own or group projects is less constrained by time and access, and has better control over tool selection and care. &emsp;'''Learning to Use Them''' - There are plenty of sources of information beyond what is in these books. Other books, both paper and digital, are a primary source. The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?tab=collection Internet Archive]''' has a vast collection of digitized books. Local libraries either have paper books, can borrow them from other libraries through inter-library loan, or have digital copies you can borrow. You can of course buy new and used books online and in bookstores. Hobbyist magazines and other publications are useful both for project information and specialty equipment sources. &emsp;A community of people doing personal production can teach each other whatever skills they already had or are learning. Formal classes are taught at community centers and trade schools. Informal ones can be found among hobbyist groups, stores that sell the relevant items, and at makerspaces where you can observe and try things. You can find local community projects, hobbyists, or professionals and offer to help or work for them, and learn while doing. Video tutorials and online forums on specific subjects have also become quite helpful in recent years. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">3.0 - Basic Sets</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Before starting to use any kinds of tools and equipment, you should know how to use them safely and properly, and be protected from injury. So have the following items available, and get some safety training if needed: &emsp;'''Reference Material''' - At least one reference book on basic tool use to start with. Add additional books, videos, training classes, etc. as needed. There are many basic books available, but '''[http://everyspec.com/USN/NAVEDTRA/NAVEDTRA_14256_JUN1992_18379/ Tools and Their Uses, US Navy, 1992]''' is public domain and downloadable. The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=home+workshop+tools Internet Archive]''' also has several books on home workshops and tools to borrow or download. &emsp;Both paper and e-books can be used where you are working. To protect them from dirt and damage, a thick cardboard backing with rubber bands or spring clips, and a clear plastic bag or sheet as a cover is enough to start. E-books may need more protection for the display, like a wood tray with a hinged clear plastic lid. &emsp;'''Safety Equipment''' - Tools, and the materials being worked on, are usually stronger than body parts. So a variety of safety equipment should be used to protect yourself. These include safety glasses or goggles, ear plugs or headsets for sound, work gloves (cloth, leather, fireproof, and rubber in varying thickness), knee pads, masks or respirators for dust or vapors, shop aprons, hard hats, reinforced shoes and boots, and protective covers or shields around dangerous tool parts. The latter are often built-in or available for the tools. Which of these are needed depends on what you are doing. Loose clothes and hair can get caught up in moving parts, and should be changed or secured. &emsp;Despite using safety equipment, injuries can still happen. So '''[[w:First_aid_kit|first-aid supplies]]''' should be available nearby. Most homes already have some. If a work space is some distance away or you are working away from home, a basic first aid kit should be located in the space or your vehicle. Appropriate fire extinguishers and/or sprinklers should be available for any project with flammable materials. For outdoor work, water buckets and hoses should also be available. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 1 - General Home Use</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;These items are useful for common household tasks like hanging pictures, assembling furniture, or installing appliances. They are also needed for more advanced projects and maintaining other equipment. They should all fit in a toolbox like the one in figure 5.5-2. [[File:Caisse_à_outils_avec_petit_outillage.JPG|thumb|right|640x375px|Figure 5.5-2 - A cantilever toolbox with trays that slide apart.]] ::'''Tool and Supply Containers''' &emsp;While household tools can be stored in a drawer or closet shelf, it is handy to keep them in a '''[[w:Toolbox|Toolbox]]''' of some kind. This avoids multiple trips when you need to use more than one, and keeps them all together. Almost any kind of container will work, as long as it will hold the majority of them (except the largest like hand saws), and strong enough for the weight. Thick-wall cardboard boxes and plastic tubs are low-cost examples. Handles or hand openings make carrying them easier. Manufactured or self-made toolboxes often have one more more drawers, removable/sliding trays, or smaller containers/dividers for small items (Figure 5.5-2). That makes it easier to organize and find what you need than a random pile. Additional types of tool carriers include large buckets, with optional tool organizers, non-rigid carrying bags and backpacks, and tool belts and aprons for when you want to keep some tools at hand. [[File:Motorists_tool_kit_roll_of_1912.jpg|thumb|right|640x441px|Figure 5.5-3 - A 1912 Mechanic's tool roll.]] &emsp;Most tools are mostly or all metal, and power tools have motors, batteries, or cords. Many tools have accessories, like drill bits or various size sockets. So at some point hand-carrying a toolbox becomes difficult. You can either have multiple smaller toolboxes, or use a larger one with wheels and a handle to make moving it easier. There are manufactured stackable sets with the bottom unit having the wheels and handle, or you can get a separate handcart and strap multiple toolboxes to it. &emsp;Tools can damage each other, especially ones like files designed to cut metal. Smaller containers, especially ones with individual tool holders, within the tool box can protect them. Sharp blades can be covered with a cap or sheath, or wrapped in cloth. A tool roll of heavy cloth or soft leather can keep tools organized and separated from each other (Figure 5.5-3). &emsp;Supply items like nails, screws, and sandpaper get used up in a project. Extra supplies avoids having to shop for them for each project, and it is often cheaper to buy in quantity, or not possible to buy very small amounts. These extra supplies also need storage. Small amounts can be kept in the same container as the tools, either loose in a compartment or in the package they came in. Larger amounts can be stored in a separate container, and then whatever is needed for a given project pulled out as needed. [[File:HeadLamp.JPG|thumb|right|640x376px|Figure 5.5-4 - A battery-powered headlamp.]] ::'''Lighting and Inspection''' &emsp;You need to be able to see what you are working on. If permanent home lighting or daylight is not enough, there are portable options like plug-in lamps and work lights. Work lights can be mounted on stands or clamp onto an available surface. Battery options include flashlights, and headlamps which leave the hands free (Figure 5.5-4). Inspection mirrors are small adjustable ones on a handle to see in hard-to-reach places. Some have telescoping handles and built-in lights. ::'''Measuring and Marking Tools''' &emsp;These are used for marking where to make cuts or shapes, dimensions, or what a part is for later assembly. Typically a cut line is marked, and then an X, squiggle, or shading is used to show the part being cut away. Cuts should be on the removal side of the line rather than directly on it. It is easier to remove material to get the final dimension than put it back once removed. So tool positioning should account for blade width. * '''Pencils & Pens''' - Start with ordinary pencils. sharpener and eraser, and yellow and red marking crayons for dark and light raw wood respectively. Ink pen and colored marker lines are easier to see but harder to erase. The edge of '''[[w:Masking_tape|Masking Tape]]''' can be used to mark locations and be written on, then more easily removed where appearance matters. Office sticky notes and other low-stick items can also be used for this. * '''[[w:Scratch_awl|Scratch Awl]]''' - These make indented lines and points. They make a sharper line than writing tools and the indents help position a chisel or drill in the right place. * '''[[w:Ruler|Rulers]]''' - Steel, preferably stainless to resist rust and heat. One or more straight ones to start, 15-60cm (6-24 in) with fine-scale markings. '''[[w:Tape_measure|Tape measures]]''', one each roll-up steel, 4-10 m (12-30 ft)for straight distances, and a cloth/plastic sewing type for wrapping around objects. * '''[[w:Combination_square|Combination Square]]''' - For measuring and marking perpendicular or at an angle to an edge, and finding the center of an end. One 30cm (12 in) to start with. [[File:Tool-level.jpg|thumb|right|640x228px|Figure 5.5-5 - A torpedo level.]] * '''Levels and Plumbs''' - For finding horizontal and vertical lines. '''[[w:Spirit_level|Spirit levels]]''' have liquid with an air bubble in a curved tube. Start with a torpedo Level (Figure 5.5-5), a small magnetized one suitable for general home use, like leveling appliances. A '''[[w:Plumb_bob|Plumb Bob]]''' is a light string with a substantial weight, sometimes pointed at the bottom. Gravity pulls it vertical. It can be used to transfer positions or align objects vertically. If attached to a marked frame or scale it can help align vertical, horizontal or sloped directions. ::'''Assembly Tools''' &emsp;For fastening parts together or take them apart again. Also for striking items to drive them together or apart or change their shape. These are mainly manual (unpowered) tools. * '''[[w:Screwdriver|Screwdrivers]]''' - Screws come in a variety of sizes with different slots, for which a matching driver should be used. Sets with common sizes are available. A basic set should have at least a large flat head, large Phillips, small flat head, small Phillips, and stubby flat head (short shaft). Since a lot of torque (twisting force) is often needed, they should be better than the cheapest grade. :&emsp;When an item doesn't already have screw holes, an '''[[w:Bradawl|Awl]]''' with a very narrow or pointed tip is useful for starting small screws. If nothing else is available, a sharpened nail can be used. Larger wood screws require pre-drilling a hole about the size of the shaft inside the threads to avoid splitting the wood. :&emsp;A small cordless screwdriver that accepts hex shank bits can replace multiple screwdrivers and pre-drill holes. A set of screwdriver and small drill bits with matching shanks should be added if not included. '''[[w:Drill#Hand-powered|Hand Drills]]''' of various kinds still exist but are mostly obsolete or used where power is not available. * '''[[w:Pliers|Pliers]]''' - For firmly holding items using leverage. A basic set would include either a channel or slip joint type where the space between the jaws can be changed, a lineman’s with heavy-duty jaws, long nose for reaching confined spaces, and a locking type which continues to hold without hand pressure. * '''[[w:Socket_wrench|Socket Wrench Set]]''' - For larger screws and bolts that need more torque. A basic set includes a reversible ratcheting handle and different sizes of matching sockets to fit hexagonal-head fasteners. '''[[w:Hex_key|Hex Keys]]''' (Allen wrenches) are used for hexagonal holes in a screw or bolt. A basic set of different size hex keys is enough to start. * '''[[w:Hammer|Hammers]]''' - For striking with higher force by combined arm and handle speed. A basic set includes a '''[[w:Claw_hammer|Claw Hammer]]''' for driving and removing nails, a '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer|Ball-Peen]]''' for striking other metal tools or shaping metal, and a '''[[w:Mallet|Rubber or Rawhide Mallet]]''' for when you don't want to damage what you are hitting. These can be anywhere from the 250-1500g (8-38oz) weight range depending on your strength and what you are hitting but a 500g/16oz one is enough to start with. * '''[[w:Staple_gun|Staple Gun]]''' - The manual version uses a hand-compressed spring to drive heavy staples. It can be used for fastening plastic sheet, fabric, and other light materials into soft woods. Hardwoods may require hammering the staples flush, or using sturdier fasteners like upholstery tacks. ::'''Cutting and Abrasive Tools''' [[File:Tapijtschaar.jpg|thumb|right|400x300px|Figure 5.5-6 - Carpet Shears.]] * '''[[w:Scissors|Scissors/Shears]]''' - These have two blades on a pivot connected to handles. A toolbox version should have stronger blades and higher handle-to-blade length ratio to cut thicker material than household/craft scissors. A suitable heavy duty one is a '''Carpet Shears''' (Figure 5.5-6). The offset handles make it easier to cut on a flat surface. * '''[[w:Utility_knife|Utility Knives]]''' - The kind called a "box cutter" has a retractable razor knife for cutting materials like cardboard. This is enough to start with. A straight edge can guide the blade along a desired line. If you use the knife often enough, it should come with or you can get replacement blades when they wear out. Blades are very low cost and not worth sharpening to a razor edge. An inexpensive '''[[w:Putty_knife|Scraper/Spreader Set]]''' with different width and shape blades is useful for general cleaning, prying, and spreading. Thicker blades are better for scraping, while thinner flexible blades are better for spreading. A '''Razor Scraper''' holds a single-edged razor blade crosswise, and is used at a low angle on hard surfaces like glass. :&emsp;The '''[[w:Pocketknife|Folding Pocket Knife]]''' has one or more blades which pivot into the handle. A '''[[w:Multi-tool|Multi-tool]]''' includes other items besides edged blades. In all cases the movable blades make it safer and easier to carry when not being used. Traditional fixed-blade utility knives have their uses, especially outdoors or working with wood, but need a sheath when not being used for safety and to avoid damage to the edge. They should be single-edged so you can push on the back of the blade for extra force. * '''[[w:Diagonal_pliers|Diagonal Pliers]]''' - are made of hardened steel and used to cut wires and similar long, narrow materials. They are typically built into lineman's pliers along with the gripping jaws. but adding a smaller one for tighter spaces or cut more closely to a surface is useful. * '''[[w:Snips|Metal Snips]]''' function like scissors, but have much thicker blades and more leverage, often with compound action. This allows cutting sheet metal and similar hard materials. A starter set only needs the straight-cutting type, but left and right curve cutting versions can cut more complex shapes without multiple straight cuts. * '''[[w:Hacksaw|Hacksaws]]''' hold a narrow, fine tooth blade under tension in a frame. One standard 30 cm(12 inch) saw with a few blades of different tooth fineness is sufficient for a starter set. They are used to cut metal, plastic, and wood where a narrow cut or thin walls requires a thin blade with small teeth. Junior and mini saws use shorter blades and can be used in smaller spaces. * '''[[w:Hand_saw|Wood Hand Saws]]''' - These are for general cutting of wood to size. One short enough to fit in a toolbox to start with. Longer carpenter's saws can use the full stroke length of arm and body. They need a longer toolbox or are stored separately with something to protect the cutting teeth. The basic types are '''[[w:Crosscut_saw|Crosscut]]''' with teeth to cut across the wood fibers (grain), and the '''[[w:Ripsaw|Ripsaw]]''' with teeth to cut lengthwise along the fibers. There are many other types of '''[[w:Saw|Saws]]''', but a smaller toolbox one and the two carpenter types for larger pieces of wood are enough for basic home projects. * '''[[w:File_(tool)|Files]]''' and '''[[w:Rasp|Rasps]]''' are used to remove small amounts of material by abrasion. Files have teeth the width of the tool, while rasps have smaller individual teeth. They are usually made of hardened high-carbon steel so they can cut other metals. They are fairly inexpensive, so a packaged set of six or more different sizes, shapes, and tooth fineness is enough to start. This should include at least the bastard, double cut, round, and triangular types. '''[[w:File_(tool)#Needle_files|Needle Files]]''' are very small ones for confined spaces or fine work. :&emsp;File sets should have some handles, and a holder or wrap to keep them from damaging each other and other tools. A stiff toothbruch, detail brush or "file card" (a brush with fine metal wires) can be used to remove accumulated particles. * '''[[w:Sandpaper|Sandpaper]]''' - is used to smooth surfaces, round sharp corners and similar finishing tasks. An assortment pack with different grain sizes is enough to get started. Grain is either particles per inch where fine grains have higher numbers, or direct size in microns. Sandpaper wears out and becomes clogged with particles, but is inexpensive to replace. A stiff brush like a toothbrush can clean out excess particles. There are types intended to be used wet or dry, and different grain materials. :&emsp;The paper or other backing is flexible and can be cut from the back or folded and torn to whatever size is needed. Cutting from the grit side will damage blades. It can be wrapped or taped to scrap wood or any other object to conform to the surface being sanded. '''[[w:Sanding_block|Sanding Blocks]]''' are also made for this purpose. Fingernail files and hobby sanding sticks are useful for small spaces. ::'''Tool Care and Maintenance''' &emsp;Tools and work areas need some care, maintenance, repair, or cleaning. Care can be divided into avoidable problems and unavoidable wear. Water and high humidity causes steel and other metals to rust or corrode and wood to decay. Dry storage and work areas, and quickly removing water after use helps avoid these problems. A wiped on coating of oil, or storing in oiled paper or cloth, can help keep water away from metal. Wood finishes or chemically treated lumber can prevent rot. Freshly cut logs and branches have a high water content, so they should be '''[[w:Wood_drying|Dried]]''' before most uses. This is called "seasoning" because drying time in air is measured in seasons. Paints and other durable coatings, and waterproof containers can protect both wood and metal items. &emsp;'''Sharpening''' - Using tools will eventually wear down sharp edges and moving parts. Casual use of a wood or metal saw may take years to wear down the cutting teeth, but if used regularly they require '''[[w:Sharpening|Sharpening]]''' or replacement. Hacksaw and razor blades are inexpensive and replaceable. More expensive cutting tools can be sharpened with files, sandpaper fastened to a flat surface like glass, and '''[[w:Sharpening_stone|Sharpening Stones]]''', and '''[[w:Razor_strop|Stropping]]''' with abrasive compounds. These are used in series with progressively finer teeth and grains until the necessary sharpness is reached. This varies by tool and its use. A fine tooth file from those listed above and a two-sided sharpening stone with coarse/fine grain is enough to start with. &emsp;'''Repair''' - Other tool parts may need replacement if they become too worn or break. The assembly tools listed above are used to take tools apart, replace the part, and put them back together. Any kind of flat tray or small container can be used to hold loose parts while disassembled, so they don't get lost or forgotten. If there are many parts, a multi-compartment item like an egg carton, ice tray, or muffin pan can organize them in the order they were disassembled so it can be reversed during re-assembly. &emsp;General maintenance and cleaning items don't need to be carried in a tool box, but brought out as needed. They include: * '''Lubricants and Tapes''' - One saying is "'''[[w:WD-40|WD-40]]''' for anything that moves but isn't and '''[[w:Duct_tape|Duct Tape]]''' for anything that moves but shouldn't". Lubricants and tape have many uses, so some of each should be available. One can of penetrating spray lubricant, and a roll each of strong cloth (duct) and regular masking tapes are enough to start. Other kinds of '''[[w:Lubricant|Lubricants]]''' and '''[[w:List_of_adhesive_tapes|Tapes]]''' can be added as needed. :&emsp;Tools and machines with moving parts often need oiling at specific points and not others. Some oil containers come with a small nozzle, but a small brush or cotton swab can be used in harder to reach spots. Dedicated '''[[w:Oil_can|Oil Cans]]''' (oilers) that work by gravity or pressure are available for frequent or large-scale use. * '''Brushes and Vacuums''' - Old toothbrushes and wire brushes can be used to clean up blade teeth, fastener threads and other small spaces. Soft hand brushes. a broom, dust pan, and trash cans are for collecting sawdust, metal shavings, etc. Hand and shop vacuums can clean up inaccessible or large areas. Cotton swabs and small craft brushes can be used to clean or apply finishes to small areas. * '''Cleaning Supplies''' - Old clothes or towels can be cut up, or cleaning rags purchased, for removing dirt, oil, grease, etc. Paper towels can be used but they wear out quickly. General household brushes, sponges, buckets and mops, water and household cleaners are used as needed to clean work areas. Most people have these already. If needed, cut-open plastic shopping or trash bags, and newspaper/advertising fliers can be used to protect surfaces. * '''Twine and Rope''' - Have multiple uses for bundling, temporary clamping, and securing loads being moved. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 2 - Home Improvement/Do-It-Yourself Use</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;The general-purpose tools and equipment listed here, when added to List 1, enable a range of more substantial home improvement, craft, and repair projects. You can start adding them as-needed for specific projects. Finding them used in bulk, such as auctions, moving, and estate sales, may save money. Any duplicate or unneeded items can be sold off or traded for ones you need. As noted above, you don't need everything from these two basic lists to start on projects. But the more items you have, the wider the range of projects you can do. ::'''Office & Media Equipment''' &emsp;These are used as=needed before starting a project to plan, design, research, and shop. They should be located away from work areas to avoid damage from tools, dirt, and dust: [[File:Drafting_board_with_T_Square.jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-7 - Drawing board with T-square and other tools.]] &emsp;Hand drawing has been substantially replaced by computers and software, especially for professionals, but it is much lower cost to get started. Even with computers, it is still useful for sketching ideas, or making notes and alterations to existing plans. Printed plans, however created, are still useful in the workshop, as they can be larger than screens, and if full size can be used directly as templates. * '''[[w:Drawing_board|Drawing Board]]''' - This is a surface to make drawings and plans of custom projects, customizing existing ones, or scaling templates to full size. An existing table or counter with a smooth top can be used to start, but any piece of smooth-surfaced rigid material can be used instead to avoid pen and tape marks. Portable boards (Figure 5.5-7) can be moved where needed and put away between uses. Tape or push-pins are used to hold drawing sheets in place. Translucent '''[[w:Drafting_film|Drafting Film]]''' (vellum) can be laid over other drawings and illustrations as guides. '''[[w:Graph_paper|Graph Paper]]''' has a pre-printed grid, making scaled sketches easier. *'''[[w:Technical_drawing_tool|Drawing Tools]]''' are used to draw accurate lines and curves. These include the T-square, 45 and 60 degree triangles; engineer's, metric, and architects scales; lettering, circle, and irregular curve templates; protractor, low-stick drafting dots, masking tape; erasers, eraser shield, and dusting brush; bow compass and dividers; and mechanical pencils of various lead diameters. * '''Computer and Peripherals''' - If you don't already have one, a computer is useful for communication, inventory, purchasing, task management, and design software. A multifunction printer can be used to print out online or e-book plans, or enlarge templates to full size. The scanning function can do the reverse. Large plans and templates can be sent to a commercial print shop. A webcam can provide live video conversations. A smartphone can use its cameras to also do this function. A '''Digital projector''' can be used to transfer designs to physical items or templates. ::'''Storage and Workshop Space''' [[File:Paris_-_Carpenter_workshop_-_4944.jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-8 - A professional woodworking shop with storage and workbenches.]] &emsp;As tools accumulate, it gets harder to fit them in a closet and move them around even with a wheeled toolbox. So dedicated storage becomes useful. Storage may be in a garage, utility room, or outbuilding. A storage area can also hold parts and materials for future projects. Tools and materials can be quite heavy, so the storage should be sturdy. Shelving and cabinets, either wall-mounted or freestanding, are typically used for smaller items. Longer or larger items can be leaned against or hung from a wall. &emsp;Drawers can help keep items accessible but out of the way when not being used. For tools and accessories, some portable tool boxes, and the larger wheeled or stationary '''Tool Chests''' come in all sizes and number of drawers. Parts organizers, small containers, or open bins can be used for bulk items like nails and screws. Empty cardboard boxes are often free from stores if you ask, and come in all sizes. Sturdy ones are preferred. Labels on everything help finding the right items once many have accumulated. A pack of blank address labels and a bold marker can serve for this. &emsp;When you add dedicated work space to storage, it becomes a '''[[w:Workshop|Workshop]]''' (Figure 5.5-8). These come in all sizes from a craft area in the corner of a room, to garage and basement space, to freestanding buildings that can be as large as needed. If you move to an existing or new home, it may already have space for a workshop, or an existing shop in place. &emsp;Since the tools in these lists enable making and building things, workshops can be largely self-made. The shelves, work tables, chairs, cabinets and other items that support working in them are collectively called '''Shop Furniture'''. Setting up storage and workshop space can be a very big project, so it is typically divided into smaller steps, with the completed parts helping finish the rest. &emsp;How much workshop space is needed is determined by the size of the projects being made, and the shop furniture, assembly areas, tools, stationary machines, parts, and materials being stored and used. Workshops can be used by one person or many, so there should be enough space to not interfere with each other. Enough additional space is needed to move around and for large items to overhang and move through machines. For some projects, outdoor space can be used temporarily to extend the working area. &emsp;Shops should not be overcrowded and items piled haphazardly. That is both unsafe and hard to use. So enough space for proper storage and future growth should be planned for. Workshops also need adequate lighting, either natural or artificial, and enough electric power if if such tools are used. This may require upgrades to existing systems. Access to water, such as a utility sink, and ventilation if fumes or dust are generated are helpful. The floor must be able to support the total weight of everything in the shop, which can be quite large. Temperature and humidity should be controlled enough to prevent rust, wood rot, and be comfortable to work in. Access doors should be large enough to move materials and finished items through. &emsp;If you are doing longer-term projects, specialized '''Work Clothing''' is helpful. Tool and nail aprons and belts allow keeping the most used tools with you. Denim, leather, or other heavy materials are durable and can provide protection. Some versions have extra pockets, loops, and holders for items. ::'''Work Surfaces and Clamps''' * '''Portable''' - While some work can be done on the floor, supports bring the work to a comfortable height, and for longer items keep them from sagging or tilting while being worked on. Two '''[[w:Sawhorse|Sawhorses]]''', with optional boards and/or sheet goods laid on top are simple and flexible, and are a starting point if you have nothing else. They can be bought, but basic ones are easy to make and cheaper. '''[[w:Black_%26_Decker_Workmate|Folding Portable Workbenches]]''' can have built-in vises, stops, and tool-holders. If they are very light they can move while working. Some have steps to use body weight to stabilize them. They can also be weighted with anything heavy to keep them steady. [[File:Clamps.jpg|thumb|right|596x480px|Figure 5.5-9 - Assorted clamps: pipe, bar, trigger, handscrew, spring, C-clamp, and cam types.]] * '''[[w:Clamp_(tool)|Clamps]]''' - Clamps in general are used to hold one or more items together or to the work surface to keep them from moving. They can be much stronger than muscles and leave the hands free for working. A single clamp can allow items to rotate, so at least two medium-size ones are needed to start with. Additional clamps of various types and sizes are desirable (Figure 5.5-9). There are specialized clamps that use '''[[w:Band_clamp|Straps]]''' or for '''[[w:Mitre_clamp|Holding Corners]]''' that can be added later as needed, and temporary ones can be made from rope and sticks, with wedges driven under the rope to apply pressure. * '''[[w:Workbench|Workbenches]]''' - These are either stationary, or if wheeled generally stay within a workshop area. Their weight and rigidity keeps items from moving or vibrating from tool forces. They typically have built-in '''[[w:Vise|Vises]]''' and clamps, or are designed so temporary ones can fix the work to the bench. Vises generally have larger faces to apply pressure and are stationary, while clamps are typically movable. The intermediate clamp vise can be temporarily clamped where needed. The '''[[w:Vise#Engineer's|Bench]]''' (Figure 5.5-18) and '''[[w:Woodworking_vise|Woodworking Vices]]''' are the most common types. The latter have wood vise faces to avoid damage to items. :&emsp;There are a number of specialized tools and accessories to hold items to workbenches. Some have '''[[w:Bench_dog|Bench Dogs or Pegs]]''' or '''[[w:Holdfast_(tool)|Holdfasts]]''' that can be inserted into holes to position or secure items. Shaped inserts can better hold round or other items that don't match the jaw shape. For some projects, custom holding jigs need to be self-made. For any kind of vise or clamp, softer materials like wood, leather, or rubber can be inserted between the jaws to prevent damage to the work. :&emsp;Many workbenches have storage shelves, hooks, or drawers below the bench top. Wall-mounted benches often have additional shelves or cabinets above the bench for storage. Free-standing benches (not against a wall) allow access from all sides and working on overhanging items. If large items will be worked on, temporary supports or other shop tables can be used to support the excess. Depending on use, bench top height can be for working standing up or sitting, or a taller chair or stool used to sit at a standing bench. Some benches have built-in electrical outlets for power tools. Otherwise corded tools or battery chargers can be plugged in elsewhere. ::'''Ladders and Platforms''' &emsp;Some projects involve reaching/working above floor or ground level, and occasionally down a hole. * '''[[w:Ladder|Stepladders]]''' have steps or rungs to climb and stand on. They come in a wide variety of sizes, and are either free-standing or leaned against something. A two-step version may be enough to reach ceiling lights and high shelves indoors, but a 2 meter (6 foot) one with four legs is more stable and provides places to set or hang tools and materials while working. Some versions have a small fold-out shelf for this purpose. This size is sufficient to start with. For outdoor use extension or folding ladders can be adjusted to the task at hand. If you expect to reach a roof or tree limb, the length can be chosen based on that height. :&emsp;Modern ladders are rated for weight. Select one rated for at least your body weight plus the heaviest item you expect to lift up it. '''A falling ladder or falling off one can cause serious injury'''. Move the ladder rather than leaning or lifting heavy items beyond the legs. If the ground is not level or firm use boards or blocks to fix that. Secure the ladder if needed to what you are climbing up, or braced to the ground with diagonal poles or staked ropes. Secure yourself to the ladder or what you are climbing with hooks and ropes/straps/safety belt to prevent falls. *'''Work Platforms''' provide more horizontal surface to stand on or place things than ladders. They are useful when horizontal movement is needed while working. One or two sturdy boards placed across two ladders, or one ladder and building steps are simple versions. Since loose boards can shift, they should be clamped or have angles or blocks attached to prevent sliding off. ::'''Moving and Lifting''' &emsp;Moving heavy objects or large amounts of supplies happens often on larger projects. Moving or lifting items over 20 kg (40 lb) or carrying multiple smaller or lighter items is difficult by hand, and benefits from various transport and lift devices. Some bags and boxes saved from previous shopping or discarded by stores may be enough to start with. Horizontal movement benefits greatly from wheels. Depending on the task, a '''[[w:Hand_truck|Hand Truck]]''', '''[[w:Flatbed_trolley|Flatbed Trolley]]''' (moving dolly) or '''[[w:Wheelbarrow|Wheelbarrow]]''' can be used. '''[[w:Tub_(container)|Tubs]]''', '''[[w:Bucket|Buckets]]''' and assorted small containers are useful for storing and moving items like fasteners, bulk materials, liquids, and groups of tools. Workshop machines and carts can come with wheels or have them added. This allows moving them out of the way when not being used, or to where needed while working. &emsp;For moving large amounts of material or larger single items, motorized vehicles of many types and sizes exist. The most common are passenger cars, pickup trucks, and enclosed vans. Trailers can be attached to many of these vehicles. Flat or open bed loads can be protected and secured by tarps, nets, elastic or chain hooks, and ratcheted straps. Blocks, wedges, and bars can prevent loads from shifting. Securing loads is important for balancing trailers whose deck extends beyond the wheel base. '''[[w:Intermodal_container|Shipping containers]]''' can carry large amounts of goods and serve as temporary storage or even a small workshop. &emsp;'''[[w:Pulley|Pulleys]]''' are used for lifting, dragging, or changing the direction of a force. A single rope and body weight is enough for smaller loads. Sets of pulleys can be combined for added leverage. Inclined boards set on a step or block and fabricated ramps can help withe height changes. The ledge at the bottom of a hand truck and many other objects can be used as '''[[w:Lever|Levers]]''' to lift objects enough to place supports under them or get them onto wheels. '''[[w:Back_belt|Back Supports]]''' may help avoid injury when lifting heavy items with body strength, but proper technique is more important. &emsp;'''[[w:Winch|Winches]]''' multiply leverage with cranks and gears. There are both hand and powered versions. Temporary hoists can use 1-3 poles with anchor ropes as needed. They can support pulleys, hooks and other lifting gear high enough for a given task. These are the '''[[w:Gin_pole|Gin Pole]]''', '''[[w:Shear_legs|Shear Legs]]''', and '''[[w:Tripod|Tripod]]'''. Commercial lifts and cranes can be rented for occasional use, or are supplied while delivering large loads. &emsp;'''[[w:Jack_(device)|Jacks]]''' - are devices to lift heavy weights or apply bending forces, generally more than simple levers. There are may types using ratchets, screws, air pressure, or hydraulics. The type included with most passenger cars for changing tires is enough to start, but a bottle jack of 10-20 tons capacity is a useful addition. Always make sure the jack is firmly supported. On bare ground it is likely to push itself into the ground rather than lifting a heavy object. Boards, timbers, or concrete blocks can spread the load. Also place timbers or other supports as the item is lifted, in case the jack slips or the load shifts sideways. ::'''Measuring and Marking''' * '''Size Measures''' - The ruler-type '''[[w:Calipers|Caliper]]''' has a sliding jaw attached to a ruler, with a vernier scale for accuracy. The inside and outside spring types can take and transfer measurements. These three 6-12" (15-30cm) in size to start with. Dial and digital calipers can make more accurate measurements, but not as accurate as a micrometer. * '''Weight and Volume Measures''' - For measuring bulk items and liquids. These can be conventional kitchen and bathroom scales, measuring spoons and measuring cups. Empty clear/translucent containers can be filled with measured volumes and marked for shop use. This is useful for materials that will stain or are toxic that you don't want to contaminate your measuring set. &emsp;'''Note:''' Some of the angle, curve, and spline tools that follow overlap the drawing tools in the office section above. If you already have those, you may not need more to start with. Larger versions are useful for measuring and marking larger physical projects as opposed to scale drawings. The need for them depends on what projects you are doing. * '''Angle Measures''' - There are various devices for setting right angles (90 degrees or perpendicular). The '''[[w:Try_square|Try Square]]''' is 20-50 cm (8-20 inches) is for smaller accurate work. The '''[[w:Steel_square|Steel Square]]''' is a larger one-piece device with engraved scales. Angled and sloped cuts are either described by the two scales, like "6:12", or calculated from the angle tangent. For cutting sheet goods there are squares the full width of a standard sheet. Sheet goods are generally manufactured with right angles, so an alternate method is measuring the lengths on opposite sides from the corners, and connecting them with a straight edge. :&emsp;The '''[[w:Speed_square|Speed Square]]''' is a triangular '''[[w:Set_square|Set Square]]''' with a built in fence. This can be pressed against a board edge to mark a cut, or clamped to it to guide a circular saw. A '''[[w:Protractor|Protractor]]''' has an angle scale, and the bevel type has a pivoting arm to mark angles. A '''[[w:Sliding_T_bevel|Sliding T Bevel]]''' can set and transfer angles when you want them to match. One try or steel square is enough to get started, depending on the size of the projects. * '''Curve Marking''' - A '''[[w:Compass_(drawing_tool)|Compass]]''' has two sharp points, or one point and pencil/pen for marking arcs and circles. The distance between the points is set against a ruler to the radius desired. The regular and beam/trammel types will mark small and large radii and are enough to start with. Very large curves can be set by hooking the end of a tape measure to a small nail at the center point, and securing the sharp point, pencil, or pen to the tape with a small '''[[w:Binder_clip|Binder Clip]]''' * '''[[w:Flat_spline|Flat Splines]]''' and '''[[w:French_curve|French Curves]]''' can be used for non-circular curves. Lines on curved surfaces like cylinders can be set by marking two or more measured points, then wrapping folded paper or other bendable but not stretchy material between them to mark a line. [[File:Vpass-1.JPG|thumb|right|640x284px|Figure 5.5-9 - Carpenter's Level.]] * '''Carpenter's Level''' - 60-120 cm (2-4 foot) (Figure 5.5-9). A longer version of the torpedo level from list 1. This can span more distance and be more accurate, but is harder to use in small spaces. For longer distances a level can be set on or against a straight piece of finished lumber with parallel sides or any similar object. Once a horizontal or vertical line is determined, slopes can be set by measuring perpendicular to one end. ::'''Additional Hand Tools''' * '''Screw- and Nut Drivers''' - The basic screwdriver set can be extended to cover most projects with about 30 pieces from a large standard plus a precision assortment sets. Nut drivers have axial handles like screwdrivers, but with tips that fit different size nuts and bolt heads. Their use overlaps socket wrenches with extension bars. * '''Hand Saws''' - '''[[w:Compass_saw|Compass]]''' and '''[[w:Keyhole_saw|Keyhole Saws]]''' have narrow blades for making curved cuts. They differ in size and tooth fineness. Interior cuts can be extended from a small starter hole made with a drill or chisel. A '''[[w:Coping_saw|Coping Saw]]''' has a very narrow blade with small teeth, and a frame to keep it straight under tension. The small teeth are good for thin material. The '''[[w:Bow_saw|Bow or Frame Saw]]''' is a larger version. Interior cuts can be made by unhooking the blade, putting it through a starter hole, and re-attaching it. The blade can be rotated as needed for the cutting direction. A '''[[w:Bench_hook|Bench Hook]]''' is a simple accessory, usually self-made, to keep an item steady while cutting, and slightly raised so you don't damage a work table. Hook a pair of them over the edge of the table and press what you are cutting against the upper blocks. :&emsp;Hand '''[[w:Backsaw|Backsaws]]''' have a reinforcing strip to keep the blade straight and can be used with a '''[[w:Mitre_box|Miter Box]]''' to guide it. They are used for cutting to length and accurate crosscut angles. They come in various sizes and tooth fineness from the larger miter saw, to tenon, dovetail, and razor. Ones with offset handles are used to cut pegs and other protrusions flush. Hand saws require periodic sharpening with use. Specialty clamps, file jigs (to even tooth height), and '''[[w:Saw_set|Saw Sets]]''' (to set kerf width) are available, but can be made/use other tools. The actual sharpening uses files and sharpening stones. * '''Hammers''' - Add other sizes of hammers with metal heads to those in list 1, either smaller and lighter for fine work, or heavier up to two-handed '''[[w:Sledgehammer|Sledgehammer]]'''. One or more hardwood mallets or '''[[w:Dead_blow_hammer|Dead Blow Hammer]]''' for when you don't want to damage what you are striking, with less rebound than the rubber mallet. These often have soft striking faces with sand or metal shot filling the head, which absorbs the rebound forces. The light '''[[w:Upholstery_hammer|Tack Hammer]]''' has one magnetized head to start small tacks and nails, such as for upholstery. The unmagnetized head then finishes driving them in. * '''Hooks and Picks''' - These are small tools with various shaped tips for fine work. They are similar to dental '''[[w:Periodontal_probe|Probes]]''' and '''[[w:Dental_explorer|Explorers]]'''. A basic set with several types to start with. * '''[[w:Burr_(edge)|Deburring Tools]]''' - For removing rough edges left by cutting tools. Files can also do this task, but a specialty tool set is sometimes more efficient on softer materials and longer edges. * '''Pry and Demolition Bars''' - These use leverage to remove nails, pry items apart, or start to lift heavy items. They can use hands or hammers to insert. They come in various sizes and shapes like the '''[[w:Cat's_paw_(tool)|Cat's Paw]]''', '''[[w:Crowbar|Crowbar]]''', and flat pry bars. Claw hammers have a built-in prying tool, but additional ones are useful. [[File:Quick_Change_Tool_System,_2parts.jpg|thumb|right|Figure 5.5-10 - Punch and matching die.]] * '''Chisels and Punches''' - '''[[w:Chisel#Cold_chisel|Cold Chisels]]''' are used to indent or cut thinner metal, and score, chip, or split masonry. '''[[w:Punch_(tool)|Punches]]''' are used to indent or pierce leather, wood, or metal. Hollow punches can make well-defined holes in thicker material. Matching '''Die Blocks''' support the other side so the surrounding area is not deformed (Figure 5.5-10). :&emsp;A '''[[w:Punch_(tool)#Center|Center Punch]]''' is used to mark where a drill will cut and keep it from wandering. A '''[[w:Nailset|Nailset]]''' is a punch with a small head, for driving a nail flush or slightly below without damaging the surrounding material. '''[[w:Drift_pin|Drift Pins]]''' are either straight or tapered. They are used to either transfer hammer impacts to hard-to-reach places or align holes before assembly. Start with a punch and chisel set of assorted types and sizes plus one medium '''[[w:Chisel#Woodworking|Wood Chisel]]''' for minor trimming and cutting of wood and other softer materials. * '''Wrenches''' - Add to the basic socket set in List 1 a larger set with multiple handle sizes and a larger range of sockets. Sizes up to 1 1/2" SAE and 38mm metric will cover all but the largest projects. Using two handles with a nut and bolt allows more tightening force. :&emsp;Open or close-ended single piece '''[[w:Wrench|Wrenches]]''' can apply higher forces that would damage a ratchet type handle. Their drawback is having to remove and reposition for each turn in tight spaces. A combination wrench has one open and one closed end. Using the ratchet handle first, then this type for final tightening minimizes the work. :&emsp;'''[[w:Adjustable_spanner|Adjustable Wrenches]]''' have a cylinder to change the jaw opening. Four sizes from 6-12" (15-30cm) should cover most needs '''[[w:Pipe_wrench|Pipe Wrenches]]''' have parallel serrated jaws to better grip large nuts and heavy pipe. These come in a wide range of sizes, but a medium one is enough to start. A '''[[w:Hex_key#Variants|Ball-End Hex Key]]''' can be used at an angle to the screw in hard to reach places. Sizes from 0.05-0.5" and 1.27-10mm in addition to the plain set from list 1 should cover most needs. * '''Pliers ''' - As needed, add '''[[w:Pincers_(tool)|Pincers]]''' and nippers, to grab or cut across the handle rather than along it. They are useful for pulling items like nails, or cutting protruding items flush. To a single locking pliers in the basic set you can add additional sizes and jaw shapes. Other types of pliers can be added in different sizes and lengths. Also add pliers to install and remove '''[[w:Retaining_ring|Retaining Rings]]'''. The rings have different styles and sizes, so you may need a set, or one with replaceable tips. * '''[[w:Bolt_cutter|Bolt Cutter]]''' - For cutting thicker rods or bars than pliers using compound leverage. For even thicker items use a metal hacksaw, angle grinder, or reciprocating saw. * '''Shop Magnets''' - Extension and sweep, for retrieving dropped items and metal cuttings. A strong shop magnet can be used to locate nails and screws in a wall by feel, and so also where the framing is located. A '''[[w:Stud_finder|Stud Finder]]''' is a more advanced device for finding wall posts (studs). ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;There are many types and sizes of '''[[w:Power_tool|Power Tools]]'''. The portable ones are meant to be moved to the work and used with one or two hands, while stationary ones are larger and have the work brought to them. Most use electric power either from a battery or cord. Batteries allow moving anywhere without worrying about cord length and handling, but they eventually need recharging. Battery packs and chargers add to the cost. Corded tools generally allow higher power levels and longer running time. Most power tools come in a range of quality and power level, measured by Amps or Watts. Which to use depends on the projects you are doing. &emsp;'''[[w:Extension_cord|Extension Cords]]''' allow working farther from a power outlet. Cords should be rated for the highest power tool you expect to use, and for outdoor use if you expect to use them that way. If you are moving around or climbing up, tie an '''[[w:Overhand_knot|Overhand Knot]]''' with the ends of the tool and extension cords before plugging together. This prevents them from pulling apart. * '''[[w:Drill|Electric Drill]] and Accessories''' - One corded drill around 6 Amp power and a standard wood drill '''[[w:Drill_bit|Drill Bit Set]]''' up to the drill chuck size is enough to get started. If you expect to work with metal, there are bits made of stronger materials with a different cutting angle. A '''Drill Gauge''' can help identify the size of a bit. The '''Hammer''' type drill can apply forward impacts to better go through hard materials. Many drills have side handle and depth gauge attachments to for better control. Specialty '''Right Angle Drills''' have the chuck mounted sideways to the grip rather than axially, which allows drilling in smaller spaces. :&emsp;There are many accessories that can fit in a drill chuck. '''[[w:List_of_screw_drives|Driver Bits]]''' can be used in place of screwdrivers and socket wrenches. They are faster but with less control. A driver assortment set is enough to start. Others include sanding, wire, and buffing wheels, countersink, counterbore/spade, expansion, and auger bits for wood, and abrasive stones for metal. For large holes a stationary drill press (see List 8) handles the higher torque better, or use a smaller starter hole then a saw to enlarge it. Various kinds of '''[[w:Drill#Hand-powered|Hand-Powered Drills]]''' still exist, but are mostly used where power is not available, to start a hole, for small spaces, or countersinking. * '''[[w:Circular_saw|Circular Saw]]''' - A hand-held corded type with 7.25 inch (18.5 cm) blade diameter with carbide teeth is the most common to start with. Other size saws and blade types as needed. Cordless (battery powered) types typically use smaller blades. All types rotate the blade at high speed. So what you are cutting should be secured to prevent movement, and a firm grip on the tool with both hands. For accurate cuts, a straight object is clamped to the work, offset by the blade distance from the guide plate edge. * '''[[w:Reciprocating_saw|Reciprocating Saw]]''' with assorted blades - This moves the blade forward and back rather than rotating. Longer blades allow cutting thicker items than a circular saw. Since only the blade is in the cutting area, they can work in tighter spaces than a circular saw. A variety of blades are available for different materials, and in different lengths and stiffness. They are generally less accurate than circular saws, but clamping something to the work to hold the tool against can improve accuracy. * '''[[w:Jigsaw_(tool)|Jigsaw]]''' with assorted blades - This is a type of reciprocating saw where the blade goes vertically through a guide plate. They are most useful making straight or curved cuts in boards or sheet goods * '''[[w:Angle_grinder|Angle Grinder]]''' and '''[[w:Dremel|Rotary Tool]]''' - These use high speed bits for tasks like cutting, grinding, and sanding. They differ in the direction of rotation and size. Angle grinders rotate at a right angle to the tool body, and are generally larger and more powerful. Rotary tools, such as the Dremel brand, rotate in line with the body, similar to electric drills. Compared to electric drills they spin at much higher speeds but with lower torque at the same power. One of either type is enough to get started. * '''[[w:Heat_gun|Heat Gun]]''' - These produce much higher temperatures than hair dryers and should never be used for that purpose. Uses include paint stripping, shrink wrapping, softening plastic for bending, and general heating and melting. Higher temperatures require an oven or furnace, but heat guns are portable and can cover larger areas. ::'''Stationary Equipment</u>''' &emsp;These items should either be fastened in place to use properly, or are too heavy or unwieldy to hand carry while operating. Stationary equipment generally includes both powered and unpowered tools, but the three here are all powered. * '''[[w:Miter_saw|Power Miter Saw]]''' - These perform the same function as a hand backsaw and miter box but are much faster using a powered circular saw blade. Basic versions have a horizontal angle gauge and fence. More advanced ones have blade tilt and slide features, clamps for the material, and projected lines for the cut. A bench, sawhorses, or rollers keep longer and heavier lumber straight and balanced while cutting, and the saw generally has holes for bolting in place. * '''[[w:Bench_grinder|Bench Grinder]]''' - This uses high speed abrasive, wire, or buffing wheels to sharpen, remove material, clean, and polish. They throw cuttings at high speed and can generate sparks, so gloves and face protection should be used. On metal the heat generated can affect the '''[[w:Tempering_(metallurgy)|Temper]]''' and burn hands, so dipping in water periodically can cool the item. :&emsp;'''Wet Grinders''' turn more slowly and apply water to the wheel to avoid overheating. They are typically used for blade sharpening. A '''[[w:Sharpening_jig|Sharpening Jig]]''' holds the tool at the right angle to the abrasive. A 6-8 inch (15-20 cm) bench grinder with abrasive wheels is enough to start with. Bench grinders can be fastened to a workbench, or to a stand if larger items need to be worked on. * '''[[w:Air_compressor|Air Compressor]]''' - This is useful for inflating tires and other items, and also for air tools like nail guns and paint sprayers. A small one light enough to move where needed plus an air hose and attachments kit is enough to start with. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;Beyond basic supplies already noted, these can mostly be accumulated as needed for current and future projects. We suggest starting with some nail, screw, and bolt/nut/washer assortment sets with different sizes. This avoids making a shopping trip for minor home projects. ::'''Care and Maintenance''' &emsp;'''Building Maintenance''' - Homes and other structures require maintenance to stay functional. Many of the tools and equipment listed above can be used for repair and replacement, in addition to building new items. Some tools are only used to diagnose and fix problems, but not to build new items. These include: * '''[[w:Test_light|Test Lights]]''' - are used to check if an electrical outlet or other device has a voltage (power). They are mostly used for safety, to make sure power is off before doing work, and to see if a non-working device is broken vs. an electrical supply problem. * '''[[w:Plunger|Rubber Plunger]]''' and '''[[w:Plumber's_snake|Snake]]''' - for clearing blockages in household pipes. &emsp;'''Vehicle Maintenance''' - After their homes, the next most important items for many people are their vehicles. This includes passenger cars, light trucks, motorcycles, bi- and tricycles (manual and electric), utility trailers, golf carts, riding mowers, and all-terrain vehicles. Some of the tools above, such as socket wrenches, can be used for maintenance, but a number of more specialized ones are used with vehicles. These include: * '''Tire gauge''' * '''Accessory Tire Inflater''' - A small compressor, often using a 12 Volt car accessory socket. It is mainly intended for vehicle and trailer tires, but can also be used for wheelbarrow, mower, and other small tires. * '''Battery Charger''' * '''Engine Oil, Grease Gun and other lubricants''' * '''Engine Coolant''' * '''Vehicle Cleaning Supplies''' &emsp;'''General Maintenance''' - When damaged, stripped, or frozen fasteners need to be removed, there are several ways to deal with it. Dirt and rust can be removed with brushes and rags, or specialty rust remover fluids. Penetrating spray lubricants and strong wrenches may then be enough to remove them. Many kinds of '''[[w:Screw_extractor|Extractors]]''' are made for removing broken or frozen screws, nuts, and bolts. If the hole is too damaged to reuse, it can be re-threaded with taps and dies, an insert or filler material used to patch it, or a new hole drilled nearby. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">4.0 - New Workshops and Expansion Sets</span>== &emsp; ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>New Workshops</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;List 2 talked about storage and workshop space. Some homes and many apartments don't have enough spare space for the kinds of projects you want to do, especially if you go beyond basic home improvement/do-it-yourself ones. The alternatives are to find or buy existing workshop space in the community, or to build new private or shared space. We discuss the needs and features of workshops first because they have to exist before you can work in them. Simpler ones can be built with the basic items from Section 3. Larger and more complex workshops may need items from Section 8 (below) on construction. When to build a new workshop depends on what you already have available, the need for added space, and outside factors like cost, financing, permits, etc. ::'''Needs and Features''' &emsp;Workshop buildings are one or more suitable existing structures, or purpose-built new ones added to a property. The property may already have living space, or be commercial, industrial, or bare land. Workshops can be additions attached to an existing building, or detached free-standing structures. Their size, location, and features depend on what kind of projects are intended. When planning them, you should consider future growth in addition to current needs. This can be handled by over-sizing a structure, planning for additions and extensions to it, or adding additional separate structures. &emsp;There are a number of reasons for a separate workshop. These include: * Outgrowing existing home space * Excessive noise, dust, debris, and fumes * Extra power and light requirements * Better access for vehicles and moving large items &emsp;Workshops can be specific to one type of craft or activity or more generalized. Some suggested design features include: * Sufficient windows or skylights for natural lighting, and added artificial lights where needed. * Large doors for materials and product delivery. * Sprinklers and fire extinguishers for fire protection. * A strong enough floor for heavy machinery and storage, or deep footings where needed. If there are upper floors, the heavier items should be on the lower floors. Stairs and lifting devices can ease moving items between floors, and the whole structure has to support the total weight. * Enough storage area for materials, parts, and supplies, and for equipment not currently being used. * Enough electric power for all equipment, preferably routed through ceiling drops or wall channels, for flexibility and to avoid trip hazards from cords. * A water supply for clean-up. * A first aid station. * A separate office area to keep out dust and dirt, with desk, drawing table, files for record-keeping, etc. &emsp;The contents of a workshop can be grouped into general items used across multiple activities, and those specific to a particular one. The layout should consider your workflows. In general, work starts with delivery of supplies, materials, and parts. Materials are then converted to finished parts, finishes applied, and assembled into completed items. Unless the completed items are to be used in the shop, the last step is delivery. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>Expansion Sets</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 5.0 to 8.0 include a series of expansion set lists for items beyond the basic ones in Section 3.0. The added equipment may fit in space you already have at first, and outgrow it later. The lists are grouped into four categories: Small Indoor, Large Indoor, Outdoor, and Construction. Each list is specialized according to types of projects and materials. The expansion sets are not in a required order where earlier lists are needed before later ones. They are a set of mostly independent choices, depending on your interests and what you want to do. An exception is List 17 - General Construction, which has items used by multiple construction trades listed separately afterwards. &emsp;Most specialized projects will need some or all of the basic items from Sectopm 3.0. We try to list items where they are most likely to be needed, but some items can be shared across different project types. So you may want to review the items in related lists. Within each list the general order is from hand to power and larger tools. We try to note accessories that go with a particular tool or machine. We also try to note reference sources, and materials, parts, and supplies needed for the project type. At present the later lists are less complete than the basic ones. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">5.0 - Small Indoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Small indoor projects can be for personal enjoyment, creative expression, or to make useful items for personal use or sale. These are crafts and projects that can begin in temporary space like a desk or dining table, or in dedicated space of less than a room in existing living areas. They include light arts and crafts, printing and digital media, fabrics and leather work, jewelry, and electronics. They can mostly start with ordinary room lighting and electric power, perhaps with extra light in the work area. Serious hobby or small business production can grow beyond such workspace and have special needs. Section 4.0 covers new workshops for this. &emsp;We don't cover every possible activity and project, just some of the more common ones. Wikipedia's '''[[w:Outline_of_crafts|Outline of Crafts]]''', '''[[w:Handicraft|Handicraft]]''', and '''[[w:Fine_art|Fine Art]]''' articles list many of these other subjects. See also '''[https://www.smooth-on.com/applications/ Smooth-On's website]''' for additional categories, and the '''[https://www.dickblick.com/ Blick]''' website for types of tools and supplies. For ones not covered here you will need to find some reference books, printed articles, or websites that cover what is needed to get started. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 3 - Light Arts & Crafts</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Light arts and crafts involve creative expressions that don't require much power, space, or stationary equipment to start. Examples are '''[[w:Drawing|Drawing]]''' and art painting, where all the tools and supplies can be hand-carried to work on location rather than at home. &emsp;'''[[w:Painting|Artistic Painting]]''' is distinguished from the general use of '''[[w:Paint|Paints]]''' for coloring or protection, as in room walls and automobile bodies. General paints can be used artistically, but usually artist's paints are specialized types in smaller amounts. Modern paintings are usually portable on a surface like framed canvas or wood panels. Fixed paintings are sometimes done on building interiors and exteriors. Historically some sculptures were painted to make them look more lifelike. Almost any surface that paint or ink will adhere to or be implanted in can be used. &emsp;'''Artistic or Decorative Printing''' includes '''[[w:Linocut|Linocut]]''' and '''[[w:Woodblock_printing|Woodcut]]''' on fabric or paper. '''[[w:Papier-mâché|Papier-mâché]]''' uses paper or pulp, fabric reinforcement if needed, and glue, starch, or wallpaper paste. '''[[w:Mixed_media|Mixed Media]]''' are assemblages, collages, and sculpures using more than one type of material or '''[[w:List_of_art_media|Art Medium]]'''. In addition to some basic tools from prior lists, arts and craft tools can include: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Craft Scissors''' * '''[[w:Brush|Brushes]]''' - Art, foam, craft and general paint types. * '''Single Hole Punch''' * '''Crafting Needles''' - Including '''[[w:Crochet_hook|Crochet]]''', '''[[w:Knitting_needle|Knitting]]''', and '''[[w:Sewing_needle|Hand Sewing]]''' types, ::'''Work Area Items''' * '''Work Table and Storage''' - These can be existing household items or dedicated for arts and craft work. * '''Art Furniture''' - '''[[w:Easel|Easel]]''', drawing boards, portfolios, carrying cases, and folding tables and chairs for working in a studio or on location. * '''Surface Protection''' - Newspaper, old bedsheets, dropcloths, plastic tablecloths, or plastic sheeting. * '''Work Clothes''' - For messy arts and crafts such as an apron, smock, or old large shirt. * '''Storage containers and Organizers''' - for storing and mixing the variety of tools and materials. These can be purpose-made, or reused egg cartons, empty boxes, clean cans, jars, and small plastic containers. ::'''Power Tools''' * '''Hot-Melt Glue Gun''' - uses sticks of glue and heat to melt them. * '''Small Oven''' - such as a kitchen toaster oven. For heating or melting small items. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''Drawing''' - colored crayons, chalk, markers, pens, and pencils, drawing paper, pads and sketch books. * '''Artist's Paints''' - includes oil paints, pastels, watercolors, tempera, acrylics and enamels. * '''Art Printing''' - ink pad, sponge, brayer, rubber stamps, printing ink, wood blocks, linoleum. * '''Disposable containers''' - for weighing and mixing powders and liquids, and casting low-temperature resins. * '''Disposable stirrers''' - for paint, resin, etc. These can be bought, leftover plastic utensils, or scrap items. * '''Aluminum foil''' - to protect surfaces, and liners and containers for items needing oven heating. * '''Plastic''' - sheets, tubes and blocks from materials like acrylic and high-density polyethylene. * '''Casting Materials''' - Plaster of Paris, resins, etc. &emsp;Mixed media can use any found items, but some basic supplies include: * '''Fasteners & Adhesives''' - White, decoupage, fabric and wood glues. Glue sticks, painter's tape, thumbtacks, and hardware fasteners like brads, or nails. * '''Textiles''' - Yarn, craft felt, fabric scraps, thread, embroidery floss, muslin, burlap, and wool felt. * '''Sculptural Materials:''' - Salt and bread doughs. Modeling, polymer, and air dry clays. Craft foam and foam rubber. Chenille stems (pipr cleaners), toothpicks, straws, and craft/popsicle sticks. Scrap, found, and shaped wood pieces. Floral and coiled metal wire of various diameters, and larger metal pieces. * '''String, Bead and Knotwork''' - Cord, string, artificial sinew, fishing line, and thread. Pony, wood, glass, plastic, and metallic beads. * '''Decorations''' - such as glitter, pom poms, feathers, cotton balls, googly eyes, and sequins. * '''Papers''' - Copy, colored construction, wax, colored tissue, bath and "bleeding" tissue, freezer, crepe, and newsprint (blank or printed). Paper napkins, towels, and bags. Contact (adhesive-backed) paper, clear or colored. Card stock, flat and corrugated cardboard. Roll white, brown, and tracing paper. * '''Reused Items''' - such as magazines, junk mail, netting from produce bags, bubble wrap, packaging peanuts. * '''Natural Materials''' - such as leaves, sticks, small rocks, acorns & nuts, pine cones, flowers, and seeds & seed pods. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 4 - Printing and Digital Media</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Artistic printing is typically single or small numbers of items. '''[[w:Printing|Production Printing]]''' is a technology for mass reproduction and distribution of text and images for business, education, and entertainment. It has a long history of making physical copies like books and newspapers. Writing and drawing by hand can be done with very simple tools and materials. But printing in quantity needs specialized equipment for paper, fabric, photographs, and lithographs. &emsp;Today '''[[w:Electronic_media|Media]]''' of all types are increasingly produced, stored, and distributed by digital electronic methods. In addition to making text and drawings, digital media includes capturing photographs, sound, and video. It also includes creating digital content wholly electronically. New creations and recordings can be made, combined, and edited with a variety of suitable computers and software. These include stationary and portable computers, tablets, and smartphone. Additional input and output devices are often used with them, and the completed items distributed by communication networks or physical media. &emsp;Depending on the type of printing or digital media projects you want to do, you may need any of the following to get started: * '''Basic Working Space''' - including furniture and general tools from lists 1 and 2 for setup. * '''Basic Content Creation''' - this includes technical drawing and basic computing equipment and software from List 2 for text and illustrations, and light arts and crafts items from List 3 for artistic creations. A basic computing device generally includes some storage, display, keyboard and mouse, and speaker. These can be merged into a single device, such as laptops and smartphones, or separate components for desktop systems. They also generally have a network connection - wired, wireless, or both. ::'''Computers and Peripherals''' * '''Upgraded Computer(s)''' - High-end media creation, editing, and display may need better computers. This is generally set by the needs of the software and peripherals you will be working with. For example, if you are doing digital photography, you need enough storage for all the pictures you are editing and saving. Rendering high-end 3D graphics may require a corresponding graphics card, or even a dedicated computer for the task. If more than one person is working, you will need multiple computers. * '''Upgraded Input Devices''' - This includes special keyboards, mouse, joysticks, and touch-sensitive tablets. * '''Upgraded Displays''' - Some work benefits from larger, multiple, or higher quality displays. * '''Upgraded Audio''' - This can include higher quality and quantity of speakers, microphones, multichannel audio output, and headsets. * '''External or Networked Storage''' - * '''Scanners and Printers''' - These range from basic office types to large format versions. Multifunction units can do both scanning and printing. * '''[[w:Digital_camera|Digital Camera]]''' for photography and video production. A dedicated digital cameras, with accessories like tripods, lights, and microphones, can produce better results than smartphones or webcams. They have larger lenses and sensors, and more adjustments for focus, zoom, exposure time, etc. Higher-end cameras have interchangeable lenses for different purposes. ::'''Other Print Media''' &emsp;This includes printing on with other materials or processes besides paper, such as fabric, photographic prints, and lithographs. * '''Screen Printing Press''' - 4-Color, with accessories and supplies ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 5 - Fabric and Leather Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Textile|Textiles]]''' are fibers commonly used to make '''[[w:Woven_fabric|Woven Fabrics]]'''. '''[[w:Sewing|Sewing]]''' and related processes then turn fabric into creative and useful items such as clothing, drapery, and bedding. '''[[w:Leather|Leather]]''' is animal skin treated to prevent decay. In some cases it can be sewn and used like fabric. But the thickness, stiffness, and strength of leather often requires different tools, and it gets used for different kinds of items. &emsp;'''[[w:Pattern_(sewing)|Patterns]]''' are full-size drawings fastened or traced onto the material as a cutting guide. They are often purchased, but custom patterns made to fit a particular body or project, or scaled-up patterns from books and other sources can be self-made. You can use wide paper rolls or inexpensive cloth to make patterns. The latter can be test-fit on the wearer before cutting more expensive material, or used multiple times since cloth is more durable than paper patterns. &emsp;Custom patterns for complex shapes like feet can be made by wrapping plastic wrap or bags around them, then wrapping flexible tape around the plastic. Seam lines are then marked on the tape, and the pieces carefully cut off the body and flattened. Patterns made this way need to have seam margins added to them. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Sewing Kit''' - While all the items can be bought separately, it is convenient to get all of them at once to start, and kits are typically not very expensive. It can include any or all of the following: storage for all the items, spools of thread in various colors and thickness, scissors, spare buttons, spring clips and dressmaker's pins for holding fabric together. Hand sewing needles of various sizes, machine bobbins, safety pins, crochet hook, magnifier, tip and ring thimbles, pin cushion, and a measuring tape. * '''Cloth Measuring Tape''' - A flexible cloth or plastic ruler without a case. This was included in List 1, but if you don't have it yet, get one at least 60 inches (150cm) long for measuring body dimensions, and another up to 144 inches (360cm or 4 yards) for measuring uncut fabric and large sewn items like drapery. * '''Tailor's Chalk or Soapstone''' - For temporary marking on fabric. * '''Dressmaker's Shears''' - These are very sharp scissors with an offset handle that leaves the fabric flat while cutting. They should not be used for other purposes. * '''Thread Snips''' - Small pointed, and usually spring loaded, scissors for cutting thread and trimming fabric. The small size allows reaching into tight spaces after sewing. * '''[[w:Seam_ripper|Seam Ripper]]''' - A tool with a razor-edged hook for cutting sewn stitches without tearing the fabric. * '''Rotary Cutter Set and Mat''' - This uses a razor edged wheel rather than scissors action to cut material. A set includes replacement wheels with different shaped edges. A soft mat protects the table surface while allowing the blade to penetrate through. * '''[[w:Tailor's_ham|Tailor's Ham]]''' - A tightly stuffed pillow for pinning and ironing curved areas of fabric. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''[[w:Sewing_table|Sewing Table]]''' - This can be any kind of table to start with, to support a sewing machine or fabric being hand cut and sewn. Custom tables inset a sewing machine bed level with the rest of the surface. This makes sliding the material easier. For larger and heavier material, a machine set perpendicular to a longer table eases movement. Custom tables can also have storage for accessories and tools or fold up to save space when not in use. * '''[[w:Sewing_machine|Sewing Machine]]''' - with accessories. A light domestic electric machine with at least straight and zig-zag stitches is enough for basic household sewing, like clothing and drapery. Modern ones can have many other stitches and accessories, and electronic features for semi-automatic tasks. A "foot" is what holds the fabric down while the needle passes through it. A basic one comes with the machine, but specialized ones either come with it or can be bought afterwards. :&emsp;A heavy-duty machine has a stronger frame and motor to sew thicker materials. Industrial machines are faster for production work and have more clearance between needle and frame, but typically fewer stitch types. Domestic machines typically feed one or two threads from a spool above, and another from a bobbin beneath, so a set of bobbins of the correct type are needed if they did not come with the machine. Sewing machines also use specialized needles of different diameters, which should be added if not included. The following specialized machines are not needed to start with, but added as needed: * '''[[w:Overlock|Overlock Machines]]''' - (Sergers) are used for edging, hemming, and seaming using multiple threads at once, needing fewer steps to finish a task. * '''[[w:Machine_embroidery|Embroidery Machines]]''' - add stitched threads to underlying fabric for decoration rather than construction and edging of basic sewing. Patterns can be formed by hand or with electronic control, beyond the mechanically formed fancy stitches. * '''Washing and Drying Machines''' - Some fabrics need pre-washing to remove residual dyes, avoid later shrinkage, or removing sizing applied to the fabric. Some dyeing can also be done in a washing machine. Most people already have such machines or access to commercial ones. * '''[[w:Ironing|Ironing Station]]''' - This includes a heat-resistant surface, usually cloth covered, and a heated '''[[w:Clothes_iron|Clothes Iron]]''' to remove wrinkles and flatten fabric or finished items. Pressing cloths are used between the iron and item to protect from excess heat. ::'''Leather Tools and Machines''' &emsp;Sewing leather requires heavy duty or specialized tools and machines. '''[[w:Leather_crafting|Leather Crafting]]''' involves other processes like dying, painting, carving, stamping, and molding, and uses a different set of mostly hand tools. The production of leather from skins and hides uses yet another set of tools and processes. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''Fabric''' - cotton, synthetic, upholstery * '''Leather''' * '''Thread''' * '''[[w:Notions_(sewing)|Notions]]''' - refers to small items and accessories besides fabric, leather, and thread, which end up in finished articles. Examples include buttons, clasps, zippers, hooks, eyelets, and laces. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 6 - Jewelry Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Jewellery|Jewelry]]''' is decorative wear, often made from high value materials. Creating it often involves small-scale '''[[w:Metalworking|Metalworking]]''' and '''[[w:Lapidary|Lapidary]]''', but can use a variety of other techniques. At a beginner level items would mostly be assembled from parts. More advanced projects involve making the parts before assembly. &emsp;Jewelers use basic items from Section 3.0 like measuring tools, some kind of workbench with a vise, small clamps and clips, needle files, and abrasive/polishing supplies. To those, add the following as needed: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Ring Sizers''' - A set of measured rings for fingers and a marked tapered rod for the rings themselves. * '''Magnifiers''' - Since jewelry work is typically small, these are very helpful. One useful type is an articulated lamp with a built-in lens. * '''[[w:Helping_hand_(tool)|Helping Hand]]''' - A base with jointed arms and clips or end clamps, and often a magnifier. It allows positioning an item at any angle, leaving both hands free to work with. * '''Bench Pin''' - A protruding hardwood pin with at least a narrow "V" slot, and optional other holes and indents, that is clamped to a workbench. It supports items while sawing or otherwise being worked on. Pins can be bought, but as sawing often damages them, they can be easily made to suit and replaced as needed using basic tools. * '''[[w:Piercing_saw|Piercing or Jeweler's Saw]]''' - A small coping saw 2-8 inches (50-200mm) in size with adjustable frame length. It uses very fine blades that often break, so shorter lengths can reuse broken pieces. A pack of blades of various fineness should be added if not supplied with the saw. * '''Jeweler's Anvil''' - A small anvil with round and flat horns. * '''Small-Jaw Pliers''' - If you don't already have them, a set with very small jaws for fine work, in assorted shapes. * '''Small Forming Hammers''' - A set of polished hammers around 5 ounces (150 grams) with various head shapes. For very fine work add a set of "micro" hammers around 2 ounces (60 grams) * '''Soft Hammer''' - A light hammer with rubber and plastic heads, which is less likely to leave marks on the work. * '''[[w:Planishing|Planishing Stakes]]''' and '''[[w:Swage_block|Swage Blocks]]''' - for hammering outside and inside compound curves. These are the same tools as used in blacksmithing (List 10), just smaller and working cold rather than hot metal. The process is also known as '''[[w:Sinking_(metalworking)|Sinking]]''', doming, dishing, or dapping. * '''[[w:Mandrel|Mandrels]]''' - Metal rods held by a vise or base block. Tapered ones are used for sizing and shaping items like rings and bracelets. Straight ones are used to support hollow or curved pieces being worked on. A set of various diameters and shapes (round, oval, triangular, square, etc.) can be accumulated as needed. Plain steel bars and rods can be used to start with. * '''[[w:Wire_drawing|Wire Drawing Plate]]''' - has a series of sized holes for reducing soft wire diameter by pulling it through with lubrication. Depending on wire diameter it may require mechanical leverage to get enough pulling force. * '''[[w:Engraving|Hand or Power Engravers]]''' - cut grooves into a hard surface for decoration or lettering. * '''Small metal shear''' * '''Body Forms''' - These are in the shape of complex parts of the body like head, neck and shoulders, hands, and feet. They are used to lay out and hang jewelry while being designed and fitted. ::'''Power Tools''' * '''Rotary Tool''' - with accessory bits, if you don't already have one. A stand to hold the tool steady is useful for fine work. A flexible shaft is also useful to reach small spaces and is lighter than holding the motor section. * '''Soldering equipment''' * '''Buffing station''' * '''Small Oven and Annealing Pans''' ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 7 - Electronics</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Electronics|Electronics]]''' is distinguished from List 21 - Electrical Work, which is mostly done during construction and remodeling, and is mostly to supply power for lighting, electrical outlets, and fixed appliances. Electronics involves more complex active devices rather than than simple passive ones like on/off switches. In addition to basic tools from Section 3.0, add the following, or another set for electronics work: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Precision Screwdrivers''' * '''[[w:Wire_stripper|Wire Stripper]]''' - is designed to cut the insulation from various gauge (diameter) wires without cutting the wire itself. They usually have built-in cutters to then trim the wire itself to length. * '''Pliers''' - Smaller Diagonal and long nose * '''Precision Tweezers''' * '''Magnifiers''' - Electronic components are often small, so an Eye Loupe (a head-mounted magnifier) or an articulated lens with built-in light is useful. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' * '''[[w:Soldering_iron|Soldering Iron]]''' - with assorted tips and sponges. * '''Digital Multimeter''' ::'''Stationary Equipment''' &emsp;Electronics projects benefit from a dedicated '''Work station'''. This typically includes a Work Table with a heat-resistant surface, Fume Fan, Universal Vise with standard and circuit board jaws, Third Hand, Test Leads, and a magnifier light. Additional items can include: * '''Digital Microscope''' * '''DC Power Supply''' * '''Oscilloscope/Signal Analyzer''' * '''Function Generator''' * '''Flash Memory - programmer and debugger''' * '''Computer''' - for communications to and from the electronic device, recording, analysis, and design. ::'''Parts, Materials, and Supplies''' &emsp;Electronics is notable for the wide variety of parts available and used. To start with some basic items like wire and resistor assortments can be stocked, but the rest should probably be bought as needed for projects. * '''Discrete Components''' - Assorted Resistors, Capacitors, Choke Coils, Diodes, Transistors, Motor Drivers, Voltage Regulators, Amplifiers, Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Photodetectors * '''Other Components''' - LCD Displays, Speakers, Microphones, Temperature Sensor, Hall Effect, Accelerometers, Microcontrollers, Frequency Crystals, Radios, Magnets, Buttons & Switches, Headers, Assorted Jacks & Plugs, Ribbon Connectors, Screw Terminals, Battery Holders, USB cables and connectors, Ethernet cables and connectors, Transducers, Small DC Motors and Digital Servos, Power Supplies * '''Wire''' - General Electrical: single, pair, and grounded types, solder wire, magnet wire, shape memory * '''Circuit Board substrates''' * '''Other Supplies''' - Antistatic Bags, Heat Shrink Tubing, Desoldering Braid, Cable Ties, Rubber sheet/feet ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">6.0 - Large Indoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;This section covers activities that typically need larger or more dedicated indoor space, extra power or other special features, and often result in more practical and useful finished items. We include woodworking, basic metal fabrication, projects that require high temperatures, and machine shop work. There is some overlap in tools and equipment used, but each of these has some unique items and workshop needs. &emsp;Typical home workshop spaces include a garage, basement, or freestanding building. More advanced community production may require dedicated property. This is partly from needing larger shop furniture, stationary machines, materials storage space, and the size of the items being made. Additional requirements like more power, heavy weights, and heat resistance can make regular living space unsuited. These lists assume you have most or all of the equipment from the basic sets in Section 3.0. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 8 - Woodworking</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Since other animals use wood for tools, they are likely the oldest tools of our ancestors. Many human artifacts, like houses and furniture, are primarily made from it. So some tools for basic '''[[w:Woodworking|Woodworking]]''' were already included in the lists in Section 3.0. Additional tools from this list can be added as needed for projects. Growing trees ('''[[w:Forestry|Forestry]]'''), converting them to lumber ('''[[w:Logging|Logging]]''' and '''[[w:Sawmill|Sawmills]]'''), and woodwork for buildings ('''[[w:Carpentry|Carpentry]]''') are specialized enough to cover in other lists. This one covers hobbyist and small business projects made and used mostly indoors, like furniture, cabinetry, and smaller items. &emsp;Prior to the 20th Century, all woodworking was done manually or with some assistance from water and wind power. Since then electricity and compressed air have greatly increased the speed and power of tools. Some woodworkers prefer using hand tools - they are quieter and you can more directly feel what is happening to the wood. Power tool users still need some hand tools to avoid damage, precise finishing, or getting into small spaces. Power and stationary tools generally need more workshop space and cost more. So it is a matter of choice, budget, and working space for which ones to use. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;If you are new to woodworking, the '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=Woodworking&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22available_to_borrow%22&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22is_readable%22&sort=-date Internet Archive]''' has over 400 general books on the subject which are available to download or borrow for two weeks at a time. This list is sorted newest first. Books prior to 1950 will tend to focus more on hand tools, because modern power tools were not as common or too expensive for individual use. You can enter more specialized search terms on that site to find more books. &emsp;A general '''[https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube]''' search for "woodworking" brings up many results, but you are better off searching for more specific subjects. A single video is not long enough to cover all of woodworking. For beginners, we suggest a search term like "beginning woodworking series" to find ones that give a general introduction across several videos. An example is '''[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRWjFTaHniqMVryvDAQ3771MO6_QQRYXN Start Woodworking]''', with 13 videos taking about 8 hours, which you can watch a little at a time. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;Woodworking obviously requires wood to work with. It comes mainly from '''[[w:Tree|Trees]]''' and some large plants like '''[[w:Bamboo|Bamboo]]'''. Wood properties vary widely depending on the species, growing conditions, and other factors, making every piece unique. So certain kinds of wood and particular pieces are better suited than others in a given project. There are artificial products like '''[[w:Plywood|Plywood]]''' and '''[[w:Composite_lumber|Composite Lumber]]''' partially made of wood, and some non-wood materials can be worked on with the same tools. This sometimes requires requires different bits or blades. &emsp;Commercial lumber is grown and processed into grades of similar type, suited for a category of projects. When buying, you should inspect and select individual pieces. For bulk amounts, you should expect some loss from defects, warp, etc. A knot or split may make a board unsuitable at full length, but you can cut off the bad part and use the remainder as a smaller piece. &emsp;Other materials, parts, and supplies used in woodworking include a wide variety of fasteners, hardware, glue, finishes, and abrasives. Home improvement and hardware stores will stock many of these, and specialty items can be bought from other suppliers. An assortment of nails, screws, and a bottle of '''[[w:Wood_glue|Wood Glue]]''' are enough to get started. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''[[w:Marking_gauge|Marking Gauges]]''' - Have an adjustable fence and single or dual points or knives, for scribing lines parallel to an edge. The '''[[w:Mortise_gauge|Mortise]]''' type marks both sides of a mortise and tenon joint at once so the two parts will fit exactly. * '''More Clamps''' - Woodworkers say "you can never have too many clamps". They are used to hold items in place while being shaped, groups of items that need identical cuts or smoothing, drilling aligned holes, and while gluing pieces together. Types include bar, screw, pipe, locking, spring, rigid C-shape, corner, strap, hose, and others. Since there are so many kinds, we suggest accumulating them a few at a time from used sources or bought as-needed for a project. :&emsp;Clamps can also be self-made by (1) taking any length of lumber, fastening two or more blocks to it, then driving a pair of wedges to tighten, (2) wrapping cord around the item, and driving one or more wedges between cords and wood, (3) using a loop of cord and twisting it with a stick to tighten, or (4) placing the item on the floor or a table and placing heavy objects on top. * '''[[w:Chisel#Woodworking|Woodworking Chisels]]''' have a sharp edge at the end of the blade beveled 25 degrees on one side. They are either pushed by hand or hit with a '''[[w:Mallet|Mallet]]''', typically wooden so as not to damage the tool handle. A simple mallet can be made from a tree branch the diameter of the head, with the handle portion trimmed down to size. Get either square edge or beveled wood chisels in several widths to 1 inch (25mm) or so to start with. There are a number of other types, like the mortise chisel for cutting grooves, which can be added as needed. :&emsp;'''[[w:Adze|Adzes]]''' are specialty tools with curved blades and a chisel edge. They are swung to rough out a shape. Long-handled ones are used standing on or next to the work. Smaller ones are used on bowls and other interior curves. * '''[[w:Plane_(tool)|Hand Planes]]''' - have wide chisel blades that slightly protrude through a flat base so as to take thin shavings, with one or two handles. The blade is positioned so as to preferentially cut high spots in the wood, enabling flattening it. There are a wide variety of shapes and sizes for different purposes. The '''[[w:Scrub_plane|Scrub]]''', '''[[w:Block_plane|Block]]''', '''[[w:Jack_plane|Jack]]''', and '''[[w:Jointer_plane|Jointer]]''' types are for flat surfaces. The '''[[w:Rebate_plane|Rabbet/Rebate]]''' type is for cutting grooves or recesses, while circular planes have a curved rather than flat base for working curved surfaces. The combination plane has an adjustable frame for accepting different widths or sets of cutters. A few sizes of flat planes are enough to start. * '''[[w:Drawknife|Drawknife]]''' and '''[[w:Spokeshave|Spokeshave]]''' - These are two-handled tools used on the pull stroke, generally for shaping round pieces. The first has a wide, unprotected blade for removing bark and large shavings. The second has a smaller blade extending a variable amount from the body for finishing work. The blades may be straight or curved. One of each type is enough to start. [[File:Carving_tools_2.jpg|thumb|right|640x380px|Figure 5.5-11 - Woodcarving tools and mallet.]] * '''[[w:Wood_carving#Tools|Carving Tools]]''' - These are used for more intricate wood shaping than the ones previously mentioned. Depending on blade size and accuracy they can be driven by hand or a mallet (Figure 5.5-11). The carving knife has a short lengthwise blade, while gouges are sharpened crosswise, with longer blades that are either curved, hooked, or V-shaped. A set assorted shapes can be used to start. * '''[[w:Card_scraper|Cabinet (Card) Scrapers]]''' - Used with a '''[[w:Burnisher|Burnisher]]''' to create a sharp burr for scraping a fine surface on hard or difficult grained wood. * '''[[w:Wood_finishing|Wood Finishing]]''' - Sandpaper and sanding blocks are in List 1 above, but additional grain sizes and different backings like cloth are useful. Once the wood pieces or assembled item is the final shape, there are many finishing methods for appearance or to protect it. Tools like brushes and cloth pads can be used to spread the finish and remove excess. Applying finishes can be messy and involve toxic solvents and media. Workshop dust can contaminate the finish before it dries. So a separate finishing area with ventilation, drop cloths, and personal protection like gloves and filter masks are desirable. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;Modern portable tools can use a power cord or batteries, with the choice depending on convenience, power level, and running time. List 2 included some basic portable power tools. Additional ones include: * '''[[w:Router_(woodworking)|Routers]]''' - The portable type has a fixed base and uses a variety of bit sizes and shapes, for cutting wood and other materials. If the router did not come with them, you should get at least a basic set of bits. The '''Plunge Router''' has a spring between motor and base, allowing vertical bit movement while working. * '''[[w:Sander|Sanders]]''' - There are many types of power sanding devices, both portable and stationary, which work faster than hand sanding. Some sanding accessories be mounted on other tool types like electric drills or bench grinders. The portable Belt, Detail, and Orbital types belts and disks with different grain fineness. One palm or belt sander with a assorted abrasives is enough to start. * '''Hand Planer''' - Uses a rotating cutting blade to flatten surfaces similar to hand planes. * '''[[w:Dowel|Dowel]]''' and [[w:Pocket-hole_joinery|Pocket Hole Jigs]]''' - Accessories used with an electric drill to accurately position holes. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' &emsp;These larger machines can work faster and more accurately by using built-in or accessory guides. The built-in table or work surface can be enlarged with extension tables, and side supports like sawhorses and rollers can be used to stabilize larger wood pieces. * '''[[w:Table_saw|Table Saw]]''' - A circular saw blade and motor mounted under a table, with adjustments to height and tilt. They generally have fences and other accessories to control the movement of the item past the blade. Compared to the portable circular saw in List 2 they are generally more powerful with a larger depth of cut, and easier to set up for repetitive cuts on multiple parts. A bench-top version may be enough for lighter projects, but should be secured while in use. Larger versions have a stand or cabinet. Different blades are available depending on what is being cut. * '''[[w:Jointer|Jointer]]''' - is similar to the power hand planer in having a rotating blade, except it is below the wood, and the wood moves rather than the tool. A fence is used to guide the wood, and some can be set at other angles than perpendicular. * '''Thickness Planer''' - Pulls a board with rollers between a flat table and rotating knives. It produces boards with flat and parallel surfaces. If you don't have a jointer to produce one flat surface, you can use a flat sled with the board shimmed and hot-glued to it to flatten one side with shallow cuts. * '''Sanders''' - Stationary sanders use a variety of abrasive belts, disks, cylinders, and drums. Some types will feed the work through the machine, but most require manually moving the work to the abrasive surface. A medium combination belt and disk sander is a good starting point. * '''[[w:Bandsaw|Bandsaws]]''' - use a loop of metal with teeth as the blade, running over two or more motor-driven wheels. They come in a variety of sizes from bench-top to floor-mounted, with different width and height capacity and motor power. Different blades are available for various cutting tasks. [[File:Holzdrechsel.jpg|thumb|right|640x425px|Figure 5.5-12 - Woodturning lathe.]] * '''[[w:Woodturning|Woodturning Lathe and Accessories]]''' - Turning makes symmetrical wood shapes mainly using a wood lathe (Figure 5.5-12) and long-handled chisels, gouges, and scrapers. Various holding devices are used with the lathe, according to the size and shape of the item being turned. Finishing operations like sanding can also be done while the piece is still mounted. * '''[[w:Scroll_saw|Scroll Saw]]''' - A reciprocating saw with a vertical narrow blade in tension, capable of cutting intricate curves. Get a set of assorted blades if not provided. * '''[[w:Drill#Drill_press|Drill Press]]''' - This is an electric drill mounted to a column and base, with an adjustable table. Compared to a portable drill they are more powerful and accurate. There are many sizes and variations, with the chuck axis-to-column distance being a key measurement since it sets the maximum distance a hole can be from the edge of a part. :&emsp;A very basic '''Drill Stand''' mounts a portable drill vertically, but this is only suitable for light work. An 8 inch (200mm) bench-top press is a better starting point. The frame is more rigid and the drive belt lowers speed and increases torque for a given motor. Smaller machines should be clamped or bolted to a stable surface. Larger versions are floor-mounted, and some can move and tilt the drill head for better access. * '''[[w:Router_table_(woodworking)|Router Table]]''' - This mounts a portable router, usually below the table surface, or can be a dedicated machine. Typically it has guide fences, and allows moving the wood through rather than moving the tool. This helps with doing multiple pieces of the same kind. * '''[[w:CNC_wood_router|CNC Wood Router]]''' - uses motors to move the cutting tool along defined axes, under computer control. This is useful for doing complex or repetitive patterns. The table can be any size, but ones large enough to cut quarter, half, or full sheets of plywood are common. * '''[[w:Dust_collector|Dust Collection System]]''' - A simple version is a wet/dry '''[[w:Vacuum_cleaner#Wet/dry|Shop Vacuum]]''' on wheels which is brought to whatever machine is being used. The machines may have fittings installed for the vacuum's hose. A more advanced version has pipes installed around the workshop that lead to a larger stationary vacuum system that has a separator for dust and larger chips. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 9 - Metal Fabrication</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;This list covers basic metal fabrication, This type of '''[[w:Metalworking|Metalworking]]''' involves forming, cutting, and joining thinner metal pieces where high accuracy is not required. Larger and thicker pieces require heating to shape or cast. Ceramics also require high temperatures, so we group them with blacksmithing and foundry work into List 10 (Hot Work). Machine Shop Work (List 11) can produce highly accurate finished parts, but needs a different set of equipment than the ones here. A given project may need some equipment from all three lists. Basic metal work needs many or all of the basic equipment from Section 3.0, such as workbenches and vises. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=Metalworking&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22available_to_borrow%22&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22is_readable%22 Internet Archive]''' lists about 50 general books on metalworking which can be downloaded or borrowed for 14 days. You can find additional works using more specific search words like "welding" or "sheet metal", then selecting for "Always Available" and "Borrow for 14 days". Other types of reference and training sources, like paper books, instructional videos, and classes are also available. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;'''[[w:Metal|Metal]]''' is of course required for metalwork. By far the most common type is '''[[w:Steel|Steel]]''', which is iron with a little carbon added, and optionally other elements to make a particular '''[[w:Alloy|Alloy]]'''. Scrap and auto salvage yards, recycling stations, and discarded appliances are cheap sources for basic metals. Auto and other types of repair shops may have scrap bins. Retailers like home improvement, hardware, and online stores stock some metal and fasteners. Dedicated metal and industrial suppliers have larger selections and can be found in most cities. Other items besides metal stock include: * '''[[w:Arc_welding#Consumable_electrode_methods|Consumable Electrodes]]''' - These are rods or wire used to fill joints and make weld beads, with a flux added protect from oxidation. * '''[[w:Sandblasting#Media|Abrasive Blasting Media]]''' - a wide variety of materials are used in blasting operations besides the sand from which it got its name. * '''Fasteners and Other Hardware''' - Some of these are the same as for woodworking and other projects, but machine screws, bolts, and rivets tend to be used more with metal. ::'''Shop Furniture''' * '''Steel Welding Table''' - with magnetic welding squares, for grounding and magnetically clamping workpieces. This is in addition to a basic workbench. It should be located away from combustible materials. * '''Portable Welding Screens''' - to protect other people and equipment from sparks and UV light. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''[[w:C-clamp|Welding Clamps]]''' - The ordinary C-type clamp can be used, but ones with a deeper throat distance or locking jaws with flat tips are useful for welding. * '''Chain Vise or Clamp''' - Uses a flexible chain to hold round or irregular objects in place. * '''[[w:Metalworking_hand_tool|Forming Tools]]''' - Also known as "auto body tools", since that is a common use for them. These include various shape hammers and metal or wood blocks, but also specialty slappers, spoons, dollies and forming bags to create complex curves or flatten sheet metal. The tools used by jewelers and blacksmiths work similarly, but are smaller and larger respectively. * '''[[w:Bending_(metalworking)|Bending Tools]]''' - This includes hand bar, strip, and tube benders for lighter metal. * '''Blind Riveter and Rivet Set''' - for setting expanding or solid '''[[w:Rivet|Rivet]]''' fasteners. * '''Scriber and Ink''' - for accurate marking for cutting and drilling. * '''Soapstone Pencils''' - for marking metal when welding, since it is heat resistant. * '''Chipping Hammer & Stiff Wire Brushes''' - for removing slag and cleaning surfaces while welding. The hammer head has one sharp point side and often a chisel edge on the other. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' '''WARNING''' - Many types of welding produce harmful UV light, fumes, and hot sparks, and all produce a lot of heat. You should therefore have suitable goggles, face mask, respirator, gloves, cap, and heat-protective clothing like gloves and aprons. Some welders require dedicated or upgraded electric power to operate. Electric types have shock risk, and all types have fire risk. Work areas should be well ventilated against fumes and heat build-up. Basic welding machines include: * '''[[w:Spot_welding|Spot Welder]]''' - for sheet metal. Melts a small area by resistance heating. * '''[[w:Flux-cored_arc_welding|Flux Core Arc Welder]]''' - also called "Shielded Metal Arc Welding" (SMAW) a light-duty A.C. unit with sticks or spool feed is enough to start working with thicker steel sections. * '''[[w:Gas_metal_arc_welding|Gas Metal Arc Welders]]''' - These use a separately supplied inert shielding gas like CO2 or argon. There are a number of types. MIG uses a consumable weld wire as the electrode, while TIG uses a tungsten electrode and a separate stick or wire weld feed. * '''[[w:Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting|Torch Welders]]''' - These use a fuel-air or fuel-oxygen torch. The hot flame melts the material, into which a weld rod can be fed. Torches can also be used for rough cutting. These require gas tank supplies, but can work where enough electricity isn't available. A friction or long-handled lighter is needed. * '''[[w:Plasma_cutting|Plasma Cutters]]''' - Use a highly heated gas to cut most materials. Smaller ones are portable, and larger computer-controlled ones (CNC) are stationary with a support framework and water bath below. * '''Power Shears & Nibbler''' - Shears work scissors, while nibbler punches through metal, and can work from an interior starter hole. * '''Impact Drivers & Wrenches''' - These tools accept hex-shank bits and square drive sockets respectively. They apply rotary blows to the chuck or socket for extra tightening and loosening forces. Bits and sockets should be designed for impact use to prevent breakage. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''[[w:Abrasive_saw|Abrasive Saw]]''' - Also called a '''Chop Saw''', it is used to cut hard materials like metal, tile, and concrete. Smaller jobs can use an abrasive blade in a circular saw, or an angle grinder. The larger bench version protects the motor from metal dust, and can clamp the material for higher accuracy. It can cut thicker angle, bar, and pipe stock to length. * '''[[w:Abrasive_blasting|Sand Blaster]]''' - Uses compressed air to blow high velocity sand or other media at a surface to clean or finish it. The stationary version has a cabinet and collection system to contain the debris. The effect is similar to paper and wheel abrasives, but can be used for larger and more intricate items. * '''[[w:Brake_(sheet_metal_bending)|Brakes]]''' - are used to bend sheet metal. The finger type can bend and fold selected parts of an edge. These come in hand and powered versions depending on size and thickness of the bend. * '''Sheet Metal Shears''' - In addition to the left, straight, and right compound hand snips, and portable power shears and nibblers, the stationary '''[[w:Shear_(sheet_metal)|Sheet Metal Shears]]''' can handle larger and thicker sheets. This includes the bench, foot, power and compound throatless types. * '''[[w:Roll_bender|Roll Benders]]''' - can form cylindrical and conical shapes using three rollers that are either parallel or with one at a slight angle. * '''[[w:Machine_press|Machine (Shop) Press''' - For applying large forces for bending, shaping, or setting fasteners. Arbor presses use gears for mechanical advantage, while hydraulic presses use fluid pressure. '''[[w:Ironworker_(machine)|Ironworkers]]''' are heavy duty machines using hydraulic or flywheel power to cut, punch, or shape thicker materials while cold. Hot work equipment from list 10 is used to soften metals when cold work becomes too difficult. * '''[[w:Parts_washer|Parts Washer]]''' - This can range from a simple utility sink or tub to more complex units with a pump and spray system. Used to clean dirt, grease, and other contaminants from metal parts before working on them. * '''Hydraulic Pipe & Bar Bender''' - More powerful than hand benders for thicker bars, tubes, and pipes. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 10 - Hot Work - Blacksmith, Foundry, and Ceramics</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''CAUTION''' - All of these involve high temperatures, so either an outdoor or specially designed indoor area should be used. Good ventilation and fireproof/heat-protecting clothes are needed. &emsp;These types of hot work share the need for a high temperature furnace, kiln, or forge. They can share equipment, or at least share a working area designed for the heat, so we group them into one list. '''<u>Blacksmithing</u>''' [[File:Fort_Jackson_2012_-_panoramio_(23).jpg|thumb|right|400x600px|Figure 5.5-13 - Blacksmith's forge and leg vise.]] &emsp;'''[[w:Blacksmith|Blacksmithing]]''' is the general term for shaping thicker and heavier metal pieces while hot, but also for working iron and steel particularly. There are specialty names like '''[[w:Tinsmith|Tinsmith]]''' and '''[[w:Silversmith|Silversmith]]''' for working other metals either cold or hot. A minimal starter set requires a heat source (forge/furnace), a gripping tool to hold the hot metal without getting burned, a hammer, and a thick piece of unheated (and therefore hard) metal (anvil) to hammer the softened hot metal on. While basic work can be done with general-purpose tools, blacksmith's tools are specialized for this purpose. In addition to the special tools, basic ones like chisels and punches are also used. * '''Forge/Furnace''' - A '''[[w:Forge|Blacksmith's Forge]]''' (Figure 5.5-13) burns a bed of coal or charcoal to reach high temperatures. '''[[w:Industrial_furnace|Furnaces]]''' are insulated chambers with a door or opening that use use propane, natural gas, electric coils or induced currents for heating. '''[[w:Fire_brick|Fire Brick]]''', made from minerals with high melting points, are commonly used as liners in both, although natural clay will work with more heat loss. Fire brick is only moderately insulating, so it is sometimes backed with other materials like mineral fiber blankets to reduce heat loss. :&emsp;The forge or furnace structure is typically steel or common brick, which are fireproof. A variable air supply increases combustion rate and temperature for fuel-powered versions. Forges and furnaces can be bought, but assembling one from common items like sheet metal, fireplace bricks, and hair dryers is not difficult. Judging the metal temperature by color is important, so a shaded area is typically used. Impurities in coal smoke are toxic, so good ventilation is needed when using it. [[File:Turaidas_muižas_kalves_darbarīki.jpg|thumb|right|640x480px|Figure 5.5-14 - Blacksmith's tongs (center left) and other tools.]] * '''Tongs and Rakes''' - Blacksmith's tongs (Figure 5.5-14) have long handles with high leverage. Their length keeps hands out of the heat, and leverage is needed to hold heavy metal pieces. A variety of jaw shapes are used to fit the piece being picked up. For very heavy objects, an integral handle or the object's length keeps one end cool enough to grip. It gets removed later. Small rakes and shovels, which can be self-made, are used to remove coal ash (clinkers), or to move solid fuel around and over the piece. [[File:Hammer_collection_(49844506846).jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-15 - Various hammer types.]] * '''Hammers''' - These come in various sizes and shapes for hand shaping the heated metal (Figure 5.5-15). They include the simple one-handed square-head '''[[w:Sledgehammer|Sledgehammer]]''', '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer|Ball Peen]]''', and other '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer#Variants|Wedge]]''' or flat heads. Section 3.0 already included some hammers. For blacksmithing a one-handed sledge and two sizes of ball-peen are enough to get started. For heavy-duty work, trip hammers use a foot pedal to raise and then drop a heavier hammer, and power hammers use motors and flywheels, or hydraulics, to produce greater forces. * '''Anvils and Blocks''' - '''[[w:Anvil|Anvils]]''' are heavy steel blocks shaped specifically for blacksmithing. '''[[w:Swage_block|Swage Blocks]]''' have various holes, indentations, and grooves to hammer into. They are often used with complementary hammers. These specialized tools are fairly expensive. Any heavy piece of steel can be used to start with, such a length of scrap railroad track, square or cylindrical blocks, or a section of thick plate. All of these should be mounted at a comfortable height on a stable impact-resistant stand. A vertical log buried partway into soil or a tree stump still in place are traditional methods. [[File:Silversmithing_anvils_and_hammers.jpg|thumb|right|400x600px|Figure 5.5-16 - Hammers and forming stakes.]] * '''Stakes''' are various shapes attached to a rod or bar which fit into a hole in an anvil or metal plate (Figure 5.5-16). For example used steel balls from a '''[[w:Ball_mill|Ball Mill]]''' welded to a bar can be used for compound curves. Straight pins inserted into a plate can be used for bending, typically with a length of pipe for leverage. Since blacksmiths make metal items, they can make some of these themselves. * '''Leg Vise''' - This is a large sturdy vise with a leg that extends to solid ground (Figure 5.5-13). This allows heavy hammering or bending without damaging the workbench or other support it is attached to. Either the workpiece or a shaping tool can be clamped in the vise. * '''[[w:Quenching|Quenching]] and [[w:Tempering_(metallurgy)|Tempering]]''' - the former rapidly cools workpieces in liquid, which results in a different crystal structure than slow cooling. Tempering is moderate heating of steel to control hardness and toughness. Annealing is heating metal enough to remove '''[[w:Work_hardening|Work Hardening]]''' and allow more shaping without cracking. Containers with fluids or sand, and controlled-temperature ovens are typically used for these processes. '''<u>Foundry</u>''' &emsp;'''[[w:Foundry|Foundry Work]]''' - '''[[w:Casting_(metalworking)|Casting]]''' metal involves melting then pouring into a prepared mold to cool. Depending on the metal it can require higher temperatures than blacksmithing, which only requires heating to soften it. In addition to a furnace, basic equipment needed includes: * '''[[w:Crucible|Crucibles]]''' - Containers designed to hold heated or melted materials. Some have handles, but many are simple bowl shapes, sometimes with lids. These require special tongs or lifting tools to insert and remove from the furnace, and pour molten material. * '''Casting Molds''' - There are many types of molds. '''[[w:Sand_casting|Sand Casting]]''' uses a parted box filled with damp sand mixed with a bonding agent. Patterns and additional cores are pressed between the box parts, then removed. This leaves a void the shape of the desired casting, and holes for the metal to pour in and hot gases to escape. * '''[[w:Pattern_(casting)|Patterns]]''' - These are replicas of the desired cast shape. They are typically made of wood, metal, or plastic if intended to be reused in sand casting. Other methods like '''[[Investment_casting|Investment]]''', '''[[w:Lost-wax_casting|Lost Wax]]''' and '''[[w:Die_casting|Die]]''' casting use different types of molds and pattern materials. '''<u>Ceramics</u>''' &emsp;'''[[w:Ceramic|Ceramics]]''' are shaped at room temperature, then heated in an enclosed furnace to make their shape permanent. Typically they use inorganic materials like clay. It takes time to first remove water with moderate heat, then reach the required high temperatures and slowly cool to avoid breakage. So furnaces are generally either thick-walled or insulated to reduce heat loss. [[File:Four_poterie_Sevres.jpg|thumb|right|410x599px|Figure 5.5-17 - Updraft Kiln.]] * '''[[w:Kiln#Ceramic_kilns|Ceramic Kiln]]''' - A type of furnace for longer-term heating than metal casting. '''[[w:Pit_fired_pottery|Pit Firing]]''' requires only a hole in the ground and fuel, but can't reach the higher temperatures of a kiln. '''Updraft Kilns''' (Figure 5.5-17) have a lower chamber for fuel, with an air supply. Combustion gases then go to an upper chamber with the ceramics, and finally to a chimney to draw air upwards. Simple ones can be made from clay, optionally lined with firebrick. A first firing will then harden the kiln. Enclosed gas or electric kilns can be purchased. To start with or for small amounts, it may be easier to find a community arts center that already has a kiln. * '''[[w:Potter's_wheel|Potter's Wheel]]''' - typically a lower flywheel and upper table spun to mold clay on the upper surface with hands and tools. It is used for the main shaping of symmetrical objects. They may be powered by feet directly, a pedal and crank, or electric motor. ::'''Parts, Materials, and Supplies''' &emsp;Hot work needs clays and glazes for ceramics and metals for smithing and casting. '''[[w:Molding_sand|Molding Sand]]''' is needed for sand casting, and machinable wax for lost-wax casting. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 11 - Machine Shop Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Machine_shop|Machine Shops]]''' until recently practiced "Subtractive Manufacturing". This is removing some of the material to turn unfinished items into finished parts. Modern '''[[w:3D_printing|3D Printing]]''' uses the opposite method of "Additive Manufacturing", where material is added to make a finished part. Both depend on accurate tools and machines in order to produce accurate parts. Accurate parts, in turn, are needed in machines where they must fit together, or move and rotate for long periods of time. &emsp;While some machine shop work can be done with hand tools, the majority is usually done with special-purpose machines, which are themselves mostly made using other machine tools. One way to obtain accuracy is using thick and rigid machine tool parts. This makes them heavy. So the workshop needs a suitably strong floor, such as a thicker concrete slab or deep individual foundations for some machines. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;Many websites, books, and videos be found with search terms like: machine shop, machine tools, machinists, and the individual names of tool and machine types. A public example is '''[https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/tc9_524.pdf Fundamentals of Machine Tools, US Army, 1996]'''. &emsp;When starting out, older books focus on the simpler and less expensive tools of that time, so are useful despite their age. Modern computer-controlled (CNC) machines, and those that are larger or have more features, are typically more expensive, need more room, power, and heavier floor support. Learning about these can be postponed until needed. ::'''Shop Furniture''' * '''Heavy Duty Workbench''' - Building and maintaining machines involves heavy metal parts. So one or more suitable workbenches are needed when the machines or their parts don't stand directly on the floor. Some have a metal plate top for durability, but for smaller and more delicate parts a wood top can be used. * '''Storage''' - Like other crafts and project types, machine shop work requires storage for parts, materials, and supplies, and in addition hand tools, cutting bits, and machine tool accessories. Nearly all of this will be metal, which is heavy, so storage should be very sturdy. :&emsp;Precision measuring tools need dust-proof storage with soft liners to avoid damage. They often have custom cases for this purpose. Cutting tools should be stored in a way they don't damage each other and other tools, so loose in a drawer or box is not recommended. They can be wrapped in cloth, or use racks, dividers or individual boxes to keep them apart. ::'''Holding Tools''' [[File:ViceBench-insetSoftJaws.jpg|thumb|right|640x444px|Figure 5.5-18 - Machinist's Bench Vise on metal-top workbench with brass insert at upper right.]] * '''Bench Vise''' - One or more heavy duty vises are typically mounted to the workbench with the jaws overhanging the edge, so that tall items can be clamped. Various inserts are used to hold different shapes, or are made of softer materials to not damage the item (Figure 5.5-18). Some vises have a small built-in anvil. If any hammering is to be done on the vise, it should be mounted over a bench leg. * '''Machinist's Clamps''' - Machine tools often have slots in their tables in the shape of an inverted "T". Inverted bolts and specialty '''[[w:T-slot_nut|T-slot Nuts]]''' can be inserted, then bars and other clamping devices can be bolted down. '''Toolmaker's Clamps''' have parallel-jaws and two screws to hold items together. These would be in addition to the vise and other clamps from previous sets. [[File:TruLockMachineVice.jpg|thumb|right|640x378px|Figure 5.5-19 - Machine vice with angle scale bolted to mill bed.]] * '''Machine Vise''' - is bolted to a machine tool to hold a part while being worked on (Figure 5.5-19). These are either plain or have rotation and tilt motions. Often used with other clamps and fixtures for precise positioning. * '''[[w:V-block|V-Blocks]]''' - with clamps are used to hold round or irregular shapes when drilling or cutting. * '''Setup Blocks''' - Often 1x2x3 and 2x4x6 inch sizes for ease of setting up exact positions. These can either be plain or drilled and threaded. * '''[[w:Parallels_(engineering)|Parallel Bars Set]]''' - To support work above vise jaws or at offset positions while staying parallel to the machine table. Often used in combination with other setup blocks. * '''[[w:Angle_plate|Angle Plate]]''' - Used to hold a part at a measured angle to a machine table. * '''[[w:Magnetic_switchable_device|Magnetic Holders]]''' - have a switchable magnetic field to temporarily hold an item in a fixed position, typically for taking measurements, centering, or machining. They are an alternative to clamps and vises, but care should be taken that they have enough holding force for the task. ::'''Measurement Tools''' &emsp;'''[[w:Machinist|Machinists]]''' use a wide variety of measuring tools to produce accurate parts and machines. Some machines have built-in scales and devices, but separate tools are often needed. They are often more accurate versions of basic measuring tools. * '''[[w:Scientific_calculator|Solar Scientific Calculator]]''' - For general calculations. Some machinist calculations involve trigonometry and circular areas, so it should have these higher functions. The solar cells avoid needing to replace batteries. It should also be protected with a case or be stored in a clear plastic bag. * '''[[w:Machinist_square|Machinist Squares]]''' - These include plain right angle squares in different sizes, and combination squares for centering and angle setting. These are more solid and accurately made than the same tools for woodworking. * '''[[w:Radius_gauge|Radius]]''' and '''[[w:Feeler_gauge|Feeler Gauges]]''' - Radius gauges use a bright light to detect if a part matches the curve of the gauge. Feeler gauges are made to accurate thicknesses to measure small gaps. * '''[[w:Thread_pitch_gauge|Thread Pitch Gauge]]''' - Has leaves with tooth profiles to determine the size of threads on an existing part. * '''Taper Gauge Set''' - These have sloped widths or thicknesses with a scale. Sets have several pieces to cover a wider size range. * '''[[w:Wiggler_(tool)|Edge and Center Finders]]''' - Also called "wigglers" after how they work. Used to find the center or edge of a part, after which a precise offset can be set with a machine's handwheel or digital readout. * '''[[w:Micrometer_(device)|Micrometers]]''' - These use a calibrated screw for accurate measurements. They come in different size ranges and for outside, inside, and depth measurements. Start with a 0-1 inch/25 mm outside micrometer and add others as needed. * '''[[w:Bore_gauge|Bore Gauges]]''' - The telescoping type have a pair of heads that expand to measure inside diameter or width. Used with a micrometer to set or read their width. * '''Thread Wire Measuring Set''' - Uses two wires on one side and one on the other plus a micrometer to accurately measure the size of a threaded part. * '''Toolmaker's Dividers''' - with rigid legs and spring. To transfer measurements and draw arcs on inked parts. * '''Calipers''' - a more accurate version than the basic one from Section 3.0. * '''[[w:Indicator_(distance_amplifying_instrument)|Indicators]]''' - Dial or digital, with magnetic base. Measures distance from a reference surface to a probe. * '''[[w:Surface_plate|Surface Plate]]''' - Highly accurate flat surface, typically granite or cast iron. Used as a reference surface for other measuring tools, setups, and marking of parts before cutting. * '''[[w:Engineer's_spirit_level|Machinist's Level]]''' - A precision spirit (bubble) level for leveling machine tools and other surfaces. * '''Adjustable Parallels Set''' - spanning 0.375-2.25in (10-50mm), for measuring and setting exact widths and offsets. * '''[[w:Gauge_block|Gage Block Set]]''' - Highly accurate blocks which are stacked to produce exact lengths. Typically used to check the accuracy of other measuring devices rather than direct use. * '''[[w:Sine_bar|Sine Bar]]''' - This is two accurate cylinders connected to a bar so that exact angles can be calculated or set by the mathematical sine of a triangle formula. * '''[[w:Coordinate-measuring_machine|Coordinate Measuring Machine]]''' - an advanced and often automated machine to measure the physical geometry of an object. * '''[[w:Optical_comparator|Optical Comparator]]''' - a device to magnify and project the profile of a part so it can be measured. ::'''Marking Tools''' * '''Industrial Marker''' - These use heat and oil-resistant ink for marking and layout. * '''Layout Fluid & Brush''' - For more durable layout marks. Either commercial, or a denatured alcohol/shellac/fabric dye mix. * '''Scriber, Carbide Tipped''' - For scratching lines onto metal parts. * '''Prick and Center Punches''' - Prick punches are smaller and used for marking exact points on a part. Center punches are heavier and struck like chisels to make a starter hole for drill bits. * '''Transfer Punches''' - These come in sets of different diameters, and are used to transfer the centers of one or more holes from one part to another. * '''Steel Straight Edge''' - An accurately made flat bar for scribing lines onto a part, and checking flatness with a light held behind it. Commercial flat bar stock may be enough to start with, but precision ones made for the purpose will be more accurate. ::'''Assembly Tools''' &emsp;Basic assembly tools like screwdrivers and socket wrenches were included in Section 3.0. Some '''[[w:List_of_screw_drives|Additional Specialty Tools]]''' may be needed to maintain or adjust machine tools such as the '''[[w:Torx|Torx]]''' type. Some of these allow higher torque, which can be useful when building new projects. ::'''Cutting and Abrasive Tools''' * '''[[w:Tap_and_die|Tap and Die Sets]]''' - Includes handles and individual taps and dies. Used for cutting matching inside and outside screw threads. * '''[[w:Reamer|Reamers]]''' - Hand and Expanding. Uses tap handle for turning. Finishes a hole to an exact size. * '''[[w:Drill_bit#Center_and_spotting_drill_bit|Center Drill Bits]]''' - Used in a lathe to drill a center hole in the part for the '''[[w:Tailstock|Tailstock]]''' to fit into. * '''[[w:Center_gauge|Center Gauge]]''' - used to guide grinding thread-cutting tools to the right angle and then mount them perpendicular to the part. * '''[[w:Hand_scraper|Hand Scrapers]]''' - Used with or to make surface plates and produce precision surfaces. ::'''Stationary Subtractive Machines''' [[File:Sharp_3_Axis_Vertical_Mill_Full_View.jpg|thumb|right|358x599px|Figure 5.5-20 - Vertical milling machine with manual positioning, electronic readout, and Kurt machine vise to hold parts being milled.]] * '''[[w:Milling_(machining)|Vertical and Horizontal Milling Machines]]''' - (Figure 5.5-20) These are described by the rotating axis of the tool head. Movements can be manual or computer (CNC) controlled. Vertical mills are typically smaller and lower power. A compound (2 axis) slide table added to a medium drill press may be enough to get started, but a floor-mounted mill will be more accurate and can handle larger parts. Desktop CNC mills can be used for small items, but are lower power and therefore slower. [[File:Tornio_piccolo.jpg|thumb|right|640x407px|Figure 5.5-21 - Small Bench Lathe.]] * '''[[w:Metal_lathe|Metal Lathe]]''' - These are heavier and more powerful than wood-cutting lathes, with higher accuracy. They are described by the maximum diameter and length of the parts they can work, such as 7x14 inches. A small bench-top one (Figure 5.5-21) may be enough to start. Larger ones require custom tables or are floor-mounted. Lathes can be manually or computer (CNC) controlled. Combination machines exist that do both milling and lathe work if space is at a premium * '''Lathe & Mill Accessories''' - Lathes and mills use a variety of '''[[w:Cutting_tool_(machining)|Cutting Tools]]''' and need specialized holding tools (noted above) for the items being worked. The cutting tools are held with '''[[w:Chuck_(engineering)|Chucks]]''', '''[[w:Collet|Collets]]''', and '''[[w:Spindle_(tool)|Spindles]]''' due to the high forces involved. They are often particular to a given machine or machine size. A '''[[w:Rotary_table|Rotary Table]]''' or '''[[w:Indexing_head|Indexing Head]]''' allows allows positioning items at precise angles. :&emsp;Industrial machine tools use cutting oils to remove heat and chips. For small projects a brush or oil can and hand application may be enough. For larger ones a steady feed of oil and chip removal is needed. Oil can be filtered and reused, but metal chips are sharp and should be carefully disposed of. CNC type machines need a computer and suitable software to prepare the series of instructions, or directly control them. * '''[[w:Drill#Geared_head|Industrial Drill Press]]''' - These are larger and heavier than woodworking drill presses, typically floor mounted with gear rather than belt drives. Some come equipped with cross-slide or rotating tables, or these can be added as accessories. Others have radial and tilt heads for large and heavy parts where it is easier to move the head than the part being drilled. One or more sets of metal-cutting drill bits with different diameters and lengths are needed to start with. * '''[[w:Bandsaw#Metal_fabrication_shop_and_machine_shop_models|Horizontal Metal Bandsaw]]''' - For cutting larger metal bars or blocks to length. In contrast to the wood saws, the metal is clamped in place while the cutting blade slowly pivots down. * '''Vertical Heavy-Duty Bandsaw''' - For rough cutting curved metal sections by moving them through the saw. This can be a woodworking bandsaw with a metal-cutting blade, or a more powerful one. It is suitable for thinner and lighter metal pieces. For larger and heavier items, they are held stationary while a portable cutting tool is moved through them. * '''[[w:Surface_grinding#Equipment|Surface Grinder]]''' - Produces flat surfaces by moving a part horizontally under a grinding wheel. * '''[[w:Electrical_discharge_machining|EDM Machine]]''' - Electrical discharge machining uses sparks across an insulating fluid to remove material and shape a part. * '''[[w:Laser_cutting|Laser Cutter/Engraver]]''' - uses a focused high-power laser to cut or ablate material, often under computer control. There are various types and sizes of machines. ::'''Additive Machines''' &emsp;'''[[w:3D_printing|3D Printing]]''' is a category of methods and machines that make parts by adding material under computer control. There are now a '''[[w:3D_printing_processes|Variety of Such Machines]]''' in various sizes that "print" different materials by different methods. Some methods are better suited to industrial use, and others for home use. Part resolution can be as small as 10 nanometers, and other machines work on a large enough scale for '''[[w:Construction_3D_printing|Building Construction]]'''. A related set of methods involve spraying material onto an existing surface. Examples are '''[[w:Spray_painting|Spray Painting]]''' and '''[[w:Thermal_spraying|Thermal Spraying]]'''. The spray is often directed by hand, but can be done by machines under computer control. &emsp;Printed parts often need additional finishing steps, like removing printed supports that were needed during printing but not afterwards, or sanding to smooth sometimes uneven surfaces. Which types of additive machines are needed depends on the materials you want to use, and the speed, size, and accuracy required. Due to the wide variety of processes, machines, and purposes, we don't list individual machines. Instead, we recommend looking at some '''[https://archive.org/details/inlibrary?query=3D+printing Reference Sources]''', then investigate available machines. &emsp;Most printers need a computer file describing the part to be made. They can be made yourself using suitable software, or use existing ones made by others. Depending on the printer, they may need a separate computer to send commands, similar to how office printers work with paper. Otherwise they may have the control computer built-in and only need the part file delivered to it. &emsp;When starting out, it may make sense to use a commercial printing service, as they only need the computer file to make a part. Open-source printer designs and kits are available. They are less expensive, but require doing some or all of the work of building them. Already built '''[[w:Comparison_of_3D_printers|Printers]]''' are available new for as little as a good portable power tool, but supplies of printing material can be expensive if you are making many parts. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">7.0 - Outdoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;This section covers projects where the work or the finished items are mostly located outdoors. It includes yard work, gardening, digging and landscaping, forestry, and farming. Aside from location, they share somewhat overlapping sets of tools, so consider other lists than the primary category you are interested in. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 12 - Yard Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;A '''[[w:Yard_(land)|Yard]]''' commonly means the area of land surrounding a house, typically in suburban areas. In urban areas, residences may have little or no yard area. Properties larger than a few acres (1 hectare) can be called "acreage" if mostly undeveloped, and a large house with lots of outside improvements on multiple acres is called an '''[[w:Estate_(land)|Estate]]'''. This list covers items for self-maintenance of suburban yards, or maintenance of yards for others on a small-business scale. &emsp;Typical yards have live items like grass, some trees, and decorative plants and ground cover. They can also have a variety of constructed items like paths, fences, storage sheds, decks and patios. Most of these need some degree of cleaning and maintenance for appearance and to meet local rules. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Brooms and Dustpans''' - For sweeping paved areas and picking up the resulting piles. Includes Wide push, upright sweep, and wide dustpan. * '''Rakes''' - Leaf, Bow, and Thatch types. * '''[[w:Edger#Manual_lawn_edgers|Lawn Edger]]''' - A manual tool used to keep grass and roots from encroaching on paved or other types of surfaces. * '''[[w:Hedge_trimmer|Hedge Trimmer]]''' - Large scissors or pruning shears used to trim hedge plantings or decorative bushes. '''Pruning Shears''' have shorter blades, usually curved, with more leverage for cutting thicker or harder stems. * '''[[w:Wheelbarrow|Wheelbarrow]]''' - A single or dual-wheel cart with handles for general moving of bulk or heavier items. The wheel(s) carry most of the weight while steering and pushing with the handles. Most have a sloped tray so they can be emptied by tilting vertical. * '''[[w:Hatchet|Hatchet]]''' - A combination tool with a sharp blade on one side and a hammer head on the other. An example use is trimming a branch to make a stake then pounding it in. * '''[[w:Loppers|Lopper]]''' and '''Pruning Saw''' - Loppers have long handles with short blades, sometimes with compound action. Can cut saplings and branches up to 2 inches (5 cm) for the largest version by working around the stem until severed. Pruning saws are hand saws with teeth designed to cut living wood, and can cut somewhat larger branches in crowded areas. Large branches should be cut partway from below with two cuts removing a wedge, then finished from above. This prevents a split from damaging the main stem or trunk, and makes a more controlled fall for the branch. * '''[[w:Polesaw|Polesaw]]''' - A pruning saw attached to a pole to reach higher without a ladder. Many have a levered pruning blade with a cord, to cut smaller high branches. * '''[[w:Garden_hose|Garden Hose]]''' - For delivering water where needed in a yard. A simple spray or pistol nozzle is enough to start, but there are a number of other special purpose attachments. Rubber grommets are used to prevent leakage. * '''Containers''' - '''[[w:Bucket|Water Buckets]]''' and smaller containers can be used to transport small amounts of water. '''[[w:Fuel_container|Fuel Containers]]''' are needed for machines and devices that use them. Other yard supplies like fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides can be toxic. They either come with a container, or can be stored in suitable boxes and bags. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;Outdoor power tools can be electrical, using either a power cord or internal batteries. Corded tools generally need outdoor-type extension cords of sufficient length and wire gauge for the required distance. Battery types typically need a matching charger for removable batteries. Portable generators and inverters connected to a vehicle can supply power at greater distances than extension cords. Other outdoor tools have combustion engines that require fuel or a fuel/oil blend, and some need separate lubricating oil. The choice among power types depends on cost, convenience, noise level, and required power level. * '''[[w:Leaf_blower|Leaf Blower]]''' - uses high-speed air to move leaves and other debris away from buildings and pavements or into piles. Mower blades act like a fan, and with a side discharge can both chop up and blow leaves into piles or rows for pickup. * '''[[w:String_trimmer|String Trimmer]]''' - Cuts grass and weeds around obstacles or edges of a yard, without damaging other items. Some types accept other accessories for different tasks. Alternately herbicides, woven or sheet weed barriers, and solid objects can prevent growth in unwanted areas. * '''Power Hedge Trimmer''' - Typically use a reciprocating blade that slides against stationary fingers. Does similar tasks to hand hedge shears and pruners. * '''[[w:Pressure_washing|Pressure Washer]]''' - Uses high pressure water, sometimes with additives like soap, to clean exterior surfaces. Some have different angle nozzles and adjustable pressure. * '''[[w:Brushcutter_(garden_tool)|Brush Cutter]]''' - The hand-carried type has more power than a string trimmer and accepts accessories like circular saw blades to cut thicker items. A '''[[w:Brush_hog|Brush Hog]]''' has wheels or is mounted to a larger machine, and functions like a heavy-duty lawn mower. ::'''Mobile Equipment''' * '''[[w:Lawn_mower|Lawn Mower]]''' - Uses blades to cut larger areas of grass to an even height. Most modern ones are powered. Smaller ones are walk-behind and either pushed or are self-propelled. Larger '''Riding Mowers''' have a seat and steerable wheels. Some types have a bag to collect grass clippings, and may have a side discharge to blow the clippings away from the blades. Even larger '''Lawn Tractors''' are powerful enough to tow wagons or mount other attachments. These start to overlap in function with small agricultural tractors with a mowing attachment. :&emsp;The type of mower to use depends on the area to be mowed, coverage speed, cost, noise level, whether it is for personal or commercial use, and what obstacles have to be worked around. For example, with '''[[w:Zero-turn_mower|Zero-Turn]]''' mowers the drive wheels rotate at different speeds/direction, and the other wheels swivel in any direction. This allows maneuvering in tighter spaces. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''[[w:Mulch|Mulch]]''' - A layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It can be applied around structures, plantings, and trees to make maintenance easier, conserve moisture, improve fertility, reduce erosion, and for looks. Ground covers can be artificial, like landscape fabric, inorganic like gravel, organic like wood chips, or living plants which are close to the ground. Organic mulches can be self-made on-site from items like fallen leaves and branches which are shredded or composted. * '''[[w:Lawn#Lawn_care_and_maintenance|Lawn Maintenance]]''' - Depending on the current and desired condition of a yard, this can include adding topsoil, organic material, sand, and other soil additives to improve its quality. Additional supplies include grass seed, fertilizers, pest controls, and herbicides. It can be much easier to work with the natural soil and climate conditions than to force a specific lawn type. For example, a grass/clover mix can self-fertilize since clover can fix nitrogen from the air. Other ground covers, perennials, shrubs, and trees may be less work to maintain. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 13 - Gardening</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Gardening|Gardening]]''' is distinguished from general yard work by intentionally planting and growing plants for food or aesthetic reasons. Yard work is more basic exterior maintenance to suppress weeds, maintain access, and reduce vermin. There is overlap between the two, but gardening typically has more specialized tools. &emsp;This is a very popular activity, so there are many reference sources, suppliers, organizations and groups, and outside help such as '''[[w:Agricultural_extension|Agricultural Extension]]''' education. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Garden Trowel''' - a small pointed shovel designed to use with one hand. * '''Hand Cultivator''' - small single hand, or long handle two hand types. They have several curved tines for breaking up soil or pulling weeds by the roots. * '''Hand Weeder''' - any of several hand tools to sever deeper roots or cut weeds near the surface. * '''Draw Hoe''' - has a blade set crosswise to the handle. It is intended to chop into the ground and then pulled or levered. Can be one or two-handed, with various blade shapes. Narrow blades are for hard soil, while wider ones can move looser soil. * '''Scuffle Hoes''' - The '''Hoop''' or action type has a cross blade more parallel to the handle, often sharpened to cut roots near the surface. '''Linear''' hoes have blades parallel to the handle and can cut roots without disturbing adjacent soil. * '''[[w:Garden_fork|Garden Fork]]''' - has around four sturdy tines set parallel to a D-ended handle. They are driven into the soil and then levered to loosen or lift it. The '''[[w:Pitchfork|Pitchfork]]''' has a longer straight handle and slightly curved tines. It is used to pick up and throw loose material rather than drive into the ground. * '''Bulb Planter''' - has pivoted cylinder halves and a serrated bottom to cut and lift soil for planting bulbs and other plants, then replacing the soil to cover them. * '''Wheel Hoe''' - A narrow wheel attached to handles, on which a hoop blade and other attachments can be mounted. It is useful where longer rows of soil need to be worked. * '''Root Cutter''' - any of a number of serrated tools designed to cut thicker roots. The shovel type has a chisel bottom edge and toothed sides, and is stepped on for cutting force. The one hand type have hooked saw blades or a toothed trowel shape. The shovel and trowel types are first used to expose the root before cutting. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''Garden Shed''' - This is a building near a garden to store tools, equipment, and materials. It may also include a workbench for maintenance and tasks like potting plants. * '''[[w:Raised-bed_gardening|Raised Beds]]''' - are enclosed areas of soil above ground level set up for any of a number of reasons: easier access, erosion control, eliminate compaction by not walking on the soil, and others. * '''[[w:Garden_structure|Garden Structures]]''' - These are other structures like walls, fences, trellises, greenhouses, stakes, and wire mesh. They are used for weather and sun control, to keep out animals, and to support growing plants. The simplest gardens use none of these and must accept the yield losses. This may be less than the cost and work of building structures, and simply plant more to reach the desired yield. ::'''Mobile Equipment''' &emsp;For larger gardens and heavier soils, hand tools will take too long or are too hard to use. Wheeled power equipment, either electric or combustion engine, can handle the needed soil preparation. For new gardens, this includes breaking up the soil, removing excess rocks, grading for drainage, and mixing in soil amendments. It may be more economical to hire the people and equipment for the heavier one-time tasks. Categories of equipment include self-powered walk-behind, and attachments to larger riding mowers and garden tractors. * '''[[w:Cultivator#Garden_cultivators|Garden Cultivator]]''' - for breaking up and mixing soil using rotating tines. * '''Dump Cart''' - Two wheel cart attachment with a tilting bed. For moving larger amounts of material than a wheelbarrow or with less labor. * '''[https://brinly.com/product-category/ground-engaging/ Ground-Engaging Attachments]''' - These are used with larger garden tractors to turn and break up soil. They include plow, cultivator, and harrow. ::'''Supplies''' * '''Water, Light, and Temperature''' - All plants need enough of these in the right amounts to grow. If natural conditions are inadequate, they have to be modified artificially. There are many ways to do this from simple watering cans to complex irrigation systems, removing or adding items for shade and temperature control, and artificial lights. * '''[[w:Compost|Compost]]''' - is decomposed plant, food, and other organic waste. It is used to fertilize and condition soil. It can be bought or made on-site from garden and other sources. Composting takes time, so making it involves an open pile or suitable container. * '''[[w:Seed|Plant Seeds]]''' - Many plants grow from seeds, which can either be purchased, or obtained from previous generations of grown plants. Other forms of '''[[w:Plant_propagation|Plant Propagation]]''' don't require seeds, but need a previously existing plant or parts from it as starting material. * '''[[w:Fertilizer|Fertilizers]]''' - Besides the basics of water, light, air, and usually soil, plants need a variety of other nutrients to grow. If they can't obtain them from the available soil or water sources, they have to be added. General additions of fertilizers, based on knowledge of the soil and what given plants need can be helpful. More specific recommendations can come from '''[[w:Soil_test|Soil Tests]]'''. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 14 - Landscaping</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Landscaping|Landscaping]]''' is the intentional change of visible features of land. A landscape typically includes non-living features like steps, walls, and fences, and living items like grass, trees, ground cover, and ornamental plants. &emsp;It overlaps with yard work, gardening, and construction. Yard work is more concerned with maintaining an existing landscape, and gardening is focused on specific areas rather than the whole. Building construction often disturbs the land, requiring landscaping to restore it, and uses the heavier equipment for excavation and contouring the land. Construction can also install utilities and equipment later needed in landscaping such as water and electric. ::'''Hand Tools''' * Shovels & Spades - Assorted sizes. A shovel has a rounded and more angled blade and is used at a lower angle. A spade has a flatter and in-line blade and is used vertically for trenches and other straight-sided digging. * Power Auger * Digging Bars - Assorted sizes * Soil Tamper * Pick Axe - Heavy point and lever head, for heavy & rocky soil. Resembles cutter mattock. * Cutter Mattock - Perpendicular root cutter & medium digging/levering blades for roots. * Post Hole Digger and Post Pounder ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 15 - Forestry</u></span>=== &emsp; * Hand Axes - Felling Axe for cutting trees, smaller Camp axe for trimming and notching branches. * Saws - '''[[w:Bucksaw|Bucksaw]]''' for cutting smaller logs to length. The '''[[w:Bow_saw|Bow Saw]]''' typically has a narrower blade and smaller frame for branches and working in tight spaces. The electric or fuel-powered '''[[w:Chainsaw|Chainsaw]]''' is for cutting larger trees down and to size. '''WARNING''' all serious timber cutting is very dangerous due to powerful machines with exposed teeth, and the weight of falling or shifting trees and branches. It should never be done alone or without some training. Methods like anchor ropes/chains can pull down trees from a safe distance. If you are at all unsure, hire professionals with the right equipment and experience. * Bark Tools - Spud, Bark Scraper/Pry Bar, Power Debarker ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 16 - Farming</u></span>=== &emsp; ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">8.0 - Construction Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Construction generally follows a sequence of steps, some of which may be skipped if not needed. The exact order of tasks depends on the design and access needed, so the lists in this section are not a strict sequence, but rather grouped by trade and skills. The main steps include: * '''Plans and Permits''' - Before physical work, design of the project, including making sure outside access and utilities will be available, what site features currently exist that may need to be changed or worked around, then obtaining needed permission such as building permits. * '''Site Work''' - This includes clearing, surveying, marking out, grading, compacting, and excavation, and providing temporary utilities and sanitation if needed. * '''Substructure and Foundations''' - These are the items that end up at or under ground level when complete, such as drainage, utility lines, and the building foundation. * '''Main Structure and Large Items''' - Walls, floors, roof, external doors and windows; and also items like heating and ventilation systems and bathtubs that are too large to install later. * '''Internal Utilities and Services''' - These are items like electrical and plumbing that will later be hidden by finished walls. * '''Finishing''' - The final surfaces, cabinets, interior doors, fixtures, and appliances that will be visible and used. &emsp;How many of the steps you can do yourself vs hiring contractors depends on your skills, crew size, and how often you expect to do it. Earlier work like excavation generally needs larger and more expensive equipment than later steps like finishing. So when starting out in construction we suggest contracting out the bigger steps. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 17 - General Construction</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Besides basic tools from Lists 1 and 2, some general equipment is used across multiple phases of construction projects. We try to list those here, and more specialized items in the later lists. ::'''Measurement Tools''' * '''[[w:Chalk_line|Chalk Line]]''' - For marking out straight lines by snapping a chalked string against a surface. * Measuring Tapes & Wheels - 10-100m (30-300 foot) Tapes for measurements and layout. * Transits - Builder's and Surveyors, for vertical and property measurement. * Mason's Twine - Light string to mark edges and horizontals with minimal stretch and sag. * Bullhorn * Portable Radios * Rubber Boots * Cold Weather Gear * Folding Chairs * Coolers - Drink, Food * Tables - Plan, Portable * Extension Cords, Multi-Plug Adapters, & Power Strips * Work Lights * Water Pump - Trash type. For removing water after rain or from holes. * Drop Cloths & Tarps - Painter's (Canvas, Plastic), Vinyl Cargo, Polyethylene * Weather Protection - For workers and worksites. Can be manufactured, or rigged from tarps, lumber with nails or screws at one or both ends as poles, anchor ropes, and either heavy objects like concrete blocks or ground stakes/anchors to secure the ropes. * Cleanup - Brooms, dust pans, trash cans & bags (can also use empty boxes) * Extension Poles - for tools and props * Fans - Box, Pedestal, Drum * Inverter and Portable Generator * Warning cones, signs, safety and erosion fencing, security equipment, safety vests * Seam Roller - has multiple uses for roofing, carpet, and wallpaper. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 18 - Carpentry</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Carpentry includes wood framing, roofing, structural metalwork, fireplaces, and drywall. Drywall is typically left until after internal utilities and services are installed. * Hammers - '''[[w:Framing_hammer|Framing Hammers]]''' are larger and heavier than claw hammers, for driving large nails into wood-frame construction. * Nail Guns - Assorted sizes. These drive nails with electric or air power, when large numbers or faster work is desired. * Drywall Square * Drywall Saw * '''[[w:Glass_cutter|Glass Cutter]]''' - for trimming window and other glass to size. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 19 - Masontry & Concrete</u></span>=== &emsp; * Hammers - Brick, Engineer, Sledge * Chisels - Assorted types and sizes Brick, Concrete, Mason, Stone, Tile, Star Point. Hand protectors & Offset Holders as needed * Trowels - Pointing, Brick, Rectangular * Mortar Hoe - with holes to aid mixing * Mixers - Hand, electric blade, wheeled or trailer electric or fueled for larger amounts. Very large amounts typically use mixer truck delivery. * Mud Tray and Hawk - for holding smaller amounts of mortar for troweling * '''SDS Type Hammer Drill''' - ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 20 - Plumbing</u></span>=== &emsp; * Pipe and Tubing Cutters * Pipe Threading Taps & Dies - ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 21 - Electrical</u></span>=== &emsp; * '''Insulated Screwdrivers''' - To prevent electrical shocks. Generally power should be off while doing electrical work, so this is a safety measure in case it accidentally isn't. * '''Electric Circuit, Outlet, and Breaker Testers''' ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 22 - Finishing</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Construction finishes are the final visible parts of a building after the structural, mechanical, and hidden utilities are installed. ::'''Finish Carpentry''' &emsp;This includes interior doors, cabinets, countertops, closet interiors, wood flooring, baseboards, and moldings. ::'''Paint and Wall Coverings''' * Combination and Razor Scrapers * Hand Sander * Can Hook & Key * Paint Brushes & Comb * Roller Tray & Liners, Roller Handles, Roller Brushes, * Paints and stains as needed per job. * Wallpaper Paste and Smoothing Brushes * Trimming Wheel - To trim or cut wallpaper to size, especially once pasted to a surface. ::'''Plumbing and Electrical Fixtures''' &emsp;This includes items like sinks and faucets, wall outlets, ceiling lights, and built-in electronics. It also includes installing built-in and free-standing appliances. ::'''Flooring and Tile''' &emsp;This includes flooring other than wood, such as carpet, sheet, and floor tiles. It also includes other tile work such as kitchens and bathrooms. * Caulk Gun * Putty Knives - Assorted sizes * Drywall Trowels - Narrow & Wide * Pole Sander * Floor Buffer * Floor Scraper </div> {{BookCat}} bultoo9u317flrb1jb70c17l5sro11x 4095740 4095437 2022-08-24T11:18:36Z Danielravennest 13526 List 14 hand tools partial wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:left;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">Section 5.5 - Starter and Expansion Sets</span>}} <div style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> &emsp;The goal of the personal production example is supplying a range of basic products for a community of owner-operators. They do this as individuals or through joint effort for larger tasks. Product types include furniture, home improvements, food, and utilities. They start with smaller and simpler items and work up to bigger projects. We assume they start with limited funds, time, equipment, and experience. So part of the effort is improving themselves as people to overcome these limits. &emsp;A community project may start with as little as one person's part-time effort and no equipment or skills. So we describe a range of starter sets from very minimal to more substantial, with suggestions on use and gaining skills. Project owners can then select their starting points based on their available people and resources. We then include several expansion sets for projects growing beyond these starting points. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">1.0 - Necessary Inputs</span>== &emsp; &emsp;We can consider a starter set as a product. It must first be assembled and set up before it can be used to make improvements for itself, and end products for the owners and others. Like any functional system, it requires inputs and emits outputs of various kinds. These include: * '''Time''' - from one or more people to make plans, look for and acquire needed items, operate equipment, train others, or learn skills as needed. * '''Supply sources''' - for parts, materials, tools, machines, training materials, plans, and instructions. * '''Money''' - for items which can't be made internally, or for outside labor that project members can't supply. * '''Sheltered Space''' - to store and use the equipment. Even outdoor equipment should be protected when not in use. * '''Energy''' - such as electric power or human muscles, to make, set up, and operate the equipment. * '''Maintenance Items''' - like water, cleaning supplies, and waste disposal during and after operations. &emsp;We suggest starting by assessing which of these you have and which are lacking. The next step is to make a plan for getting enough of the inputs to get started, and how you will continue from there. For example, if you don't have all the basic tools from List 1 (below), you can make a shopping list of the missing items, then either buy them, start saving to buy them, or find a makerspace/hackerspace, community group, or neighbor that allows you to use them. &emsp;In modern society, money can commonly be traded for most other things people need and want. If lack of money is an obstacle, there are a couple of ways around that. One is to cut expenses, such as eating out less or sharing living space. The other is to increase income, such as doing basic jobs for other people in addition to current work, or upgrading your knowledge and skills so you can find better work. Reaching a goal may seem like a big challenge. Breaking it down into smaller steps, then taking them one at a time is more manageable. But you have to take the first step to get anywhere. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">2.0 - Starter Set Lists</span>== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Tool_use_by_animals|Some species]]''' besides ours use tools. We are unique in the variety and complexity of our tools, and that we use tools to make other tools. So which of the many options should be included in a starter set? The answer for a particular project and self-improvement path will vary. &emsp;The lists below are provided as a starting point for consideration and selection. '''<u>You don't need every item to start making things</u>'''. But the more of them you have, the more kinds of projects you can do. The lists also don't cover every possible project. They are starter sets to build on, not complete lists of every possible tool. Additional items may be needed for particular projects. For large and complex projects you may need multiples of each item, either different sizes and types, or for multiple people to use. For example, a saying in woodworking is "you can never have too many clamps". '''[NOTE:]''' Some of these lists or portions of them will be moved later to other chapters. They are currently here for ease of editing. &emsp;The lists are compiled from 18 existing tool and equipment lists. The intent is a sampling from a wide variety of sources which are then sorted to form starter and expansion sets for the various examples in these books. The source lists are from several makerspaces, a tool bank (who lend out tools to nonprofit projects), a book on rural workshops, the phased equipment list for the Seed Factory Project, a pamphlet from manufacturer Porter Tools, a course on "manual arts" (later called "shop class" in schools), a compiled list of equipment for industrial training classes, a website for beginning machinists, the author's personal tool list, a contributed list to these books, recommended tool brands from an online forum, a woodworking list from a YouTube channel, and a study of small industry in India. [[File:Personal Production Starter Set Path.png|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 5.5-1 - Suggested tool set paths for different types of projects. Figures can be enlarged by clicking the lower right -->.]] &emsp; &emsp;'''List Types''' - There are basic tools that have proved useful in many circumstances, from general home use to industrial production. Others are more specialized for specific tasks. For example, an axe is useful in dealing with trees, but useless for cutting steel reinforcement for concrete. So lists 1 and 2 below are the basic sets for general home use and home improvement/do it yourself projects. This is followed by expansion sets for more advanced and specialized projects. The lists are additive, meaning you should start with the basic ones, then add to them from the later lists as needed. Figure 5.5-1 shows a suggested path from the basic sets to more advanced ones. They are grouped into small indoor, large indoor, outdoor, and construction. The last of these produces more indoor space. Depending on the needs and interests of the personal production community, they can get items from any or all of these lists, and go beyond them. &emsp;Tools and machines can be classified according to size, power level, and cost. The general groups are (1) manual hand tools, (2) portable power tools, (3) stationary equipment, either powered or not, and (4) mobile equipment that is towed or can move itself. Cost and space needed tend to increase with each group. The lists are generally in order from the smaller, less expensive, and most needed first, but some items are needed together to complete a task. An example is drill bits for an electric drill. We try to note when that is the case. &emsp;To go beyond these lists, you will need to know what projects and products you want to make, and the methods and equipment needed for them. Many instructional books and articles have explicit lists of the equipment needed. Others implicitly identify useful tools by discussing their use. Tool and supply catalogs, and the tool sections of general online marketplaces can also be reviewed to identify candidate items. &emsp;'''Choosing Equipment''' - A given tool type, like a claw hammer, can be found in many versions with different quality, weight, intended usage, and cost. So the first thing is to understand what you will be using it for. Is it occasionally hanging pictures, or working full time as a carpenter? Larger and heavier tools can work with heavier materials, but can require more body strength and endurance to use. Smaller and lighter tools can be more precise, and used in tight spaces. So it can be useful to have several versions of a given type. &emsp;Cost is often a factor. You can get started with less expensive but adequate ones, and upgrade later. However very cheap tools may break or wear out quickly, and not be able to handle whatever you are working on. For personal production on a regular basis they should be hobbyist or professional grade rather than lowest grade. Used tools are typically less expensive, and often are perfectly fine for this type of use. Recognizing tool quality is a learned skill, as is knowing what grade you need for a given purpose. You may want to get recommendations from more experienced people, books, articles, instructional videos, online reviews, and discussion forums if you are new to it. &emsp;'''Supplies, Parts, and Materials''' - To complete a project you need more than just equipment like tools and machines. Equipment is not generally used up in a single project. But some supplies, like sandpaper, wear out with use. Others, like paint, end up as part of the finished item. If you are merely tightening something that has come loose, or are assembling a packaged kit that comes with everything needed, you may not need any added parts and materials. But most projects will need materials like lumber, and parts like screws, that end up in the finished item. &emsp;There is such a wide variety of these items that we cannot list them all. Instead we will note categories of supplies, parts, and materials as part of the lists below. Instructional and reference sources have more specific information on what is needed. Published project plans will often include a detailed materials and parts list. When starting a custom project you can develop a list as you plan it. Then you can look at what you already have, and identify what else is needed to complete it. &emsp;Shopping for every small project takes time, and buying in quantity can be less expensive. So it can be helpful to keep some supplies, parts, and materials on hand. These can be leftovers from previous projects, packaged hardware assortments, or accumulated from second-hand sources. We will try to indicate what is helpful to stock as a starting point, but suggest getting other items as needed for particular projects. There are many types of these items, so some way to keep them organized is useful. This can be '''[[w:Organizer_box|Organizer Boxes]]''' with compartments and drawers, empty jars and cans, or sometimes the box they came in. &emsp;In addition to purchased inventory, you can reuse items you already have but don't need, like old furniture, and items from your property like fallen or cut tree branches. Free and cheap outside sources can be found almost anywhere. Particularly good ones include scrap and wrecking yards, leftovers and removals from construction and renovation projects, and business trash. Always ask permission when scavenging from private property. You can also offer to clean up/remove/move items for people. For example, someone may have fallen tree branches which you can get free for the asking, or even get paid for removing them. Discarded or second-hand furniture can be used as work tables or storage, or as a source of lumber. &emsp;'''Making and Improving Your Own Items''' - The basic idea in these books is self-improvement. So if finances are more limited than time, or simply because you enjoy it, you can make or improve your own equipment. This lets you customize them to better fit your needs. For example, a workbench can be fit to your body size, what you are working on, and the available work space. A basic table saw consists of a motor, and an adjustable blade emerging from a cutting surface. But you can add different blades to suit the material, assorted guides for moving what you are cutting, and extension tables for managing larger pieces. To make or upgrade equipment requires already having some to work with, or access to other people's. However making everything from basic materials will take much longer than buying. So project members should consider what to make vs finding/buying already functional items. &emsp;Simple self-made woodworking projects include saw benches and saw horses, a stationary workbench, bench hook, miter box, and wooden mallets. A blacksmith can make many of their own tools, including a forge, chisels, hammers, punches, drifts, and fullers. A skilled one can make tongs, specialized hammers, hardies, flatters, and swages. Combining wood and iron work can produce cutting tools like axes and chisels, planes, drawknives, spokeshaves, claw hammers, and screwdrivers. '''[[w:David_J._Gingery|David Gingery]]''' even wrote a book series on how to build metalworking machines from scrap. At a more advanced level, a well-equipped machine shop can make many of the parts for another machine shop. &emsp;'''Ready-Made Equipment''' - Places to find new tools include home improvement and hardware stores, online marketplaces, industrial suppliers, and direct from the manufacturers. Used tools can be found online on trading sites like '''[[w:EBay|eBbay]]''' or '''[[w:Craigslist|craigslist]]''', or locally in the for-sale sections of social media. Pawn shops, flea markets, estate and garage sales are good sources for used tools. If you join a community of hobbyists or a '''[[w:Hackerspace|Makerspace]]''', you may find people who are upgrading or changed interests and are selling off/giving away items. You can sometimes borrow or rent tools, or use ones at community arts centers. A dedicated space for your own or group projects is less constrained by time and access, and has better control over tool selection and care. &emsp;'''Learning to Use Them''' - There are plenty of sources of information beyond what is in these books. Other books, both paper and digital, are a primary source. The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?tab=collection Internet Archive]''' has a vast collection of digitized books. Local libraries either have paper books, can borrow them from other libraries through inter-library loan, or have digital copies you can borrow. You can of course buy new and used books online and in bookstores. Hobbyist magazines and other publications are useful both for project information and specialty equipment sources. &emsp;A community of people doing personal production can teach each other whatever skills they already had or are learning. Formal classes are taught at community centers and trade schools. Informal ones can be found among hobbyist groups, stores that sell the relevant items, and at makerspaces where you can observe and try things. You can find local community projects, hobbyists, or professionals and offer to help or work for them, and learn while doing. Video tutorials and online forums on specific subjects have also become quite helpful in recent years. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">3.0 - Basic Sets</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Before starting to use any kinds of tools and equipment, you should know how to use them safely and properly, and be protected from injury. So have the following items available, and get some safety training if needed: &emsp;'''Reference Material''' - At least one reference book on basic tool use to start with. Add additional books, videos, training classes, etc. as needed. There are many basic books available, but '''[http://everyspec.com/USN/NAVEDTRA/NAVEDTRA_14256_JUN1992_18379/ Tools and Their Uses, US Navy, 1992]''' is public domain and downloadable. The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=home+workshop+tools Internet Archive]''' also has several books on home workshops and tools to borrow or download. &emsp;Both paper and e-books can be used where you are working. To protect them from dirt and damage, a thick cardboard backing with rubber bands or spring clips, and a clear plastic bag or sheet as a cover is enough to start. E-books may need more protection for the display, like a wood tray with a hinged clear plastic lid. &emsp;'''Safety Equipment''' - Tools, and the materials being worked on, are usually stronger than body parts. So a variety of safety equipment should be used to protect yourself. These include safety glasses or goggles, ear plugs or headsets for sound, work gloves (cloth, leather, fireproof, and rubber in varying thickness), knee pads, masks or respirators for dust or vapors, shop aprons, hard hats, reinforced shoes and boots, and protective covers or shields around dangerous tool parts. The latter are often built-in or available for the tools. Which of these are needed depends on what you are doing. Loose clothes and hair can get caught up in moving parts, and should be changed or secured. &emsp;Despite using safety equipment, injuries can still happen. So '''[[w:First_aid_kit|first-aid supplies]]''' should be available nearby. Most homes already have some. If a work space is some distance away or you are working away from home, a basic first aid kit should be located in the space or your vehicle. Appropriate fire extinguishers and/or sprinklers should be available for any project with flammable materials. For outdoor work, water buckets and hoses should also be available. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 1 - General Home Use</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;These items are useful for common household tasks like hanging pictures, assembling furniture, or installing appliances. They are also needed for more advanced projects and maintaining other equipment. They should all fit in a toolbox like the one in figure 5.5-2. [[File:Caisse_à_outils_avec_petit_outillage.JPG|thumb|right|640x375px|Figure 5.5-2 - A cantilever toolbox with trays that slide apart.]] ::'''Tool and Supply Containers''' &emsp;While household tools can be stored in a drawer or closet shelf, it is handy to keep them in a '''[[w:Toolbox|Toolbox]]''' of some kind. This avoids multiple trips when you need to use more than one, and keeps them all together. Almost any kind of container will work, as long as it will hold the majority of them (except the largest like hand saws), and strong enough for the weight. Thick-wall cardboard boxes and plastic tubs are low-cost examples. Handles or hand openings make carrying them easier. Manufactured or self-made toolboxes often have one more more drawers, removable/sliding trays, or smaller containers/dividers for small items (Figure 5.5-2). That makes it easier to organize and find what you need than a random pile. Additional types of tool carriers include large buckets, with optional tool organizers, non-rigid carrying bags and backpacks, and tool belts and aprons for when you want to keep some tools at hand. [[File:Motorists_tool_kit_roll_of_1912.jpg|thumb|right|640x441px|Figure 5.5-3 - A 1912 Mechanic's tool roll.]] &emsp;Most tools are mostly or all metal, and power tools have motors, batteries, or cords. Many tools have accessories, like drill bits or various size sockets. So at some point hand-carrying a toolbox becomes difficult. You can either have multiple smaller toolboxes, or use a larger one with wheels and a handle to make moving it easier. There are manufactured stackable sets with the bottom unit having the wheels and handle, or you can get a separate handcart and strap multiple toolboxes to it. &emsp;Tools can damage each other, especially ones like files designed to cut metal. Smaller containers, especially ones with individual tool holders, within the tool box can protect them. Sharp blades can be covered with a cap or sheath, or wrapped in cloth. A tool roll of heavy cloth or soft leather can keep tools organized and separated from each other (Figure 5.5-3). &emsp;Supply items like nails, screws, and sandpaper get used up in a project. Extra supplies avoids having to shop for them for each project, and it is often cheaper to buy in quantity, or not possible to buy very small amounts. These extra supplies also need storage. Small amounts can be kept in the same container as the tools, either loose in a compartment or in the package they came in. Larger amounts can be stored in a separate container, and then whatever is needed for a given project pulled out as needed. [[File:HeadLamp.JPG|thumb|right|640x376px|Figure 5.5-4 - A battery-powered headlamp.]] ::'''Lighting and Inspection''' &emsp;You need to be able to see what you are working on. If permanent home lighting or daylight is not enough, there are portable options like plug-in lamps and work lights. Work lights can be mounted on stands or clamp onto an available surface. Battery options include flashlights, and headlamps which leave the hands free (Figure 5.5-4). Inspection mirrors are small adjustable ones on a handle to see in hard-to-reach places. Some have telescoping handles and built-in lights. ::'''Measuring and Marking Tools''' &emsp;These are used for marking where to make cuts or shapes, dimensions, or what a part is for later assembly. Typically a cut line is marked, and then an X, squiggle, or shading is used to show the part being cut away. Cuts should be on the removal side of the line rather than directly on it. It is easier to remove material to get the final dimension than put it back once removed. So tool positioning should account for blade width. * '''Pencils & Pens''' - Start with ordinary pencils. sharpener and eraser, and yellow and red marking crayons for dark and light raw wood respectively. Ink pen and colored marker lines are easier to see but harder to erase. The edge of '''[[w:Masking_tape|Masking Tape]]''' can be used to mark locations and be written on, then more easily removed where appearance matters. Office sticky notes and other low-stick items can also be used for this. * '''[[w:Scratch_awl|Scratch Awl]]''' - These make indented lines and points. They make a sharper line than writing tools and the indents help position a chisel or drill in the right place. * '''[[w:Ruler|Rulers]]''' - Steel, preferably stainless to resist rust and heat. One or more straight ones to start, 15-60cm (6-24 in) with fine-scale markings. '''[[w:Tape_measure|Tape measures]]''', one each roll-up steel, 4-10 m (12-30 ft)for straight distances, and a cloth/plastic sewing type for wrapping around objects. * '''[[w:Combination_square|Combination Square]]''' - For measuring and marking perpendicular or at an angle to an edge, and finding the center of an end. One 30cm (12 in) to start with. [[File:Tool-level.jpg|thumb|right|640x228px|Figure 5.5-5 - A torpedo level.]] * '''Levels and Plumbs''' - For finding horizontal and vertical lines. '''[[w:Spirit_level|Spirit levels]]''' have liquid with an air bubble in a curved tube. Start with a torpedo Level (Figure 5.5-5), a small magnetized one suitable for general home use, like leveling appliances. A '''[[w:Plumb_bob|Plumb Bob]]''' is a light string with a substantial weight, sometimes pointed at the bottom. Gravity pulls it vertical. It can be used to transfer positions or align objects vertically. If attached to a marked frame or scale it can help align vertical, horizontal or sloped directions. ::'''Assembly Tools''' &emsp;For fastening parts together or take them apart again. Also for striking items to drive them together or apart or change their shape. These are mainly manual (unpowered) tools. * '''[[w:Screwdriver|Screwdrivers]]''' - Screws come in a variety of sizes with different slots, for which a matching driver should be used. Sets with common sizes are available. A basic set should have at least a large flat head, large Phillips, small flat head, small Phillips, and stubby flat head (short shaft). Since a lot of torque (twisting force) is often needed, they should be better than the cheapest grade. :&emsp;When an item doesn't already have screw holes, an '''[[w:Bradawl|Awl]]''' with a very narrow or pointed tip is useful for starting small screws. If nothing else is available, a sharpened nail can be used. Larger wood screws require pre-drilling a hole about the size of the shaft inside the threads to avoid splitting the wood. :&emsp;A small cordless screwdriver that accepts hex shank bits can replace multiple screwdrivers and pre-drill holes. A set of screwdriver and small drill bits with matching shanks should be added if not included. '''[[w:Drill#Hand-powered|Hand Drills]]''' of various kinds still exist but are mostly obsolete or used where power is not available. * '''[[w:Pliers|Pliers]]''' - For firmly holding items using leverage. A basic set would include either a channel or slip joint type where the space between the jaws can be changed, a lineman’s with heavy-duty jaws, long nose for reaching confined spaces, and a locking type which continues to hold without hand pressure. * '''[[w:Socket_wrench|Socket Wrench Set]]''' - For larger screws and bolts that need more torque. A basic set includes a reversible ratcheting handle and different sizes of matching sockets to fit hexagonal-head fasteners. '''[[w:Hex_key|Hex Keys]]''' (Allen wrenches) are used for hexagonal holes in a screw or bolt. A basic set of different size hex keys is enough to start. * '''[[w:Hammer|Hammers]]''' - For striking with higher force by combined arm and handle speed. A basic set includes a '''[[w:Claw_hammer|Claw Hammer]]''' for driving and removing nails, a '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer|Ball-Peen]]''' for striking other metal tools or shaping metal, and a '''[[w:Mallet|Rubber or Rawhide Mallet]]''' for when you don't want to damage what you are hitting. These can be anywhere from the 250-1500g (8-38oz) weight range depending on your strength and what you are hitting but a 500g/16oz one is enough to start with. * '''[[w:Staple_gun|Staple Gun]]''' - The manual version uses a hand-compressed spring to drive heavy staples. It can be used for fastening plastic sheet, fabric, and other light materials into soft woods. Hardwoods may require hammering the staples flush, or using sturdier fasteners like upholstery tacks. ::'''Cutting and Abrasive Tools''' [[File:Tapijtschaar.jpg|thumb|right|400x300px|Figure 5.5-6 - Carpet Shears.]] * '''[[w:Scissors|Scissors/Shears]]''' - These have two blades on a pivot connected to handles. A toolbox version should have stronger blades and higher handle-to-blade length ratio to cut thicker material than household/craft scissors. A suitable heavy duty one is a '''Carpet Shears''' (Figure 5.5-6). The offset handles make it easier to cut on a flat surface. * '''[[w:Utility_knife|Utility Knives]]''' - The kind called a "box cutter" has a retractable razor knife for cutting materials like cardboard. This is enough to start with. A straight edge can guide the blade along a desired line. If you use the knife often enough, it should come with or you can get replacement blades when they wear out. Blades are very low cost and not worth sharpening to a razor edge. An inexpensive '''[[w:Putty_knife|Scraper/Spreader Set]]''' with different width and shape blades is useful for general cleaning, prying, and spreading. Thicker blades are better for scraping, while thinner flexible blades are better for spreading. A '''Razor Scraper''' holds a single-edged razor blade crosswise, and is used at a low angle on hard surfaces like glass. :&emsp;The '''[[w:Pocketknife|Folding Pocket Knife]]''' has one or more blades which pivot into the handle. A '''[[w:Multi-tool|Multi-tool]]''' includes other items besides edged blades. In all cases the movable blades make it safer and easier to carry when not being used. Traditional fixed-blade utility knives have their uses, especially outdoors or working with wood, but need a sheath when not being used for safety and to avoid damage to the edge. They should be single-edged so you can push on the back of the blade for extra force. * '''[[w:Diagonal_pliers|Diagonal Pliers]]''' - are made of hardened steel and used to cut wires and similar long, narrow materials. They are typically built into lineman's pliers along with the gripping jaws. but adding a smaller one for tighter spaces or cut more closely to a surface is useful. * '''[[w:Snips|Metal Snips]]''' function like scissors, but have much thicker blades and more leverage, often with compound action. This allows cutting sheet metal and similar hard materials. A starter set only needs the straight-cutting type, but left and right curve cutting versions can cut more complex shapes without multiple straight cuts. * '''[[w:Hacksaw|Hacksaws]]''' hold a narrow, fine tooth blade under tension in a frame. One standard 30 cm(12 inch) saw with a few blades of different tooth fineness is sufficient for a starter set. They are used to cut metal, plastic, and wood where a narrow cut or thin walls requires a thin blade with small teeth. Junior and mini saws use shorter blades and can be used in smaller spaces. * '''[[w:Hand_saw|Wood Hand Saws]]''' - These are for general cutting of wood to size. One short enough to fit in a toolbox to start with. Longer carpenter's saws can use the full stroke length of arm and body. They need a longer toolbox or are stored separately with something to protect the cutting teeth. The basic types are '''[[w:Crosscut_saw|Crosscut]]''' with teeth to cut across the wood fibers (grain), and the '''[[w:Ripsaw|Ripsaw]]''' with teeth to cut lengthwise along the fibers. There are many other types of '''[[w:Saw|Saws]]''', but a smaller toolbox one and the two carpenter types for larger pieces of wood are enough for basic home projects. * '''[[w:File_(tool)|Files]]''' and '''[[w:Rasp|Rasps]]''' are used to remove small amounts of material by abrasion. Files have teeth the width of the tool, while rasps have smaller individual teeth. They are usually made of hardened high-carbon steel so they can cut other metals. They are fairly inexpensive, so a packaged set of six or more different sizes, shapes, and tooth fineness is enough to start. This should include at least the bastard, double cut, round, and triangular types. '''[[w:File_(tool)#Needle_files|Needle Files]]''' are very small ones for confined spaces or fine work. :&emsp;File sets should have some handles, and a holder or wrap to keep them from damaging each other and other tools. A stiff toothbruch, detail brush or "file card" (a brush with fine metal wires) can be used to remove accumulated particles. * '''[[w:Sandpaper|Sandpaper]]''' - is used to smooth surfaces, round sharp corners and similar finishing tasks. An assortment pack with different grain sizes is enough to get started. Grain is either particles per inch where fine grains have higher numbers, or direct size in microns. Sandpaper wears out and becomes clogged with particles, but is inexpensive to replace. A stiff brush like a toothbrush can clean out excess particles. There are types intended to be used wet or dry, and different grain materials. :&emsp;The paper or other backing is flexible and can be cut from the back or folded and torn to whatever size is needed. Cutting from the grit side will damage blades. It can be wrapped or taped to scrap wood or any other object to conform to the surface being sanded. '''[[w:Sanding_block|Sanding Blocks]]''' are also made for this purpose. Fingernail files and hobby sanding sticks are useful for small spaces. ::'''Tool Care and Maintenance''' &emsp;Tools and work areas need some care, maintenance, repair, or cleaning. Care can be divided into avoidable problems and unavoidable wear. Water and high humidity causes steel and other metals to rust or corrode and wood to decay. Dry storage and work areas, and quickly removing water after use helps avoid these problems. A wiped on coating of oil, or storing in oiled paper or cloth, can help keep water away from metal. Wood finishes or chemically treated lumber can prevent rot. Freshly cut logs and branches have a high water content, so they should be '''[[w:Wood_drying|Dried]]''' before most uses. This is called "seasoning" because drying time in air is measured in seasons. Paints and other durable coatings, and waterproof containers can protect both wood and metal items. &emsp;'''Sharpening''' - Using tools will eventually wear down sharp edges and moving parts. Casual use of a wood or metal saw may take years to wear down the cutting teeth, but if used regularly they require '''[[w:Sharpening|Sharpening]]''' or replacement. Hacksaw and razor blades are inexpensive and replaceable. More expensive cutting tools can be sharpened with files, sandpaper fastened to a flat surface like glass, and '''[[w:Sharpening_stone|Sharpening Stones]]''', and '''[[w:Razor_strop|Stropping]]''' with abrasive compounds. These are used in series with progressively finer teeth and grains until the necessary sharpness is reached. This varies by tool and its use. A fine tooth file from those listed above and a two-sided sharpening stone with coarse/fine grain is enough to start with. &emsp;'''Repair''' - Other tool parts may need replacement if they become too worn or break. The assembly tools listed above are used to take tools apart, replace the part, and put them back together. Any kind of flat tray or small container can be used to hold loose parts while disassembled, so they don't get lost or forgotten. If there are many parts, a multi-compartment item like an egg carton, ice tray, or muffin pan can organize them in the order they were disassembled so it can be reversed during re-assembly. &emsp;General maintenance and cleaning items don't need to be carried in a tool box, but brought out as needed. They include: * '''Lubricants and Tapes''' - One saying is "'''[[w:WD-40|WD-40]]''' for anything that moves but isn't and '''[[w:Duct_tape|Duct Tape]]''' for anything that moves but shouldn't". Lubricants and tape have many uses, so some of each should be available. One can of penetrating spray lubricant, and a roll each of strong cloth (duct) and regular masking tapes are enough to start. Other kinds of '''[[w:Lubricant|Lubricants]]''' and '''[[w:List_of_adhesive_tapes|Tapes]]''' can be added as needed. :&emsp;Tools and machines with moving parts often need oiling at specific points and not others. Some oil containers come with a small nozzle, but a small brush or cotton swab can be used in harder to reach spots. Dedicated '''[[w:Oil_can|Oil Cans]]''' (oilers) that work by gravity or pressure are available for frequent or large-scale use. * '''Brushes and Vacuums''' - Old toothbrushes and wire brushes can be used to clean up blade teeth, fastener threads and other small spaces. Soft hand brushes. a broom, dust pan, and trash cans are for collecting sawdust, metal shavings, etc. Hand and shop vacuums can clean up inaccessible or large areas. Cotton swabs and small craft brushes can be used to clean or apply finishes to small areas. * '''Cleaning Supplies''' - Old clothes or towels can be cut up, or cleaning rags purchased, for removing dirt, oil, grease, etc. Paper towels can be used but they wear out quickly. General household brushes, sponges, buckets and mops, water and household cleaners are used as needed to clean work areas. Most people have these already. If needed, cut-open plastic shopping or trash bags, and newspaper/advertising fliers can be used to protect surfaces. * '''Twine and Rope''' - Have multiple uses for bundling, temporary clamping, and securing loads being moved. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 2 - Home Improvement/Do-It-Yourself Use</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;The general-purpose tools and equipment listed here, when added to List 1, enable a range of more substantial home improvement, craft, and repair projects. You can start adding them as-needed for specific projects. Finding them used in bulk, such as auctions, moving, and estate sales, may save money. Any duplicate or unneeded items can be sold off or traded for ones you need. As noted above, you don't need everything from these two basic lists to start on projects. But the more items you have, the wider the range of projects you can do. ::'''Office & Media Equipment''' &emsp;These are used as=needed before starting a project to plan, design, research, and shop. They should be located away from work areas to avoid damage from tools, dirt, and dust: [[File:Drafting_board_with_T_Square.jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-7 - Drawing board with T-square and other tools.]] &emsp;Hand drawing has been substantially replaced by computers and software, especially for professionals, but it is much lower cost to get started. Even with computers, it is still useful for sketching ideas, or making notes and alterations to existing plans. Printed plans, however created, are still useful in the workshop, as they can be larger than screens, and if full size can be used directly as templates. * '''[[w:Drawing_board|Drawing Board]]''' - This is a surface to make drawings and plans of custom projects, customizing existing ones, or scaling templates to full size. An existing table or counter with a smooth top can be used to start, but any piece of smooth-surfaced rigid material can be used instead to avoid pen and tape marks. Portable boards (Figure 5.5-7) can be moved where needed and put away between uses. Tape or push-pins are used to hold drawing sheets in place. Translucent '''[[w:Drafting_film|Drafting Film]]''' (vellum) can be laid over other drawings and illustrations as guides. '''[[w:Graph_paper|Graph Paper]]''' has a pre-printed grid, making scaled sketches easier. *'''[[w:Technical_drawing_tool|Drawing Tools]]''' are used to draw accurate lines and curves. These include the T-square, 45 and 60 degree triangles; engineer's, metric, and architects scales; lettering, circle, and irregular curve templates; protractor, low-stick drafting dots, masking tape; erasers, eraser shield, and dusting brush; bow compass and dividers; and mechanical pencils of various lead diameters. * '''Computer and Peripherals''' - If you don't already have one, a computer is useful for communication, inventory, purchasing, task management, and design software. A multifunction printer can be used to print out online or e-book plans, or enlarge templates to full size. The scanning function can do the reverse. Large plans and templates can be sent to a commercial print shop. A webcam can provide live video conversations. A smartphone can use its cameras to also do this function. A '''Digital projector''' can be used to transfer designs to physical items or templates. ::'''Storage and Workshop Space''' [[File:Paris_-_Carpenter_workshop_-_4944.jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-8 - A professional woodworking shop with storage and workbenches.]] &emsp;As tools accumulate, it gets harder to fit them in a closet and move them around even with a wheeled toolbox. So dedicated storage becomes useful. Storage may be in a garage, utility room, or outbuilding. A storage area can also hold parts and materials for future projects. Tools and materials can be quite heavy, so the storage should be sturdy. Shelving and cabinets, either wall-mounted or freestanding, are typically used for smaller items. Longer or larger items can be leaned against or hung from a wall. &emsp;Drawers can help keep items accessible but out of the way when not being used. For tools and accessories, some portable tool boxes, and the larger wheeled or stationary '''Tool Chests''' come in all sizes and number of drawers. Parts organizers, small containers, or open bins can be used for bulk items like nails and screws. Empty cardboard boxes are often free from stores if you ask, and come in all sizes. Sturdy ones are preferred. Labels on everything help finding the right items once many have accumulated. A pack of blank address labels and a bold marker can serve for this. &emsp;When you add dedicated work space to storage, it becomes a '''[[w:Workshop|Workshop]]''' (Figure 5.5-8). These come in all sizes from a craft area in the corner of a room, to garage and basement space, to freestanding buildings that can be as large as needed. If you move to an existing or new home, it may already have space for a workshop, or an existing shop in place. &emsp;Since the tools in these lists enable making and building things, workshops can be largely self-made. The shelves, work tables, chairs, cabinets and other items that support working in them are collectively called '''Shop Furniture'''. Setting up storage and workshop space can be a very big project, so it is typically divided into smaller steps, with the completed parts helping finish the rest. &emsp;How much workshop space is needed is determined by the size of the projects being made, and the shop furniture, assembly areas, tools, stationary machines, parts, and materials being stored and used. Workshops can be used by one person or many, so there should be enough space to not interfere with each other. Enough additional space is needed to move around and for large items to overhang and move through machines. For some projects, outdoor space can be used temporarily to extend the working area. &emsp;Shops should not be overcrowded and items piled haphazardly. That is both unsafe and hard to use. So enough space for proper storage and future growth should be planned for. Workshops also need adequate lighting, either natural or artificial, and enough electric power if if such tools are used. This may require upgrades to existing systems. Access to water, such as a utility sink, and ventilation if fumes or dust are generated are helpful. The floor must be able to support the total weight of everything in the shop, which can be quite large. Temperature and humidity should be controlled enough to prevent rust, wood rot, and be comfortable to work in. Access doors should be large enough to move materials and finished items through. &emsp;If you are doing longer-term projects, specialized '''Work Clothing''' is helpful. Tool and nail aprons and belts allow keeping the most used tools with you. Denim, leather, or other heavy materials are durable and can provide protection. Some versions have extra pockets, loops, and holders for items. ::'''Work Surfaces and Clamps''' * '''Portable''' - While some work can be done on the floor, supports bring the work to a comfortable height, and for longer items keep them from sagging or tilting while being worked on. Two '''[[w:Sawhorse|Sawhorses]]''', with optional boards and/or sheet goods laid on top are simple and flexible, and are a starting point if you have nothing else. They can be bought, but basic ones are easy to make and cheaper. '''[[w:Black_%26_Decker_Workmate|Folding Portable Workbenches]]''' can have built-in vises, stops, and tool-holders. If they are very light they can move while working. Some have steps to use body weight to stabilize them. They can also be weighted with anything heavy to keep them steady. [[File:Clamps.jpg|thumb|right|596x480px|Figure 5.5-9 - Assorted clamps: pipe, bar, trigger, handscrew, spring, C-clamp, and cam types.]] * '''[[w:Clamp_(tool)|Clamps]]''' - Clamps in general are used to hold one or more items together or to the work surface to keep them from moving. They can be much stronger than muscles and leave the hands free for working. A single clamp can allow items to rotate, so at least two medium-size ones are needed to start with. Additional clamps of various types and sizes are desirable (Figure 5.5-9). There are specialized clamps that use '''[[w:Band_clamp|Straps]]''' or for '''[[w:Mitre_clamp|Holding Corners]]''' that can be added later as needed, and temporary ones can be made from rope and sticks, with wedges driven under the rope to apply pressure. * '''[[w:Workbench|Workbenches]]''' - These are either stationary, or if wheeled generally stay within a workshop area. Their weight and rigidity keeps items from moving or vibrating from tool forces. They typically have built-in '''[[w:Vise|Vises]]''' and clamps, or are designed so temporary ones can fix the work to the bench. Vises generally have larger faces to apply pressure and are stationary, while clamps are typically movable. The intermediate clamp vise can be temporarily clamped where needed. The '''[[w:Vise#Engineer's|Bench]]''' (Figure 5.5-18) and '''[[w:Woodworking_vise|Woodworking Vices]]''' are the most common types. The latter have wood vise faces to avoid damage to items. :&emsp;There are a number of specialized tools and accessories to hold items to workbenches. Some have '''[[w:Bench_dog|Bench Dogs or Pegs]]''' or '''[[w:Holdfast_(tool)|Holdfasts]]''' that can be inserted into holes to position or secure items. Shaped inserts can better hold round or other items that don't match the jaw shape. For some projects, custom holding jigs need to be self-made. For any kind of vise or clamp, softer materials like wood, leather, or rubber can be inserted between the jaws to prevent damage to the work. :&emsp;Many workbenches have storage shelves, hooks, or drawers below the bench top. Wall-mounted benches often have additional shelves or cabinets above the bench for storage. Free-standing benches (not against a wall) allow access from all sides and working on overhanging items. If large items will be worked on, temporary supports or other shop tables can be used to support the excess. Depending on use, bench top height can be for working standing up or sitting, or a taller chair or stool used to sit at a standing bench. Some benches have built-in electrical outlets for power tools. Otherwise corded tools or battery chargers can be plugged in elsewhere. ::'''Ladders and Platforms''' &emsp;Some projects involve reaching/working above floor or ground level, and occasionally down a hole. * '''[[w:Ladder|Stepladders]]''' have steps or rungs to climb and stand on. They come in a wide variety of sizes, and are either free-standing or leaned against something. A two-step version may be enough to reach ceiling lights and high shelves indoors, but a 2 meter (6 foot) one with four legs is more stable and provides places to set or hang tools and materials while working. Some versions have a small fold-out shelf for this purpose. This size is sufficient to start with. For outdoor use extension or folding ladders can be adjusted to the task at hand. If you expect to reach a roof or tree limb, the length can be chosen based on that height. :&emsp;Modern ladders are rated for weight. Select one rated for at least your body weight plus the heaviest item you expect to lift up it. '''A falling ladder or falling off one can cause serious injury'''. Move the ladder rather than leaning or lifting heavy items beyond the legs. If the ground is not level or firm use boards or blocks to fix that. Secure the ladder if needed to what you are climbing up, or braced to the ground with diagonal poles or staked ropes. Secure yourself to the ladder or what you are climbing with hooks and ropes/straps/safety belt to prevent falls. *'''Work Platforms''' provide more horizontal surface to stand on or place things than ladders. They are useful when horizontal movement is needed while working. One or two sturdy boards placed across two ladders, or one ladder and building steps are simple versions. Since loose boards can shift, they should be clamped or have angles or blocks attached to prevent sliding off. ::'''Moving and Lifting''' &emsp;Moving heavy objects or large amounts of supplies happens often on larger projects. Moving or lifting items over 20 kg (40 lb) or carrying multiple smaller or lighter items is difficult by hand, and benefits from various transport and lift devices. Some bags and boxes saved from previous shopping or discarded by stores may be enough to start with. Horizontal movement benefits greatly from wheels. Depending on the task, a '''[[w:Hand_truck|Hand Truck]]''', '''[[w:Flatbed_trolley|Flatbed Trolley]]''' (moving dolly) or '''[[w:Wheelbarrow|Wheelbarrow]]''' can be used. '''[[w:Tub_(container)|Tubs]]''', '''[[w:Bucket|Buckets]]''' and assorted small containers are useful for storing and moving items like fasteners, bulk materials, liquids, and groups of tools. Workshop machines and carts can come with wheels or have them added. This allows moving them out of the way when not being used, or to where needed while working. &emsp;For moving large amounts of material or larger single items, motorized vehicles of many types and sizes exist. The most common are passenger cars, pickup trucks, and enclosed vans. Trailers can be attached to many of these vehicles. Flat or open bed loads can be protected and secured by tarps, nets, elastic or chain hooks, and ratcheted straps. Blocks, wedges, and bars can prevent loads from shifting. Securing loads is important for balancing trailers whose deck extends beyond the wheel base. '''[[w:Intermodal_container|Shipping containers]]''' can carry large amounts of goods and serve as temporary storage or even a small workshop. &emsp;'''[[w:Pulley|Pulleys]]''' are used for lifting, dragging, or changing the direction of a force. A single rope and body weight is enough for smaller loads. Sets of pulleys can be combined for added leverage. Inclined boards set on a step or block and fabricated ramps can help withe height changes. The ledge at the bottom of a hand truck and many other objects can be used as '''[[w:Lever|Levers]]''' to lift objects enough to place supports under them or get them onto wheels. '''[[w:Back_belt|Back Supports]]''' may help avoid injury when lifting heavy items with body strength, but proper technique is more important. &emsp;'''[[w:Winch|Winches]]''' multiply leverage with cranks and gears. There are both hand and powered versions. Temporary hoists can use 1-3 poles with anchor ropes as needed. They can support pulleys, hooks and other lifting gear high enough for a given task. These are the '''[[w:Gin_pole|Gin Pole]]''', '''[[w:Shear_legs|Shear Legs]]''', and '''[[w:Tripod|Tripod]]'''. Commercial lifts and cranes can be rented for occasional use, or are supplied while delivering large loads. &emsp;'''[[w:Jack_(device)|Jacks]]''' - are devices to lift heavy weights or apply bending forces, generally more than simple levers. There are may types using ratchets, screws, air pressure, or hydraulics. The type included with most passenger cars for changing tires is enough to start, but a bottle jack of 10-20 tons capacity is a useful addition. Always make sure the jack is firmly supported. On bare ground it is likely to push itself into the ground rather than lifting a heavy object. Boards, timbers, or concrete blocks can spread the load. Also place timbers or other supports as the item is lifted, in case the jack slips or the load shifts sideways. ::'''Measuring and Marking''' * '''Size Measures''' - The ruler-type '''[[w:Calipers|Caliper]]''' has a sliding jaw attached to a ruler, with a vernier scale for accuracy. The inside and outside spring types can take and transfer measurements. These three 6-12" (15-30cm) in size to start with. Dial and digital calipers can make more accurate measurements, but not as accurate as a micrometer. * '''Weight and Volume Measures''' - For measuring bulk items and liquids. These can be conventional kitchen and bathroom scales, measuring spoons and measuring cups. Empty clear/translucent containers can be filled with measured volumes and marked for shop use. This is useful for materials that will stain or are toxic that you don't want to contaminate your measuring set. &emsp;'''Note:''' Some of the angle, curve, and spline tools that follow overlap the drawing tools in the office section above. If you already have those, you may not need more to start with. Larger versions are useful for measuring and marking larger physical projects as opposed to scale drawings. The need for them depends on what projects you are doing. * '''Angle Measures''' - There are various devices for setting right angles (90 degrees or perpendicular). The '''[[w:Try_square|Try Square]]''' is 20-50 cm (8-20 inches) is for smaller accurate work. The '''[[w:Steel_square|Steel Square]]''' is a larger one-piece device with engraved scales. Angled and sloped cuts are either described by the two scales, like "6:12", or calculated from the angle tangent. For cutting sheet goods there are squares the full width of a standard sheet. Sheet goods are generally manufactured with right angles, so an alternate method is measuring the lengths on opposite sides from the corners, and connecting them with a straight edge. :&emsp;The '''[[w:Speed_square|Speed Square]]''' is a triangular '''[[w:Set_square|Set Square]]''' with a built in fence. This can be pressed against a board edge to mark a cut, or clamped to it to guide a circular saw. A '''[[w:Protractor|Protractor]]''' has an angle scale, and the bevel type has a pivoting arm to mark angles. A '''[[w:Sliding_T_bevel|Sliding T Bevel]]''' can set and transfer angles when you want them to match. One try or steel square is enough to get started, depending on the size of the projects. * '''Curve Marking''' - A '''[[w:Compass_(drawing_tool)|Compass]]''' has two sharp points, or one point and pencil/pen for marking arcs and circles. The distance between the points is set against a ruler to the radius desired. The regular and beam/trammel types will mark small and large radii and are enough to start with. Very large curves can be set by hooking the end of a tape measure to a small nail at the center point, and securing the sharp point, pencil, or pen to the tape with a small '''[[w:Binder_clip|Binder Clip]]''' * '''[[w:Flat_spline|Flat Splines]]''' and '''[[w:French_curve|French Curves]]''' can be used for non-circular curves. Lines on curved surfaces like cylinders can be set by marking two or more measured points, then wrapping folded paper or other bendable but not stretchy material between them to mark a line. [[File:Vpass-1.JPG|thumb|right|640x284px|Figure 5.5-9 - Carpenter's Level.]] * '''Carpenter's Level''' - 60-120 cm (2-4 foot) (Figure 5.5-9). A longer version of the torpedo level from list 1. This can span more distance and be more accurate, but is harder to use in small spaces. For longer distances a level can be set on or against a straight piece of finished lumber with parallel sides or any similar object. Once a horizontal or vertical line is determined, slopes can be set by measuring perpendicular to one end. ::'''Additional Hand Tools''' * '''Screw- and Nut Drivers''' - The basic screwdriver set can be extended to cover most projects with about 30 pieces from a large standard plus a precision assortment sets. Nut drivers have axial handles like screwdrivers, but with tips that fit different size nuts and bolt heads. Their use overlaps socket wrenches with extension bars. * '''Hand Saws''' - '''[[w:Compass_saw|Compass]]''' and '''[[w:Keyhole_saw|Keyhole Saws]]''' have narrow blades for making curved cuts. They differ in size and tooth fineness. Interior cuts can be extended from a small starter hole made with a drill or chisel. A '''[[w:Coping_saw|Coping Saw]]''' has a very narrow blade with small teeth, and a frame to keep it straight under tension. The small teeth are good for thin material. The '''[[w:Bow_saw|Bow or Frame Saw]]''' is a larger version. Interior cuts can be made by unhooking the blade, putting it through a starter hole, and re-attaching it. The blade can be rotated as needed for the cutting direction. A '''[[w:Bench_hook|Bench Hook]]''' is a simple accessory, usually self-made, to keep an item steady while cutting, and slightly raised so you don't damage a work table. Hook a pair of them over the edge of the table and press what you are cutting against the upper blocks. :&emsp;Hand '''[[w:Backsaw|Backsaws]]''' have a reinforcing strip to keep the blade straight and can be used with a '''[[w:Mitre_box|Miter Box]]''' to guide it. They are used for cutting to length and accurate crosscut angles. They come in various sizes and tooth fineness from the larger miter saw, to tenon, dovetail, and razor. Ones with offset handles are used to cut pegs and other protrusions flush. Hand saws require periodic sharpening with use. Specialty clamps, file jigs (to even tooth height), and '''[[w:Saw_set|Saw Sets]]''' (to set kerf width) are available, but can be made/use other tools. The actual sharpening uses files and sharpening stones. * '''Hammers''' - Add other sizes of hammers with metal heads to those in list 1, either smaller and lighter for fine work, or heavier up to two-handed '''[[w:Sledgehammer|Sledgehammer]]'''. One or more hardwood mallets or '''[[w:Dead_blow_hammer|Dead Blow Hammer]]''' for when you don't want to damage what you are striking, with less rebound than the rubber mallet. These often have soft striking faces with sand or metal shot filling the head, which absorbs the rebound forces. The light '''[[w:Upholstery_hammer|Tack Hammer]]''' has one magnetized head to start small tacks and nails, such as for upholstery. The unmagnetized head then finishes driving them in. * '''Hooks and Picks''' - These are small tools with various shaped tips for fine work. They are similar to dental '''[[w:Periodontal_probe|Probes]]''' and '''[[w:Dental_explorer|Explorers]]'''. A basic set with several types to start with. * '''[[w:Burr_(edge)|Deburring Tools]]''' - For removing rough edges left by cutting tools. Files can also do this task, but a specialty tool set is sometimes more efficient on softer materials and longer edges. * '''Pry and Demolition Bars''' - These use leverage to remove nails, pry items apart, or start to lift heavy items. They can use hands or hammers to insert. They come in various sizes and shapes like the '''[[w:Cat's_paw_(tool)|Cat's Paw]]''', '''[[w:Crowbar|Crowbar]]''', and flat pry bars. Claw hammers have a built-in prying tool, but additional ones are useful. [[File:Quick_Change_Tool_System,_2parts.jpg|thumb|right|Figure 5.5-10 - Punch and matching die.]] * '''Chisels and Punches''' - '''[[w:Chisel#Cold_chisel|Cold Chisels]]''' are used to indent or cut thinner metal, and score, chip, or split masonry. '''[[w:Punch_(tool)|Punches]]''' are used to indent or pierce leather, wood, or metal. Hollow punches can make well-defined holes in thicker material. Matching '''Die Blocks''' support the other side so the surrounding area is not deformed (Figure 5.5-10). :&emsp;A '''[[w:Punch_(tool)#Center|Center Punch]]''' is used to mark where a drill will cut and keep it from wandering. A '''[[w:Nailset|Nailset]]''' is a punch with a small head, for driving a nail flush or slightly below without damaging the surrounding material. '''[[w:Drift_pin|Drift Pins]]''' are either straight or tapered. They are used to either transfer hammer impacts to hard-to-reach places or align holes before assembly. Start with a punch and chisel set of assorted types and sizes plus one medium '''[[w:Chisel#Woodworking|Wood Chisel]]''' for minor trimming and cutting of wood and other softer materials. * '''Wrenches''' - Add to the basic socket set in List 1 a larger set with multiple handle sizes and a larger range of sockets. Sizes up to 1 1/2" SAE and 38mm metric will cover all but the largest projects. Using two handles with a nut and bolt allows more tightening force. :&emsp;Open or close-ended single piece '''[[w:Wrench|Wrenches]]''' can apply higher forces that would damage a ratchet type handle. Their drawback is having to remove and reposition for each turn in tight spaces. A combination wrench has one open and one closed end. Using the ratchet handle first, then this type for final tightening minimizes the work. :&emsp;'''[[w:Adjustable_spanner|Adjustable Wrenches]]''' have a cylinder to change the jaw opening. Four sizes from 6-12" (15-30cm) should cover most needs '''[[w:Pipe_wrench|Pipe Wrenches]]''' have parallel serrated jaws to better grip large nuts and heavy pipe. These come in a wide range of sizes, but a medium one is enough to start. A '''[[w:Hex_key#Variants|Ball-End Hex Key]]''' can be used at an angle to the screw in hard to reach places. Sizes from 0.05-0.5" and 1.27-10mm in addition to the plain set from list 1 should cover most needs. * '''Pliers ''' - As needed, add '''[[w:Pincers_(tool)|Pincers]]''' and nippers, to grab or cut across the handle rather than along it. They are useful for pulling items like nails, or cutting protruding items flush. To a single locking pliers in the basic set you can add additional sizes and jaw shapes. Other types of pliers can be added in different sizes and lengths. Also add pliers to install and remove '''[[w:Retaining_ring|Retaining Rings]]'''. The rings have different styles and sizes, so you may need a set, or one with replaceable tips. * '''[[w:Bolt_cutter|Bolt Cutter]]''' - For cutting thicker rods or bars than pliers using compound leverage. For even thicker items use a metal hacksaw, angle grinder, or reciprocating saw. * '''Shop Magnets''' - Extension and sweep, for retrieving dropped items and metal cuttings. A strong shop magnet can be used to locate nails and screws in a wall by feel, and so also where the framing is located. A '''[[w:Stud_finder|Stud Finder]]''' is a more advanced device for finding wall posts (studs). ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;There are many types and sizes of '''[[w:Power_tool|Power Tools]]'''. The portable ones are meant to be moved to the work and used with one or two hands, while stationary ones are larger and have the work brought to them. Most use electric power either from a battery or cord. Batteries allow moving anywhere without worrying about cord length and handling, but they eventually need recharging. Battery packs and chargers add to the cost. Corded tools generally allow higher power levels and longer running time. Most power tools come in a range of quality and power level, measured by Amps or Watts. Which to use depends on the projects you are doing. &emsp;'''[[w:Extension_cord|Extension Cords]]''' allow working farther from a power outlet. Cords should be rated for the highest power tool you expect to use, and for outdoor use if you expect to use them that way. If you are moving around or climbing up, tie an '''[[w:Overhand_knot|Overhand Knot]]''' with the ends of the tool and extension cords before plugging together. This prevents them from pulling apart. * '''[[w:Drill|Electric Drill]] and Accessories''' - One corded drill around 6 Amp power and a standard wood drill '''[[w:Drill_bit|Drill Bit Set]]''' up to the drill chuck size is enough to get started. If you expect to work with metal, there are bits made of stronger materials with a different cutting angle. A '''Drill Gauge''' can help identify the size of a bit. The '''Hammer''' type drill can apply forward impacts to better go through hard materials. Many drills have side handle and depth gauge attachments to for better control. Specialty '''Right Angle Drills''' have the chuck mounted sideways to the grip rather than axially, which allows drilling in smaller spaces. :&emsp;There are many accessories that can fit in a drill chuck. '''[[w:List_of_screw_drives|Driver Bits]]''' can be used in place of screwdrivers and socket wrenches. They are faster but with less control. A driver assortment set is enough to start. Others include sanding, wire, and buffing wheels, countersink, counterbore/spade, expansion, and auger bits for wood, and abrasive stones for metal. For large holes a stationary drill press (see List 8) handles the higher torque better, or use a smaller starter hole then a saw to enlarge it. Various kinds of '''[[w:Drill#Hand-powered|Hand-Powered Drills]]''' still exist, but are mostly used where power is not available, to start a hole, for small spaces, or countersinking. * '''[[w:Circular_saw|Circular Saw]]''' - A hand-held corded type with 7.25 inch (18.5 cm) blade diameter with carbide teeth is the most common to start with. Other size saws and blade types as needed. Cordless (battery powered) types typically use smaller blades. All types rotate the blade at high speed. So what you are cutting should be secured to prevent movement, and a firm grip on the tool with both hands. For accurate cuts, a straight object is clamped to the work, offset by the blade distance from the guide plate edge. * '''[[w:Reciprocating_saw|Reciprocating Saw]]''' with assorted blades - This moves the blade forward and back rather than rotating. Longer blades allow cutting thicker items than a circular saw. Since only the blade is in the cutting area, they can work in tighter spaces than a circular saw. A variety of blades are available for different materials, and in different lengths and stiffness. They are generally less accurate than circular saws, but clamping something to the work to hold the tool against can improve accuracy. * '''[[w:Jigsaw_(tool)|Jigsaw]]''' with assorted blades - This is a type of reciprocating saw where the blade goes vertically through a guide plate. They are most useful making straight or curved cuts in boards or sheet goods * '''[[w:Angle_grinder|Angle Grinder]]''' and '''[[w:Dremel|Rotary Tool]]''' - These use high speed bits for tasks like cutting, grinding, and sanding. They differ in the direction of rotation and size. Angle grinders rotate at a right angle to the tool body, and are generally larger and more powerful. Rotary tools, such as the Dremel brand, rotate in line with the body, similar to electric drills. Compared to electric drills they spin at much higher speeds but with lower torque at the same power. One of either type is enough to get started. * '''[[w:Heat_gun|Heat Gun]]''' - These produce much higher temperatures than hair dryers and should never be used for that purpose. Uses include paint stripping, shrink wrapping, softening plastic for bending, and general heating and melting. Higher temperatures require an oven or furnace, but heat guns are portable and can cover larger areas. ::'''Stationary Equipment</u>''' &emsp;These items should either be fastened in place to use properly, or are too heavy or unwieldy to hand carry while operating. Stationary equipment generally includes both powered and unpowered tools, but the three here are all powered. * '''[[w:Miter_saw|Power Miter Saw]]''' - These perform the same function as a hand backsaw and miter box but are much faster using a powered circular saw blade. Basic versions have a horizontal angle gauge and fence. More advanced ones have blade tilt and slide features, clamps for the material, and projected lines for the cut. A bench, sawhorses, or rollers keep longer and heavier lumber straight and balanced while cutting, and the saw generally has holes for bolting in place. * '''[[w:Bench_grinder|Bench Grinder]]''' - This uses high speed abrasive, wire, or buffing wheels to sharpen, remove material, clean, and polish. They throw cuttings at high speed and can generate sparks, so gloves and face protection should be used. On metal the heat generated can affect the '''[[w:Tempering_(metallurgy)|Temper]]''' and burn hands, so dipping in water periodically can cool the item. :&emsp;'''Wet Grinders''' turn more slowly and apply water to the wheel to avoid overheating. They are typically used for blade sharpening. A '''[[w:Sharpening_jig|Sharpening Jig]]''' holds the tool at the right angle to the abrasive. A 6-8 inch (15-20 cm) bench grinder with abrasive wheels is enough to start with. Bench grinders can be fastened to a workbench, or to a stand if larger items need to be worked on. * '''[[w:Air_compressor|Air Compressor]]''' - This is useful for inflating tires and other items, and also for air tools like nail guns and paint sprayers. A small one light enough to move where needed plus an air hose and attachments kit is enough to start with. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;Beyond basic supplies already noted, these can mostly be accumulated as needed for current and future projects. We suggest starting with some nail, screw, and bolt/nut/washer assortment sets with different sizes. This avoids making a shopping trip for minor home projects. ::'''Care and Maintenance''' &emsp;'''Building Maintenance''' - Homes and other structures require maintenance to stay functional. Many of the tools and equipment listed above can be used for repair and replacement, in addition to building new items. Some tools are only used to diagnose and fix problems, but not to build new items. These include: * '''[[w:Test_light|Test Lights]]''' - are used to check if an electrical outlet or other device has a voltage (power). They are mostly used for safety, to make sure power is off before doing work, and to see if a non-working device is broken vs. an electrical supply problem. * '''[[w:Plunger|Rubber Plunger]]''' and '''[[w:Plumber's_snake|Snake]]''' - for clearing blockages in household pipes. &emsp;'''Vehicle Maintenance''' - After their homes, the next most important items for many people are their vehicles. This includes passenger cars, light trucks, motorcycles, bi- and tricycles (manual and electric), utility trailers, golf carts, riding mowers, and all-terrain vehicles. Some of the tools above, such as socket wrenches, can be used for maintenance, but a number of more specialized ones are used with vehicles. These include: * '''Tire gauge''' * '''Accessory Tire Inflater''' - A small compressor, often using a 12 Volt car accessory socket. It is mainly intended for vehicle and trailer tires, but can also be used for wheelbarrow, mower, and other small tires. * '''Battery Charger''' * '''Engine Oil, Grease Gun and other lubricants''' * '''Engine Coolant''' * '''Vehicle Cleaning Supplies''' &emsp;'''General Maintenance''' - When damaged, stripped, or frozen fasteners need to be removed, there are several ways to deal with it. Dirt and rust can be removed with brushes and rags, or specialty rust remover fluids. Penetrating spray lubricants and strong wrenches may then be enough to remove them. Many kinds of '''[[w:Screw_extractor|Extractors]]''' are made for removing broken or frozen screws, nuts, and bolts. If the hole is too damaged to reuse, it can be re-threaded with taps and dies, an insert or filler material used to patch it, or a new hole drilled nearby. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">4.0 - New Workshops and Expansion Sets</span>== &emsp; ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>New Workshops</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;List 2 talked about storage and workshop space. Some homes and many apartments don't have enough spare space for the kinds of projects you want to do, especially if you go beyond basic home improvement/do-it-yourself ones. The alternatives are to find or buy existing workshop space in the community, or to build new private or shared space. We discuss the needs and features of workshops first because they have to exist before you can work in them. Simpler ones can be built with the basic items from Section 3. Larger and more complex workshops may need items from Section 8 (below) on construction. When to build a new workshop depends on what you already have available, the need for added space, and outside factors like cost, financing, permits, etc. ::'''Needs and Features''' &emsp;Workshop buildings are one or more suitable existing structures, or purpose-built new ones added to a property. The property may already have living space, or be commercial, industrial, or bare land. Workshops can be additions attached to an existing building, or detached free-standing structures. Their size, location, and features depend on what kind of projects are intended. When planning them, you should consider future growth in addition to current needs. This can be handled by over-sizing a structure, planning for additions and extensions to it, or adding additional separate structures. &emsp;There are a number of reasons for a separate workshop. These include: * Outgrowing existing home space * Excessive noise, dust, debris, and fumes * Extra power and light requirements * Better access for vehicles and moving large items &emsp;Workshops can be specific to one type of craft or activity or more generalized. Some suggested design features include: * Sufficient windows or skylights for natural lighting, and added artificial lights where needed. * Large doors for materials and product delivery. * Sprinklers and fire extinguishers for fire protection. * A strong enough floor for heavy machinery and storage, or deep footings where needed. If there are upper floors, the heavier items should be on the lower floors. Stairs and lifting devices can ease moving items between floors, and the whole structure has to support the total weight. * Enough storage area for materials, parts, and supplies, and for equipment not currently being used. * Enough electric power for all equipment, preferably routed through ceiling drops or wall channels, for flexibility and to avoid trip hazards from cords. * A water supply for clean-up. * A first aid station. * A separate office area to keep out dust and dirt, with desk, drawing table, files for record-keeping, etc. &emsp;The contents of a workshop can be grouped into general items used across multiple activities, and those specific to a particular one. The layout should consider your workflows. In general, work starts with delivery of supplies, materials, and parts. Materials are then converted to finished parts, finishes applied, and assembled into completed items. Unless the completed items are to be used in the shop, the last step is delivery. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>Expansion Sets</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 5.0 to 8.0 include a series of expansion set lists for items beyond the basic ones in Section 3.0. The added equipment may fit in space you already have at first, and outgrow it later. The lists are grouped into four categories: Small Indoor, Large Indoor, Outdoor, and Construction. Each list is specialized according to types of projects and materials. The expansion sets are not in a required order where earlier lists are needed before later ones. They are a set of mostly independent choices, depending on your interests and what you want to do. An exception is List 17 - General Construction, which has items used by multiple construction trades listed separately afterwards. &emsp;Most specialized projects will need some or all of the basic items from Sectopm 3.0. We try to list items where they are most likely to be needed, but some items can be shared across different project types. So you may want to review the items in related lists. Within each list the general order is from hand to power and larger tools. We try to note accessories that go with a particular tool or machine. We also try to note reference sources, and materials, parts, and supplies needed for the project type. At present the later lists are less complete than the basic ones. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">5.0 - Small Indoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Small indoor projects can be for personal enjoyment, creative expression, or to make useful items for personal use or sale. These are crafts and projects that can begin in temporary space like a desk or dining table, or in dedicated space of less than a room in existing living areas. They include light arts and crafts, printing and digital media, fabrics and leather work, jewelry, and electronics. They can mostly start with ordinary room lighting and electric power, perhaps with extra light in the work area. Serious hobby or small business production can grow beyond such workspace and have special needs. Section 4.0 covers new workshops for this. &emsp;We don't cover every possible activity and project, just some of the more common ones. Wikipedia's '''[[w:Outline_of_crafts|Outline of Crafts]]''', '''[[w:Handicraft|Handicraft]]''', and '''[[w:Fine_art|Fine Art]]''' articles list many of these other subjects. See also '''[https://www.smooth-on.com/applications/ Smooth-On's website]''' for additional categories, and the '''[https://www.dickblick.com/ Blick]''' website for types of tools and supplies. For ones not covered here you will need to find some reference books, printed articles, or websites that cover what is needed to get started. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 3 - Light Arts & Crafts</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Light arts and crafts involve creative expressions that don't require much power, space, or stationary equipment to start. Examples are '''[[w:Drawing|Drawing]]''' and art painting, where all the tools and supplies can be hand-carried to work on location rather than at home. &emsp;'''[[w:Painting|Artistic Painting]]''' is distinguished from the general use of '''[[w:Paint|Paints]]''' for coloring or protection, as in room walls and automobile bodies. General paints can be used artistically, but usually artist's paints are specialized types in smaller amounts. Modern paintings are usually portable on a surface like framed canvas or wood panels. Fixed paintings are sometimes done on building interiors and exteriors. Historically some sculptures were painted to make them look more lifelike. Almost any surface that paint or ink will adhere to or be implanted in can be used. &emsp;'''Artistic or Decorative Printing''' includes '''[[w:Linocut|Linocut]]''' and '''[[w:Woodblock_printing|Woodcut]]''' on fabric or paper. '''[[w:Papier-mâché|Papier-mâché]]''' uses paper or pulp, fabric reinforcement if needed, and glue, starch, or wallpaper paste. '''[[w:Mixed_media|Mixed Media]]''' are assemblages, collages, and sculpures using more than one type of material or '''[[w:List_of_art_media|Art Medium]]'''. In addition to some basic tools from prior lists, arts and craft tools can include: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Craft Scissors''' * '''[[w:Brush|Brushes]]''' - Art, foam, craft and general paint types. * '''Single Hole Punch''' * '''Crafting Needles''' - Including '''[[w:Crochet_hook|Crochet]]''', '''[[w:Knitting_needle|Knitting]]''', and '''[[w:Sewing_needle|Hand Sewing]]''' types, ::'''Work Area Items''' * '''Work Table and Storage''' - These can be existing household items or dedicated for arts and craft work. * '''Art Furniture''' - '''[[w:Easel|Easel]]''', drawing boards, portfolios, carrying cases, and folding tables and chairs for working in a studio or on location. * '''Surface Protection''' - Newspaper, old bedsheets, dropcloths, plastic tablecloths, or plastic sheeting. * '''Work Clothes''' - For messy arts and crafts such as an apron, smock, or old large shirt. * '''Storage containers and Organizers''' - for storing and mixing the variety of tools and materials. These can be purpose-made, or reused egg cartons, empty boxes, clean cans, jars, and small plastic containers. ::'''Power Tools''' * '''Hot-Melt Glue Gun''' - uses sticks of glue and heat to melt them. * '''Small Oven''' - such as a kitchen toaster oven. For heating or melting small items. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''Drawing''' - colored crayons, chalk, markers, pens, and pencils, drawing paper, pads and sketch books. * '''Artist's Paints''' - includes oil paints, pastels, watercolors, tempera, acrylics and enamels. * '''Art Printing''' - ink pad, sponge, brayer, rubber stamps, printing ink, wood blocks, linoleum. * '''Disposable containers''' - for weighing and mixing powders and liquids, and casting low-temperature resins. * '''Disposable stirrers''' - for paint, resin, etc. These can be bought, leftover plastic utensils, or scrap items. * '''Aluminum foil''' - to protect surfaces, and liners and containers for items needing oven heating. * '''Plastic''' - sheets, tubes and blocks from materials like acrylic and high-density polyethylene. * '''Casting Materials''' - Plaster of Paris, resins, etc. &emsp;Mixed media can use any found items, but some basic supplies include: * '''Fasteners & Adhesives''' - White, decoupage, fabric and wood glues. Glue sticks, painter's tape, thumbtacks, and hardware fasteners like brads, or nails. * '''Textiles''' - Yarn, craft felt, fabric scraps, thread, embroidery floss, muslin, burlap, and wool felt. * '''Sculptural Materials:''' - Salt and bread doughs. Modeling, polymer, and air dry clays. Craft foam and foam rubber. Chenille stems (pipr cleaners), toothpicks, straws, and craft/popsicle sticks. Scrap, found, and shaped wood pieces. Floral and coiled metal wire of various diameters, and larger metal pieces. * '''String, Bead and Knotwork''' - Cord, string, artificial sinew, fishing line, and thread. Pony, wood, glass, plastic, and metallic beads. * '''Decorations''' - such as glitter, pom poms, feathers, cotton balls, googly eyes, and sequins. * '''Papers''' - Copy, colored construction, wax, colored tissue, bath and "bleeding" tissue, freezer, crepe, and newsprint (blank or printed). Paper napkins, towels, and bags. Contact (adhesive-backed) paper, clear or colored. Card stock, flat and corrugated cardboard. Roll white, brown, and tracing paper. * '''Reused Items''' - such as magazines, junk mail, netting from produce bags, bubble wrap, packaging peanuts. * '''Natural Materials''' - such as leaves, sticks, small rocks, acorns & nuts, pine cones, flowers, and seeds & seed pods. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 4 - Printing and Digital Media</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Artistic printing is typically single or small numbers of items. '''[[w:Printing|Production Printing]]''' is a technology for mass reproduction and distribution of text and images for business, education, and entertainment. It has a long history of making physical copies like books and newspapers. Writing and drawing by hand can be done with very simple tools and materials. But printing in quantity needs specialized equipment for paper, fabric, photographs, and lithographs. &emsp;Today '''[[w:Electronic_media|Media]]''' of all types are increasingly produced, stored, and distributed by digital electronic methods. In addition to making text and drawings, digital media includes capturing photographs, sound, and video. It also includes creating digital content wholly electronically. New creations and recordings can be made, combined, and edited with a variety of suitable computers and software. These include stationary and portable computers, tablets, and smartphone. Additional input and output devices are often used with them, and the completed items distributed by communication networks or physical media. &emsp;Depending on the type of printing or digital media projects you want to do, you may need any of the following to get started: * '''Basic Working Space''' - including furniture and general tools from lists 1 and 2 for setup. * '''Basic Content Creation''' - this includes technical drawing and basic computing equipment and software from List 2 for text and illustrations, and light arts and crafts items from List 3 for artistic creations. A basic computing device generally includes some storage, display, keyboard and mouse, and speaker. These can be merged into a single device, such as laptops and smartphones, or separate components for desktop systems. They also generally have a network connection - wired, wireless, or both. ::'''Computers and Peripherals''' * '''Upgraded Computer(s)''' - High-end media creation, editing, and display may need better computers. This is generally set by the needs of the software and peripherals you will be working with. For example, if you are doing digital photography, you need enough storage for all the pictures you are editing and saving. Rendering high-end 3D graphics may require a corresponding graphics card, or even a dedicated computer for the task. If more than one person is working, you will need multiple computers. * '''Upgraded Input Devices''' - This includes special keyboards, mouse, joysticks, and touch-sensitive tablets. * '''Upgraded Displays''' - Some work benefits from larger, multiple, or higher quality displays. * '''Upgraded Audio''' - This can include higher quality and quantity of speakers, microphones, multichannel audio output, and headsets. * '''External or Networked Storage''' - * '''Scanners and Printers''' - These range from basic office types to large format versions. Multifunction units can do both scanning and printing. * '''[[w:Digital_camera|Digital Camera]]''' for photography and video production. A dedicated digital cameras, with accessories like tripods, lights, and microphones, can produce better results than smartphones or webcams. They have larger lenses and sensors, and more adjustments for focus, zoom, exposure time, etc. Higher-end cameras have interchangeable lenses for different purposes. ::'''Other Print Media''' &emsp;This includes printing on with other materials or processes besides paper, such as fabric, photographic prints, and lithographs. * '''Screen Printing Press''' - 4-Color, with accessories and supplies ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 5 - Fabric and Leather Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Textile|Textiles]]''' are fibers commonly used to make '''[[w:Woven_fabric|Woven Fabrics]]'''. '''[[w:Sewing|Sewing]]''' and related processes then turn fabric into creative and useful items such as clothing, drapery, and bedding. '''[[w:Leather|Leather]]''' is animal skin treated to prevent decay. In some cases it can be sewn and used like fabric. But the thickness, stiffness, and strength of leather often requires different tools, and it gets used for different kinds of items. &emsp;'''[[w:Pattern_(sewing)|Patterns]]''' are full-size drawings fastened or traced onto the material as a cutting guide. They are often purchased, but custom patterns made to fit a particular body or project, or scaled-up patterns from books and other sources can be self-made. You can use wide paper rolls or inexpensive cloth to make patterns. The latter can be test-fit on the wearer before cutting more expensive material, or used multiple times since cloth is more durable than paper patterns. &emsp;Custom patterns for complex shapes like feet can be made by wrapping plastic wrap or bags around them, then wrapping flexible tape around the plastic. Seam lines are then marked on the tape, and the pieces carefully cut off the body and flattened. Patterns made this way need to have seam margins added to them. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Sewing Kit''' - While all the items can be bought separately, it is convenient to get all of them at once to start, and kits are typically not very expensive. It can include any or all of the following: storage for all the items, spools of thread in various colors and thickness, scissors, spare buttons, spring clips and dressmaker's pins for holding fabric together. Hand sewing needles of various sizes, machine bobbins, safety pins, crochet hook, magnifier, tip and ring thimbles, pin cushion, and a measuring tape. * '''Cloth Measuring Tape''' - A flexible cloth or plastic ruler without a case. This was included in List 1, but if you don't have it yet, get one at least 60 inches (150cm) long for measuring body dimensions, and another up to 144 inches (360cm or 4 yards) for measuring uncut fabric and large sewn items like drapery. * '''Tailor's Chalk or Soapstone''' - For temporary marking on fabric. * '''Dressmaker's Shears''' - These are very sharp scissors with an offset handle that leaves the fabric flat while cutting. They should not be used for other purposes. * '''Thread Snips''' - Small pointed, and usually spring loaded, scissors for cutting thread and trimming fabric. The small size allows reaching into tight spaces after sewing. * '''[[w:Seam_ripper|Seam Ripper]]''' - A tool with a razor-edged hook for cutting sewn stitches without tearing the fabric. * '''Rotary Cutter Set and Mat''' - This uses a razor edged wheel rather than scissors action to cut material. A set includes replacement wheels with different shaped edges. A soft mat protects the table surface while allowing the blade to penetrate through. * '''[[w:Tailor's_ham|Tailor's Ham]]''' - A tightly stuffed pillow for pinning and ironing curved areas of fabric. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''[[w:Sewing_table|Sewing Table]]''' - This can be any kind of table to start with, to support a sewing machine or fabric being hand cut and sewn. Custom tables inset a sewing machine bed level with the rest of the surface. This makes sliding the material easier. For larger and heavier material, a machine set perpendicular to a longer table eases movement. Custom tables can also have storage for accessories and tools or fold up to save space when not in use. * '''[[w:Sewing_machine|Sewing Machine]]''' - with accessories. A light domestic electric machine with at least straight and zig-zag stitches is enough for basic household sewing, like clothing and drapery. Modern ones can have many other stitches and accessories, and electronic features for semi-automatic tasks. A "foot" is what holds the fabric down while the needle passes through it. A basic one comes with the machine, but specialized ones either come with it or can be bought afterwards. :&emsp;A heavy-duty machine has a stronger frame and motor to sew thicker materials. Industrial machines are faster for production work and have more clearance between needle and frame, but typically fewer stitch types. Domestic machines typically feed one or two threads from a spool above, and another from a bobbin beneath, so a set of bobbins of the correct type are needed if they did not come with the machine. Sewing machines also use specialized needles of different diameters, which should be added if not included. The following specialized machines are not needed to start with, but added as needed: * '''[[w:Overlock|Overlock Machines]]''' - (Sergers) are used for edging, hemming, and seaming using multiple threads at once, needing fewer steps to finish a task. * '''[[w:Machine_embroidery|Embroidery Machines]]''' - add stitched threads to underlying fabric for decoration rather than construction and edging of basic sewing. Patterns can be formed by hand or with electronic control, beyond the mechanically formed fancy stitches. * '''Washing and Drying Machines''' - Some fabrics need pre-washing to remove residual dyes, avoid later shrinkage, or removing sizing applied to the fabric. Some dyeing can also be done in a washing machine. Most people already have such machines or access to commercial ones. * '''[[w:Ironing|Ironing Station]]''' - This includes a heat-resistant surface, usually cloth covered, and a heated '''[[w:Clothes_iron|Clothes Iron]]''' to remove wrinkles and flatten fabric or finished items. Pressing cloths are used between the iron and item to protect from excess heat. ::'''Leather Tools and Machines''' &emsp;Sewing leather requires heavy duty or specialized tools and machines. '''[[w:Leather_crafting|Leather Crafting]]''' involves other processes like dying, painting, carving, stamping, and molding, and uses a different set of mostly hand tools. The production of leather from skins and hides uses yet another set of tools and processes. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''Fabric''' - cotton, synthetic, upholstery * '''Leather''' * '''Thread''' * '''[[w:Notions_(sewing)|Notions]]''' - refers to small items and accessories besides fabric, leather, and thread, which end up in finished articles. Examples include buttons, clasps, zippers, hooks, eyelets, and laces. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 6 - Jewelry Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Jewellery|Jewelry]]''' is decorative wear, often made from high value materials. Creating it often involves small-scale '''[[w:Metalworking|Metalworking]]''' and '''[[w:Lapidary|Lapidary]]''', but can use a variety of other techniques. At a beginner level items would mostly be assembled from parts. More advanced projects involve making the parts before assembly. &emsp;Jewelers use basic items from Section 3.0 like measuring tools, some kind of workbench with a vise, small clamps and clips, needle files, and abrasive/polishing supplies. To those, add the following as needed: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Ring Sizers''' - A set of measured rings for fingers and a marked tapered rod for the rings themselves. * '''Magnifiers''' - Since jewelry work is typically small, these are very helpful. One useful type is an articulated lamp with a built-in lens. * '''[[w:Helping_hand_(tool)|Helping Hand]]''' - A base with jointed arms and clips or end clamps, and often a magnifier. It allows positioning an item at any angle, leaving both hands free to work with. * '''Bench Pin''' - A protruding hardwood pin with at least a narrow "V" slot, and optional other holes and indents, that is clamped to a workbench. It supports items while sawing or otherwise being worked on. Pins can be bought, but as sawing often damages them, they can be easily made to suit and replaced as needed using basic tools. * '''[[w:Piercing_saw|Piercing or Jeweler's Saw]]''' - A small coping saw 2-8 inches (50-200mm) in size with adjustable frame length. It uses very fine blades that often break, so shorter lengths can reuse broken pieces. A pack of blades of various fineness should be added if not supplied with the saw. * '''Jeweler's Anvil''' - A small anvil with round and flat horns. * '''Small-Jaw Pliers''' - If you don't already have them, a set with very small jaws for fine work, in assorted shapes. * '''Small Forming Hammers''' - A set of polished hammers around 5 ounces (150 grams) with various head shapes. For very fine work add a set of "micro" hammers around 2 ounces (60 grams) * '''Soft Hammer''' - A light hammer with rubber and plastic heads, which is less likely to leave marks on the work. * '''[[w:Planishing|Planishing Stakes]]''' and '''[[w:Swage_block|Swage Blocks]]''' - for hammering outside and inside compound curves. These are the same tools as used in blacksmithing (List 10), just smaller and working cold rather than hot metal. The process is also known as '''[[w:Sinking_(metalworking)|Sinking]]''', doming, dishing, or dapping. * '''[[w:Mandrel|Mandrels]]''' - Metal rods held by a vise or base block. Tapered ones are used for sizing and shaping items like rings and bracelets. Straight ones are used to support hollow or curved pieces being worked on. A set of various diameters and shapes (round, oval, triangular, square, etc.) can be accumulated as needed. Plain steel bars and rods can be used to start with. * '''[[w:Wire_drawing|Wire Drawing Plate]]''' - has a series of sized holes for reducing soft wire diameter by pulling it through with lubrication. Depending on wire diameter it may require mechanical leverage to get enough pulling force. * '''[[w:Engraving|Hand or Power Engravers]]''' - cut grooves into a hard surface for decoration or lettering. * '''Small metal shear''' * '''Body Forms''' - These are in the shape of complex parts of the body like head, neck and shoulders, hands, and feet. They are used to lay out and hang jewelry while being designed and fitted. ::'''Power Tools''' * '''Rotary Tool''' - with accessory bits, if you don't already have one. A stand to hold the tool steady is useful for fine work. A flexible shaft is also useful to reach small spaces and is lighter than holding the motor section. * '''Soldering equipment''' * '''Buffing station''' * '''Small Oven and Annealing Pans''' ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 7 - Electronics</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Electronics|Electronics]]''' is distinguished from List 21 - Electrical Work, which is mostly done during construction and remodeling, and is mostly to supply power for lighting, electrical outlets, and fixed appliances. Electronics involves more complex active devices rather than than simple passive ones like on/off switches. In addition to basic tools from Section 3.0, add the following, or another set for electronics work: ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Precision Screwdrivers''' * '''[[w:Wire_stripper|Wire Stripper]]''' - is designed to cut the insulation from various gauge (diameter) wires without cutting the wire itself. They usually have built-in cutters to then trim the wire itself to length. * '''Pliers''' - Smaller Diagonal and long nose * '''Precision Tweezers''' * '''Magnifiers''' - Electronic components are often small, so an Eye Loupe (a head-mounted magnifier) or an articulated lens with built-in light is useful. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' * '''[[w:Soldering_iron|Soldering Iron]]''' - with assorted tips and sponges. * '''Digital Multimeter''' ::'''Stationary Equipment''' &emsp;Electronics projects benefit from a dedicated '''Work station'''. This typically includes a Work Table with a heat-resistant surface, Fume Fan, Universal Vise with standard and circuit board jaws, Third Hand, Test Leads, and a magnifier light. Additional items can include: * '''Digital Microscope''' * '''DC Power Supply''' * '''Oscilloscope/Signal Analyzer''' * '''Function Generator''' * '''Flash Memory - programmer and debugger''' * '''Computer''' - for communications to and from the electronic device, recording, analysis, and design. ::'''Parts, Materials, and Supplies''' &emsp;Electronics is notable for the wide variety of parts available and used. To start with some basic items like wire and resistor assortments can be stocked, but the rest should probably be bought as needed for projects. * '''Discrete Components''' - Assorted Resistors, Capacitors, Choke Coils, Diodes, Transistors, Motor Drivers, Voltage Regulators, Amplifiers, Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Photodetectors * '''Other Components''' - LCD Displays, Speakers, Microphones, Temperature Sensor, Hall Effect, Accelerometers, Microcontrollers, Frequency Crystals, Radios, Magnets, Buttons & Switches, Headers, Assorted Jacks & Plugs, Ribbon Connectors, Screw Terminals, Battery Holders, USB cables and connectors, Ethernet cables and connectors, Transducers, Small DC Motors and Digital Servos, Power Supplies * '''Wire''' - General Electrical: single, pair, and grounded types, solder wire, magnet wire, shape memory * '''Circuit Board substrates''' * '''Other Supplies''' - Antistatic Bags, Heat Shrink Tubing, Desoldering Braid, Cable Ties, Rubber sheet/feet ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">6.0 - Large Indoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;This section covers activities that typically need larger or more dedicated indoor space, extra power or other special features, and often result in more practical and useful finished items. We include woodworking, basic metal fabrication, projects that require high temperatures, and machine shop work. There is some overlap in tools and equipment used, but each of these has some unique items and workshop needs. &emsp;Typical home workshop spaces include a garage, basement, or freestanding building. More advanced community production may require dedicated property. This is partly from needing larger shop furniture, stationary machines, materials storage space, and the size of the items being made. Additional requirements like more power, heavy weights, and heat resistance can make regular living space unsuited. These lists assume you have most or all of the equipment from the basic sets in Section 3.0. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 8 - Woodworking</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Since other animals use wood for tools, they are likely the oldest tools of our ancestors. Many human artifacts, like houses and furniture, are primarily made from it. So some tools for basic '''[[w:Woodworking|Woodworking]]''' were already included in the lists in Section 3.0. Additional tools from this list can be added as needed for projects. Growing trees ('''[[w:Forestry|Forestry]]'''), converting them to lumber ('''[[w:Logging|Logging]]''' and '''[[w:Sawmill|Sawmills]]'''), and woodwork for buildings ('''[[w:Carpentry|Carpentry]]''') are specialized enough to cover in other lists. This one covers hobbyist and small business projects made and used mostly indoors, like furniture, cabinetry, and smaller items. &emsp;Prior to the 20th Century, all woodworking was done manually or with some assistance from water and wind power. Since then electricity and compressed air have greatly increased the speed and power of tools. Some woodworkers prefer using hand tools - they are quieter and you can more directly feel what is happening to the wood. Power tool users still need some hand tools to avoid damage, precise finishing, or getting into small spaces. Power and stationary tools generally need more workshop space and cost more. So it is a matter of choice, budget, and working space for which ones to use. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;If you are new to woodworking, the '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=Woodworking&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22available_to_borrow%22&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22is_readable%22&sort=-date Internet Archive]''' has over 400 general books on the subject which are available to download or borrow for two weeks at a time. This list is sorted newest first. Books prior to 1950 will tend to focus more on hand tools, because modern power tools were not as common or too expensive for individual use. You can enter more specialized search terms on that site to find more books. &emsp;A general '''[https://www.youtube.com/ YouTube]''' search for "woodworking" brings up many results, but you are better off searching for more specific subjects. A single video is not long enough to cover all of woodworking. For beginners, we suggest a search term like "beginning woodworking series" to find ones that give a general introduction across several videos. An example is '''[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRWjFTaHniqMVryvDAQ3771MO6_QQRYXN Start Woodworking]''', with 13 videos taking about 8 hours, which you can watch a little at a time. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;Woodworking obviously requires wood to work with. It comes mainly from '''[[w:Tree|Trees]]''' and some large plants like '''[[w:Bamboo|Bamboo]]'''. Wood properties vary widely depending on the species, growing conditions, and other factors, making every piece unique. So certain kinds of wood and particular pieces are better suited than others in a given project. There are artificial products like '''[[w:Plywood|Plywood]]''' and '''[[w:Composite_lumber|Composite Lumber]]''' partially made of wood, and some non-wood materials can be worked on with the same tools. This sometimes requires requires different bits or blades. &emsp;Commercial lumber is grown and processed into grades of similar type, suited for a category of projects. When buying, you should inspect and select individual pieces. For bulk amounts, you should expect some loss from defects, warp, etc. A knot or split may make a board unsuitable at full length, but you can cut off the bad part and use the remainder as a smaller piece. &emsp;Other materials, parts, and supplies used in woodworking include a wide variety of fasteners, hardware, glue, finishes, and abrasives. Home improvement and hardware stores will stock many of these, and specialty items can be bought from other suppliers. An assortment of nails, screws, and a bottle of '''[[w:Wood_glue|Wood Glue]]''' are enough to get started. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''[[w:Marking_gauge|Marking Gauges]]''' - Have an adjustable fence and single or dual points or knives, for scribing lines parallel to an edge. The '''[[w:Mortise_gauge|Mortise]]''' type marks both sides of a mortise and tenon joint at once so the two parts will fit exactly. * '''More Clamps''' - Woodworkers say "you can never have too many clamps". They are used to hold items in place while being shaped, groups of items that need identical cuts or smoothing, drilling aligned holes, and while gluing pieces together. Types include bar, screw, pipe, locking, spring, rigid C-shape, corner, strap, hose, and others. Since there are so many kinds, we suggest accumulating them a few at a time from used sources or bought as-needed for a project. :&emsp;Clamps can also be self-made by (1) taking any length of lumber, fastening two or more blocks to it, then driving a pair of wedges to tighten, (2) wrapping cord around the item, and driving one or more wedges between cords and wood, (3) using a loop of cord and twisting it with a stick to tighten, or (4) placing the item on the floor or a table and placing heavy objects on top. * '''[[w:Chisel#Woodworking|Woodworking Chisels]]''' have a sharp edge at the end of the blade beveled 25 degrees on one side. They are either pushed by hand or hit with a '''[[w:Mallet|Mallet]]''', typically wooden so as not to damage the tool handle. A simple mallet can be made from a tree branch the diameter of the head, with the handle portion trimmed down to size. Get either square edge or beveled wood chisels in several widths to 1 inch (25mm) or so to start with. There are a number of other types, like the mortise chisel for cutting grooves, which can be added as needed. :&emsp;'''[[w:Adze|Adzes]]''' are specialty tools with curved blades and a chisel edge. They are swung to rough out a shape. Long-handled ones are used standing on or next to the work. Smaller ones are used on bowls and other interior curves. * '''[[w:Plane_(tool)|Hand Planes]]''' - have wide chisel blades that slightly protrude through a flat base so as to take thin shavings, with one or two handles. The blade is positioned so as to preferentially cut high spots in the wood, enabling flattening it. There are a wide variety of shapes and sizes for different purposes. The '''[[w:Scrub_plane|Scrub]]''', '''[[w:Block_plane|Block]]''', '''[[w:Jack_plane|Jack]]''', and '''[[w:Jointer_plane|Jointer]]''' types are for flat surfaces. The '''[[w:Rebate_plane|Rabbet/Rebate]]''' type is for cutting grooves or recesses, while circular planes have a curved rather than flat base for working curved surfaces. The combination plane has an adjustable frame for accepting different widths or sets of cutters. A few sizes of flat planes are enough to start. * '''[[w:Drawknife|Drawknife]]''' and '''[[w:Spokeshave|Spokeshave]]''' - These are two-handled tools used on the pull stroke, generally for shaping round pieces. The first has a wide, unprotected blade for removing bark and large shavings. The second has a smaller blade extending a variable amount from the body for finishing work. The blades may be straight or curved. One of each type is enough to start. [[File:Carving_tools_2.jpg|thumb|right|640x380px|Figure 5.5-11 - Woodcarving tools and mallet.]] * '''[[w:Wood_carving#Tools|Carving Tools]]''' - These are used for more intricate wood shaping than the ones previously mentioned. Depending on blade size and accuracy they can be driven by hand or a mallet (Figure 5.5-11). The carving knife has a short lengthwise blade, while gouges are sharpened crosswise, with longer blades that are either curved, hooked, or V-shaped. A set assorted shapes can be used to start. * '''[[w:Card_scraper|Cabinet (Card) Scrapers]]''' - Used with a '''[[w:Burnisher|Burnisher]]''' to create a sharp burr for scraping a fine surface on hard or difficult grained wood. * '''[[w:Wood_finishing|Wood Finishing]]''' - Sandpaper and sanding blocks are in List 1 above, but additional grain sizes and different backings like cloth are useful. Once the wood pieces or assembled item is the final shape, there are many finishing methods for appearance or to protect it. Tools like brushes and cloth pads can be used to spread the finish and remove excess. Applying finishes can be messy and involve toxic solvents and media. Workshop dust can contaminate the finish before it dries. So a separate finishing area with ventilation, drop cloths, and personal protection like gloves and filter masks are desirable. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;Modern portable tools can use a power cord or batteries, with the choice depending on convenience, power level, and running time. List 2 included some basic portable power tools. Additional ones include: * '''[[w:Router_(woodworking)|Routers]]''' - The portable type has a fixed base and uses a variety of bit sizes and shapes, for cutting wood and other materials. If the router did not come with them, you should get at least a basic set of bits. The '''Plunge Router''' has a spring between motor and base, allowing vertical bit movement while working. * '''[[w:Sander|Sanders]]''' - There are many types of power sanding devices, both portable and stationary, which work faster than hand sanding. Some sanding accessories be mounted on other tool types like electric drills or bench grinders. The portable Belt, Detail, and Orbital types belts and disks with different grain fineness. One palm or belt sander with a assorted abrasives is enough to start. * '''Hand Planer''' - Uses a rotating cutting blade to flatten surfaces similar to hand planes. * '''[[w:Dowel|Dowel]]''' and [[w:Pocket-hole_joinery|Pocket Hole Jigs]]''' - Accessories used with an electric drill to accurately position holes. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' &emsp;These larger machines can work faster and more accurately by using built-in or accessory guides. The built-in table or work surface can be enlarged with extension tables, and side supports like sawhorses and rollers can be used to stabilize larger wood pieces. * '''[[w:Table_saw|Table Saw]]''' - A circular saw blade and motor mounted under a table, with adjustments to height and tilt. They generally have fences and other accessories to control the movement of the item past the blade. Compared to the portable circular saw in List 2 they are generally more powerful with a larger depth of cut, and easier to set up for repetitive cuts on multiple parts. A bench-top version may be enough for lighter projects, but should be secured while in use. Larger versions have a stand or cabinet. Different blades are available depending on what is being cut. * '''[[w:Jointer|Jointer]]''' - is similar to the power hand planer in having a rotating blade, except it is below the wood, and the wood moves rather than the tool. A fence is used to guide the wood, and some can be set at other angles than perpendicular. * '''Thickness Planer''' - Pulls a board with rollers between a flat table and rotating knives. It produces boards with flat and parallel surfaces. If you don't have a jointer to produce one flat surface, you can use a flat sled with the board shimmed and hot-glued to it to flatten one side with shallow cuts. * '''Sanders''' - Stationary sanders use a variety of abrasive belts, disks, cylinders, and drums. Some types will feed the work through the machine, but most require manually moving the work to the abrasive surface. A medium combination belt and disk sander is a good starting point. * '''[[w:Bandsaw|Bandsaws]]''' - use a loop of metal with teeth as the blade, running over two or more motor-driven wheels. They come in a variety of sizes from bench-top to floor-mounted, with different width and height capacity and motor power. Different blades are available for various cutting tasks. [[File:Holzdrechsel.jpg|thumb|right|640x425px|Figure 5.5-12 - Woodturning lathe.]] * '''[[w:Woodturning|Woodturning Lathe and Accessories]]''' - Turning makes symmetrical wood shapes mainly using a wood lathe (Figure 5.5-12) and long-handled chisels, gouges, and scrapers. Various holding devices are used with the lathe, according to the size and shape of the item being turned. Finishing operations like sanding can also be done while the piece is still mounted. * '''[[w:Scroll_saw|Scroll Saw]]''' - A reciprocating saw with a vertical narrow blade in tension, capable of cutting intricate curves. Get a set of assorted blades if not provided. * '''[[w:Drill#Drill_press|Drill Press]]''' - This is an electric drill mounted to a column and base, with an adjustable table. Compared to a portable drill they are more powerful and accurate. There are many sizes and variations, with the chuck axis-to-column distance being a key measurement since it sets the maximum distance a hole can be from the edge of a part. :&emsp;A very basic '''Drill Stand''' mounts a portable drill vertically, but this is only suitable for light work. An 8 inch (200mm) bench-top press is a better starting point. The frame is more rigid and the drive belt lowers speed and increases torque for a given motor. Smaller machines should be clamped or bolted to a stable surface. Larger versions are floor-mounted, and some can move and tilt the drill head for better access. * '''[[w:Router_table_(woodworking)|Router Table]]''' - This mounts a portable router, usually below the table surface, or can be a dedicated machine. Typically it has guide fences, and allows moving the wood through rather than moving the tool. This helps with doing multiple pieces of the same kind. * '''[[w:CNC_wood_router|CNC Wood Router]]''' - uses motors to move the cutting tool along defined axes, under computer control. This is useful for doing complex or repetitive patterns. The table can be any size, but ones large enough to cut quarter, half, or full sheets of plywood are common. * '''[[w:Dust_collector|Dust Collection System]]''' - A simple version is a wet/dry '''[[w:Vacuum_cleaner#Wet/dry|Shop Vacuum]]''' on wheels which is brought to whatever machine is being used. The machines may have fittings installed for the vacuum's hose. A more advanced version has pipes installed around the workshop that lead to a larger stationary vacuum system that has a separator for dust and larger chips. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 9 - Metal Fabrication</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;This list covers basic metal fabrication, This type of '''[[w:Metalworking|Metalworking]]''' involves forming, cutting, and joining thinner metal pieces where high accuracy is not required. Larger and thicker pieces require heating to shape or cast. Ceramics also require high temperatures, so we group them with blacksmithing and foundry work into List 10 (Hot Work). Machine Shop Work (List 11) can produce highly accurate finished parts, but needs a different set of equipment than the ones here. A given project may need some equipment from all three lists. Basic metal work needs many or all of the basic equipment from Section 3.0, such as workbenches and vises. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;The '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=Metalworking&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22available_to_borrow%22&and%5B%5D=lending___status%3A%22is_readable%22 Internet Archive]''' lists about 50 general books on metalworking which can be downloaded or borrowed for 14 days. You can find additional works using more specific search words like "welding" or "sheet metal", then selecting for "Always Available" and "Borrow for 14 days". Other types of reference and training sources, like paper books, instructional videos, and classes are also available. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' &emsp;'''[[w:Metal|Metal]]''' is of course required for metalwork. By far the most common type is '''[[w:Steel|Steel]]''', which is iron with a little carbon added, and optionally other elements to make a particular '''[[w:Alloy|Alloy]]'''. Scrap and auto salvage yards, recycling stations, and discarded appliances are cheap sources for basic metals. Auto and other types of repair shops may have scrap bins. Retailers like home improvement, hardware, and online stores stock some metal and fasteners. Dedicated metal and industrial suppliers have larger selections and can be found in most cities. Other items besides metal stock include: * '''[[w:Arc_welding#Consumable_electrode_methods|Consumable Electrodes]]''' - These are rods or wire used to fill joints and make weld beads, with a flux added protect from oxidation. * '''[[w:Sandblasting#Media|Abrasive Blasting Media]]''' - a wide variety of materials are used in blasting operations besides the sand from which it got its name. * '''Fasteners and Other Hardware''' - Some of these are the same as for woodworking and other projects, but machine screws, bolts, and rivets tend to be used more with metal. ::'''Shop Furniture''' * '''Steel Welding Table''' - with magnetic welding squares, for grounding and magnetically clamping workpieces. This is in addition to a basic workbench. It should be located away from combustible materials. * '''Portable Welding Screens''' - to protect other people and equipment from sparks and UV light. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''[[w:C-clamp|Welding Clamps]]''' - The ordinary C-type clamp can be used, but ones with a deeper throat distance or locking jaws with flat tips are useful for welding. * '''Chain Vise or Clamp''' - Uses a flexible chain to hold round or irregular objects in place. * '''[[w:Metalworking_hand_tool|Forming Tools]]''' - Also known as "auto body tools", since that is a common use for them. These include various shape hammers and metal or wood blocks, but also specialty slappers, spoons, dollies and forming bags to create complex curves or flatten sheet metal. The tools used by jewelers and blacksmiths work similarly, but are smaller and larger respectively. * '''[[w:Bending_(metalworking)|Bending Tools]]''' - This includes hand bar, strip, and tube benders for lighter metal. * '''Blind Riveter and Rivet Set''' - for setting expanding or solid '''[[w:Rivet|Rivet]]''' fasteners. * '''Scriber and Ink''' - for accurate marking for cutting and drilling. * '''Soapstone Pencils''' - for marking metal when welding, since it is heat resistant. * '''Chipping Hammer & Stiff Wire Brushes''' - for removing slag and cleaning surfaces while welding. The hammer head has one sharp point side and often a chisel edge on the other. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' '''WARNING''' - Many types of welding produce harmful UV light, fumes, and hot sparks, and all produce a lot of heat. You should therefore have suitable goggles, face mask, respirator, gloves, cap, and heat-protective clothing like gloves and aprons. Some welders require dedicated or upgraded electric power to operate. Electric types have shock risk, and all types have fire risk. Work areas should be well ventilated against fumes and heat build-up. Basic welding machines include: * '''[[w:Spot_welding|Spot Welder]]''' - for sheet metal. Melts a small area by resistance heating. * '''[[w:Flux-cored_arc_welding|Flux Core Arc Welder]]''' - also called "Shielded Metal Arc Welding" (SMAW) a light-duty A.C. unit with sticks or spool feed is enough to start working with thicker steel sections. * '''[[w:Gas_metal_arc_welding|Gas Metal Arc Welders]]''' - These use a separately supplied inert shielding gas like CO2 or argon. There are a number of types. MIG uses a consumable weld wire as the electrode, while TIG uses a tungsten electrode and a separate stick or wire weld feed. * '''[[w:Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting|Torch Welders]]''' - These use a fuel-air or fuel-oxygen torch. The hot flame melts the material, into which a weld rod can be fed. Torches can also be used for rough cutting. These require gas tank supplies, but can work where enough electricity isn't available. A friction or long-handled lighter is needed. * '''[[w:Plasma_cutting|Plasma Cutters]]''' - Use a highly heated gas to cut most materials. Smaller ones are portable, and larger computer-controlled ones (CNC) are stationary with a support framework and water bath below. * '''Power Shears & Nibbler''' - Shears work scissors, while nibbler punches through metal, and can work from an interior starter hole. * '''Impact Drivers & Wrenches''' - These tools accept hex-shank bits and square drive sockets respectively. They apply rotary blows to the chuck or socket for extra tightening and loosening forces. Bits and sockets should be designed for impact use to prevent breakage. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''[[w:Abrasive_saw|Abrasive Saw]]''' - Also called a '''Chop Saw''', it is used to cut hard materials like metal, tile, and concrete. Smaller jobs can use an abrasive blade in a circular saw, or an angle grinder. The larger bench version protects the motor from metal dust, and can clamp the material for higher accuracy. It can cut thicker angle, bar, and pipe stock to length. * '''[[w:Abrasive_blasting|Sand Blaster]]''' - Uses compressed air to blow high velocity sand or other media at a surface to clean or finish it. The stationary version has a cabinet and collection system to contain the debris. The effect is similar to paper and wheel abrasives, but can be used for larger and more intricate items. * '''[[w:Brake_(sheet_metal_bending)|Brakes]]''' - are used to bend sheet metal. The finger type can bend and fold selected parts of an edge. These come in hand and powered versions depending on size and thickness of the bend. * '''Sheet Metal Shears''' - In addition to the left, straight, and right compound hand snips, and portable power shears and nibblers, the stationary '''[[w:Shear_(sheet_metal)|Sheet Metal Shears]]''' can handle larger and thicker sheets. This includes the bench, foot, power and compound throatless types. * '''[[w:Roll_bender|Roll Benders]]''' - can form cylindrical and conical shapes using three rollers that are either parallel or with one at a slight angle. * '''[[w:Machine_press|Machine (Shop) Press''' - For applying large forces for bending, shaping, or setting fasteners. Arbor presses use gears for mechanical advantage, while hydraulic presses use fluid pressure. '''[[w:Ironworker_(machine)|Ironworkers]]''' are heavy duty machines using hydraulic or flywheel power to cut, punch, or shape thicker materials while cold. Hot work equipment from list 10 is used to soften metals when cold work becomes too difficult. * '''[[w:Parts_washer|Parts Washer]]''' - This can range from a simple utility sink or tub to more complex units with a pump and spray system. Used to clean dirt, grease, and other contaminants from metal parts before working on them. * '''Hydraulic Pipe & Bar Bender''' - More powerful than hand benders for thicker bars, tubes, and pipes. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 10 - Hot Work - Blacksmith, Foundry, and Ceramics</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''CAUTION''' - All of these involve high temperatures, so either an outdoor or specially designed indoor area should be used. Good ventilation and fireproof/heat-protecting clothes are needed. &emsp;These types of hot work share the need for a high temperature furnace, kiln, or forge. They can share equipment, or at least share a working area designed for the heat, so we group them into one list. '''<u>Blacksmithing</u>''' [[File:Fort_Jackson_2012_-_panoramio_(23).jpg|thumb|right|400x600px|Figure 5.5-13 - Blacksmith's forge and leg vise.]] &emsp;'''[[w:Blacksmith|Blacksmithing]]''' is the general term for shaping thicker and heavier metal pieces while hot, but also for working iron and steel particularly. There are specialty names like '''[[w:Tinsmith|Tinsmith]]''' and '''[[w:Silversmith|Silversmith]]''' for working other metals either cold or hot. A minimal starter set requires a heat source (forge/furnace), a gripping tool to hold the hot metal without getting burned, a hammer, and a thick piece of unheated (and therefore hard) metal (anvil) to hammer the softened hot metal on. While basic work can be done with general-purpose tools, blacksmith's tools are specialized for this purpose. In addition to the special tools, basic ones like chisels and punches are also used. * '''Forge/Furnace''' - A '''[[w:Forge|Blacksmith's Forge]]''' (Figure 5.5-13) burns a bed of coal or charcoal to reach high temperatures. '''[[w:Industrial_furnace|Furnaces]]''' are insulated chambers with a door or opening that use use propane, natural gas, electric coils or induced currents for heating. '''[[w:Fire_brick|Fire Brick]]''', made from minerals with high melting points, are commonly used as liners in both, although natural clay will work with more heat loss. Fire brick is only moderately insulating, so it is sometimes backed with other materials like mineral fiber blankets to reduce heat loss. :&emsp;The forge or furnace structure is typically steel or common brick, which are fireproof. A variable air supply increases combustion rate and temperature for fuel-powered versions. Forges and furnaces can be bought, but assembling one from common items like sheet metal, fireplace bricks, and hair dryers is not difficult. Judging the metal temperature by color is important, so a shaded area is typically used. Impurities in coal smoke are toxic, so good ventilation is needed when using it. [[File:Turaidas_muižas_kalves_darbarīki.jpg|thumb|right|640x480px|Figure 5.5-14 - Blacksmith's tongs (center left) and other tools.]] * '''Tongs and Rakes''' - Blacksmith's tongs (Figure 5.5-14) have long handles with high leverage. Their length keeps hands out of the heat, and leverage is needed to hold heavy metal pieces. A variety of jaw shapes are used to fit the piece being picked up. For very heavy objects, an integral handle or the object's length keeps one end cool enough to grip. It gets removed later. Small rakes and shovels, which can be self-made, are used to remove coal ash (clinkers), or to move solid fuel around and over the piece. [[File:Hammer_collection_(49844506846).jpg|thumb|right|640x427px|Figure 5.5-15 - Various hammer types.]] * '''Hammers''' - These come in various sizes and shapes for hand shaping the heated metal (Figure 5.5-15). They include the simple one-handed square-head '''[[w:Sledgehammer|Sledgehammer]]''', '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer|Ball Peen]]''', and other '''[[w:Ball-peen_hammer#Variants|Wedge]]''' or flat heads. Section 3.0 already included some hammers. For blacksmithing a one-handed sledge and two sizes of ball-peen are enough to get started. For heavy-duty work, trip hammers use a foot pedal to raise and then drop a heavier hammer, and power hammers use motors and flywheels, or hydraulics, to produce greater forces. * '''Anvils and Blocks''' - '''[[w:Anvil|Anvils]]''' are heavy steel blocks shaped specifically for blacksmithing. '''[[w:Swage_block|Swage Blocks]]''' have various holes, indentations, and grooves to hammer into. They are often used with complementary hammers. These specialized tools are fairly expensive. Any heavy piece of steel can be used to start with, such a length of scrap railroad track, square or cylindrical blocks, or a section of thick plate. All of these should be mounted at a comfortable height on a stable impact-resistant stand. A vertical log buried partway into soil or a tree stump still in place are traditional methods. [[File:Silversmithing_anvils_and_hammers.jpg|thumb|right|400x600px|Figure 5.5-16 - Hammers and forming stakes.]] * '''Stakes''' are various shapes attached to a rod or bar which fit into a hole in an anvil or metal plate (Figure 5.5-16). For example used steel balls from a '''[[w:Ball_mill|Ball Mill]]''' welded to a bar can be used for compound curves. Straight pins inserted into a plate can be used for bending, typically with a length of pipe for leverage. Since blacksmiths make metal items, they can make some of these themselves. * '''Leg Vise''' - This is a large sturdy vise with a leg that extends to solid ground (Figure 5.5-13). This allows heavy hammering or bending without damaging the workbench or other support it is attached to. Either the workpiece or a shaping tool can be clamped in the vise. * '''[[w:Quenching|Quenching]] and [[w:Tempering_(metallurgy)|Tempering]]''' - the former rapidly cools workpieces in liquid, which results in a different crystal structure than slow cooling. Tempering is moderate heating of steel to control hardness and toughness. Annealing is heating metal enough to remove '''[[w:Work_hardening|Work Hardening]]''' and allow more shaping without cracking. Containers with fluids or sand, and controlled-temperature ovens are typically used for these processes. '''<u>Foundry</u>''' &emsp;'''[[w:Foundry|Foundry Work]]''' - '''[[w:Casting_(metalworking)|Casting]]''' metal involves melting then pouring into a prepared mold to cool. Depending on the metal it can require higher temperatures than blacksmithing, which only requires heating to soften it. In addition to a furnace, basic equipment needed includes: * '''[[w:Crucible|Crucibles]]''' - Containers designed to hold heated or melted materials. Some have handles, but many are simple bowl shapes, sometimes with lids. These require special tongs or lifting tools to insert and remove from the furnace, and pour molten material. * '''Casting Molds''' - There are many types of molds. '''[[w:Sand_casting|Sand Casting]]''' uses a parted box filled with damp sand mixed with a bonding agent. Patterns and additional cores are pressed between the box parts, then removed. This leaves a void the shape of the desired casting, and holes for the metal to pour in and hot gases to escape. * '''[[w:Pattern_(casting)|Patterns]]''' - These are replicas of the desired cast shape. They are typically made of wood, metal, or plastic if intended to be reused in sand casting. Other methods like '''[[Investment_casting|Investment]]''', '''[[w:Lost-wax_casting|Lost Wax]]''' and '''[[w:Die_casting|Die]]''' casting use different types of molds and pattern materials. '''<u>Ceramics</u>''' &emsp;'''[[w:Ceramic|Ceramics]]''' are shaped at room temperature, then heated in an enclosed furnace to make their shape permanent. Typically they use inorganic materials like clay. It takes time to first remove water with moderate heat, then reach the required high temperatures and slowly cool to avoid breakage. So furnaces are generally either thick-walled or insulated to reduce heat loss. [[File:Four_poterie_Sevres.jpg|thumb|right|410x599px|Figure 5.5-17 - Updraft Kiln.]] * '''[[w:Kiln#Ceramic_kilns|Ceramic Kiln]]''' - A type of furnace for longer-term heating than metal casting. '''[[w:Pit_fired_pottery|Pit Firing]]''' requires only a hole in the ground and fuel, but can't reach the higher temperatures of a kiln. '''Updraft Kilns''' (Figure 5.5-17) have a lower chamber for fuel, with an air supply. Combustion gases then go to an upper chamber with the ceramics, and finally to a chimney to draw air upwards. Simple ones can be made from clay, optionally lined with firebrick. A first firing will then harden the kiln. Enclosed gas or electric kilns can be purchased. To start with or for small amounts, it may be easier to find a community arts center that already has a kiln. * '''[[w:Potter's_wheel|Potter's Wheel]]''' - typically a lower flywheel and upper table spun to mold clay on the upper surface with hands and tools. It is used for the main shaping of symmetrical objects. They may be powered by feet directly, a pedal and crank, or electric motor. ::'''Parts, Materials, and Supplies''' &emsp;Hot work needs clays and glazes for ceramics and metals for smithing and casting. '''[[w:Molding_sand|Molding Sand]]''' is needed for sand casting, and machinable wax for lost-wax casting. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 11 - Machine Shop Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Machine_shop|Machine Shops]]''' until recently practiced "Subtractive Manufacturing". This is removing some of the material to turn unfinished items into finished parts. Modern '''[[w:3D_printing|3D Printing]]''' uses the opposite method of "Additive Manufacturing", where material is added to make a finished part. Both depend on accurate tools and machines in order to produce accurate parts. Accurate parts, in turn, are needed in machines where they must fit together, or move and rotate for long periods of time. &emsp;While some machine shop work can be done with hand tools, the majority is usually done with special-purpose machines, which are themselves mostly made using other machine tools. One way to obtain accuracy is using thick and rigid machine tool parts. This makes them heavy. So the workshop needs a suitably strong floor, such as a thicker concrete slab or deep individual foundations for some machines. ::'''Reference Material''' &emsp;Many websites, books, and videos be found with search terms like: machine shop, machine tools, machinists, and the individual names of tool and machine types. A public example is '''[https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/tc9_524.pdf Fundamentals of Machine Tools, US Army, 1996]'''. &emsp;When starting out, older books focus on the simpler and less expensive tools of that time, so are useful despite their age. Modern computer-controlled (CNC) machines, and those that are larger or have more features, are typically more expensive, need more room, power, and heavier floor support. Learning about these can be postponed until needed. ::'''Shop Furniture''' * '''Heavy Duty Workbench''' - Building and maintaining machines involves heavy metal parts. So one or more suitable workbenches are needed when the machines or their parts don't stand directly on the floor. Some have a metal plate top for durability, but for smaller and more delicate parts a wood top can be used. * '''Storage''' - Like other crafts and project types, machine shop work requires storage for parts, materials, and supplies, and in addition hand tools, cutting bits, and machine tool accessories. Nearly all of this will be metal, which is heavy, so storage should be very sturdy. :&emsp;Precision measuring tools need dust-proof storage with soft liners to avoid damage. They often have custom cases for this purpose. Cutting tools should be stored in a way they don't damage each other and other tools, so loose in a drawer or box is not recommended. They can be wrapped in cloth, or use racks, dividers or individual boxes to keep them apart. ::'''Holding Tools''' [[File:ViceBench-insetSoftJaws.jpg|thumb|right|640x444px|Figure 5.5-18 - Machinist's Bench Vise on metal-top workbench with brass insert at upper right.]] * '''Bench Vise''' - One or more heavy duty vises are typically mounted to the workbench with the jaws overhanging the edge, so that tall items can be clamped. Various inserts are used to hold different shapes, or are made of softer materials to not damage the item (Figure 5.5-18). Some vises have a small built-in anvil. If any hammering is to be done on the vise, it should be mounted over a bench leg. * '''Machinist's Clamps''' - Machine tools often have slots in their tables in the shape of an inverted "T". Inverted bolts and specialty '''[[w:T-slot_nut|T-slot Nuts]]''' can be inserted, then bars and other clamping devices can be bolted down. '''Toolmaker's Clamps''' have parallel-jaws and two screws to hold items together. These would be in addition to the vise and other clamps from previous sets. [[File:TruLockMachineVice.jpg|thumb|right|640x378px|Figure 5.5-19 - Machine vice with angle scale bolted to mill bed.]] * '''Machine Vise''' - is bolted to a machine tool to hold a part while being worked on (Figure 5.5-19). These are either plain or have rotation and tilt motions. Often used with other clamps and fixtures for precise positioning. * '''[[w:V-block|V-Blocks]]''' - with clamps are used to hold round or irregular shapes when drilling or cutting. * '''Setup Blocks''' - Often 1x2x3 and 2x4x6 inch sizes for ease of setting up exact positions. These can either be plain or drilled and threaded. * '''[[w:Parallels_(engineering)|Parallel Bars Set]]''' - To support work above vise jaws or at offset positions while staying parallel to the machine table. Often used in combination with other setup blocks. * '''[[w:Angle_plate|Angle Plate]]''' - Used to hold a part at a measured angle to a machine table. * '''[[w:Magnetic_switchable_device|Magnetic Holders]]''' - have a switchable magnetic field to temporarily hold an item in a fixed position, typically for taking measurements, centering, or machining. They are an alternative to clamps and vises, but care should be taken that they have enough holding force for the task. ::'''Measurement Tools''' &emsp;'''[[w:Machinist|Machinists]]''' use a wide variety of measuring tools to produce accurate parts and machines. Some machines have built-in scales and devices, but separate tools are often needed. They are often more accurate versions of basic measuring tools. * '''[[w:Scientific_calculator|Solar Scientific Calculator]]''' - For general calculations. Some machinist calculations involve trigonometry and circular areas, so it should have these higher functions. The solar cells avoid needing to replace batteries. It should also be protected with a case or be stored in a clear plastic bag. * '''[[w:Machinist_square|Machinist Squares]]''' - These include plain right angle squares in different sizes, and combination squares for centering and angle setting. These are more solid and accurately made than the same tools for woodworking. * '''[[w:Radius_gauge|Radius]]''' and '''[[w:Feeler_gauge|Feeler Gauges]]''' - Radius gauges use a bright light to detect if a part matches the curve of the gauge. Feeler gauges are made to accurate thicknesses to measure small gaps. * '''[[w:Thread_pitch_gauge|Thread Pitch Gauge]]''' - Has leaves with tooth profiles to determine the size of threads on an existing part. * '''Taper Gauge Set''' - These have sloped widths or thicknesses with a scale. Sets have several pieces to cover a wider size range. * '''[[w:Wiggler_(tool)|Edge and Center Finders]]''' - Also called "wigglers" after how they work. Used to find the center or edge of a part, after which a precise offset can be set with a machine's handwheel or digital readout. * '''[[w:Micrometer_(device)|Micrometers]]''' - These use a calibrated screw for accurate measurements. They come in different size ranges and for outside, inside, and depth measurements. Start with a 0-1 inch/25 mm outside micrometer and add others as needed. * '''[[w:Bore_gauge|Bore Gauges]]''' - The telescoping type have a pair of heads that expand to measure inside diameter or width. Used with a micrometer to set or read their width. * '''Thread Wire Measuring Set''' - Uses two wires on one side and one on the other plus a micrometer to accurately measure the size of a threaded part. * '''Toolmaker's Dividers''' - with rigid legs and spring. To transfer measurements and draw arcs on inked parts. * '''Calipers''' - a more accurate version than the basic one from Section 3.0. * '''[[w:Indicator_(distance_amplifying_instrument)|Indicators]]''' - Dial or digital, with magnetic base. Measures distance from a reference surface to a probe. * '''[[w:Surface_plate|Surface Plate]]''' - Highly accurate flat surface, typically granite or cast iron. Used as a reference surface for other measuring tools, setups, and marking of parts before cutting. * '''[[w:Engineer's_spirit_level|Machinist's Level]]''' - A precision spirit (bubble) level for leveling machine tools and other surfaces. * '''Adjustable Parallels Set''' - spanning 0.375-2.25in (10-50mm), for measuring and setting exact widths and offsets. * '''[[w:Gauge_block|Gage Block Set]]''' - Highly accurate blocks which are stacked to produce exact lengths. Typically used to check the accuracy of other measuring devices rather than direct use. * '''[[w:Sine_bar|Sine Bar]]''' - This is two accurate cylinders connected to a bar so that exact angles can be calculated or set by the mathematical sine of a triangle formula. * '''[[w:Coordinate-measuring_machine|Coordinate Measuring Machine]]''' - an advanced and often automated machine to measure the physical geometry of an object. * '''[[w:Optical_comparator|Optical Comparator]]''' - a device to magnify and project the profile of a part so it can be measured. ::'''Marking Tools''' * '''Industrial Marker''' - These use heat and oil-resistant ink for marking and layout. * '''Layout Fluid & Brush''' - For more durable layout marks. Either commercial, or a denatured alcohol/shellac/fabric dye mix. * '''Scriber, Carbide Tipped''' - For scratching lines onto metal parts. * '''Prick and Center Punches''' - Prick punches are smaller and used for marking exact points on a part. Center punches are heavier and struck like chisels to make a starter hole for drill bits. * '''Transfer Punches''' - These come in sets of different diameters, and are used to transfer the centers of one or more holes from one part to another. * '''Steel Straight Edge''' - An accurately made flat bar for scribing lines onto a part, and checking flatness with a light held behind it. Commercial flat bar stock may be enough to start with, but precision ones made for the purpose will be more accurate. ::'''Assembly Tools''' &emsp;Basic assembly tools like screwdrivers and socket wrenches were included in Section 3.0. Some '''[[w:List_of_screw_drives|Additional Specialty Tools]]''' may be needed to maintain or adjust machine tools such as the '''[[w:Torx|Torx]]''' type. Some of these allow higher torque, which can be useful when building new projects. ::'''Cutting and Abrasive Tools''' * '''[[w:Tap_and_die|Tap and Die Sets]]''' - Includes handles and individual taps and dies. Used for cutting matching inside and outside screw threads. * '''[[w:Reamer|Reamers]]''' - Hand and Expanding. Uses tap handle for turning. Finishes a hole to an exact size. * '''[[w:Drill_bit#Center_and_spotting_drill_bit|Center Drill Bits]]''' - Used in a lathe to drill a center hole in the part for the '''[[w:Tailstock|Tailstock]]''' to fit into. * '''[[w:Center_gauge|Center Gauge]]''' - used to guide grinding thread-cutting tools to the right angle and then mount them perpendicular to the part. * '''[[w:Hand_scraper|Hand Scrapers]]''' - Used with or to make surface plates and produce precision surfaces. ::'''Stationary Subtractive Machines''' [[File:Sharp_3_Axis_Vertical_Mill_Full_View.jpg|thumb|right|358x599px|Figure 5.5-20 - Vertical milling machine with manual positioning, electronic readout, and Kurt machine vise to hold parts being milled.]] * '''[[w:Milling_(machining)|Vertical and Horizontal Milling Machines]]''' - (Figure 5.5-20) These are described by the rotating axis of the tool head. Movements can be manual or computer (CNC) controlled. Vertical mills are typically smaller and lower power. A compound (2 axis) slide table added to a medium drill press may be enough to get started, but a floor-mounted mill will be more accurate and can handle larger parts. Desktop CNC mills can be used for small items, but are lower power and therefore slower. [[File:Tornio_piccolo.jpg|thumb|right|640x407px|Figure 5.5-21 - Small Bench Lathe.]] * '''[[w:Metal_lathe|Metal Lathe]]''' - These are heavier and more powerful than wood-cutting lathes, with higher accuracy. They are described by the maximum diameter and length of the parts they can work, such as 7x14 inches. A small bench-top one (Figure 5.5-21) may be enough to start. Larger ones require custom tables or are floor-mounted. Lathes can be manually or computer (CNC) controlled. Combination machines exist that do both milling and lathe work if space is at a premium * '''Lathe & Mill Accessories''' - Lathes and mills use a variety of '''[[w:Cutting_tool_(machining)|Cutting Tools]]''' and need specialized holding tools (noted above) for the items being worked. The cutting tools are held with '''[[w:Chuck_(engineering)|Chucks]]''', '''[[w:Collet|Collets]]''', and '''[[w:Spindle_(tool)|Spindles]]''' due to the high forces involved. They are often particular to a given machine or machine size. A '''[[w:Rotary_table|Rotary Table]]''' or '''[[w:Indexing_head|Indexing Head]]''' allows allows positioning items at precise angles. :&emsp;Industrial machine tools use cutting oils to remove heat and chips. For small projects a brush or oil can and hand application may be enough. For larger ones a steady feed of oil and chip removal is needed. Oil can be filtered and reused, but metal chips are sharp and should be carefully disposed of. CNC type machines need a computer and suitable software to prepare the series of instructions, or directly control them. * '''[[w:Drill#Geared_head|Industrial Drill Press]]''' - These are larger and heavier than woodworking drill presses, typically floor mounted with gear rather than belt drives. Some come equipped with cross-slide or rotating tables, or these can be added as accessories. Others have radial and tilt heads for large and heavy parts where it is easier to move the head than the part being drilled. One or more sets of metal-cutting drill bits with different diameters and lengths are needed to start with. * '''[[w:Bandsaw#Metal_fabrication_shop_and_machine_shop_models|Horizontal Metal Bandsaw]]''' - For cutting larger metal bars or blocks to length. In contrast to the wood saws, the metal is clamped in place while the cutting blade slowly pivots down. * '''Vertical Heavy-Duty Bandsaw''' - For rough cutting curved metal sections by moving them through the saw. This can be a woodworking bandsaw with a metal-cutting blade, or a more powerful one. It is suitable for thinner and lighter metal pieces. For larger and heavier items, they are held stationary while a portable cutting tool is moved through them. * '''[[w:Surface_grinding#Equipment|Surface Grinder]]''' - Produces flat surfaces by moving a part horizontally under a grinding wheel. * '''[[w:Electrical_discharge_machining|EDM Machine]]''' - Electrical discharge machining uses sparks across an insulating fluid to remove material and shape a part. * '''[[w:Laser_cutting|Laser Cutter/Engraver]]''' - uses a focused high-power laser to cut or ablate material, often under computer control. There are various types and sizes of machines. ::'''Additive Machines''' &emsp;'''[[w:3D_printing|3D Printing]]''' is a category of methods and machines that make parts by adding material under computer control. There are now a '''[[w:3D_printing_processes|Variety of Such Machines]]''' in various sizes that "print" different materials by different methods. Some methods are better suited to industrial use, and others for home use. Part resolution can be as small as 10 nanometers, and other machines work on a large enough scale for '''[[w:Construction_3D_printing|Building Construction]]'''. A related set of methods involve spraying material onto an existing surface. Examples are '''[[w:Spray_painting|Spray Painting]]''' and '''[[w:Thermal_spraying|Thermal Spraying]]'''. The spray is often directed by hand, but can be done by machines under computer control. &emsp;Printed parts often need additional finishing steps, like removing printed supports that were needed during printing but not afterwards, or sanding to smooth sometimes uneven surfaces. Which types of additive machines are needed depends on the materials you want to use, and the speed, size, and accuracy required. Due to the wide variety of processes, machines, and purposes, we don't list individual machines. Instead, we recommend looking at some '''[https://archive.org/details/inlibrary?query=3D+printing Reference Sources]''', then investigate available machines. &emsp;Most printers need a computer file describing the part to be made. They can be made yourself using suitable software, or use existing ones made by others. Depending on the printer, they may need a separate computer to send commands, similar to how office printers work with paper. Otherwise they may have the control computer built-in and only need the part file delivered to it. &emsp;When starting out, it may make sense to use a commercial printing service, as they only need the computer file to make a part. Open-source printer designs and kits are available. They are less expensive, but require doing some or all of the work of building them. Already built '''[[w:Comparison_of_3D_printers|Printers]]''' are available new for as little as a good portable power tool, but supplies of printing material can be expensive if you are making many parts. ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">7.0 - Outdoor Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;This section covers projects where the work or the finished items are mostly located outdoors. It includes yard work, gardening, digging and landscaping, forestry, and farming. Aside from location, they share somewhat overlapping sets of tools, so consider other lists than the primary category you are interested in. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 12 - Yard Work</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;A '''[[w:Yard_(land)|Yard]]''' commonly means the area of land surrounding a house, typically in suburban areas. In urban areas, residences may have little or no yard area. Properties larger than a few acres (1 hectare) can be called "acreage" if mostly undeveloped, and a large house with lots of outside improvements on multiple acres is called an '''[[w:Estate_(land)|Estate]]'''. This list covers items for self-maintenance of suburban yards, or maintenance of yards for others on a small-business scale. &emsp;Typical yards have live items like grass, some trees, and decorative plants and ground cover. They can also have a variety of constructed items like paths, fences, storage sheds, decks and patios. Most of these need some degree of cleaning and maintenance for appearance and to meet local rules. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Brooms and Dustpans''' - For sweeping paved areas and picking up the resulting piles. Includes Wide push, upright sweep, and wide dustpan. * '''Rakes''' - Leaf, Bow, and Thatch types. * '''[[w:Edger#Manual_lawn_edgers|Lawn Edger]]''' - A manual tool used to keep grass and roots from encroaching on paved or other types of surfaces. * '''[[w:Hedge_trimmer|Hedge Trimmer]]''' - Large scissors or pruning shears used to trim hedge plantings or decorative bushes. '''Pruning Shears''' have shorter blades, usually curved, with more leverage for cutting thicker or harder stems. * '''[[w:Wheelbarrow|Wheelbarrow]]''' - A single or dual-wheel cart with handles for general moving of bulk or heavier items. The wheel(s) carry most of the weight while steering and pushing with the handles. Most have a sloped tray so they can be emptied by tilting vertical. * '''[[w:Hatchet|Hatchet]]''' - A combination tool with a sharp blade on one side and a hammer head on the other. An example use is trimming a branch to make a stake then pounding it in. * '''[[w:Loppers|Lopper]]''' and '''Pruning Saw''' - Loppers have long handles with short blades, sometimes with compound action. Can cut saplings and branches up to 2 inches (5 cm) for the largest version by working around the stem until severed. Pruning saws are hand saws with teeth designed to cut living wood, and can cut somewhat larger branches in crowded areas. Large branches should be cut partway from below with two cuts removing a wedge, then finished from above. This prevents a split from damaging the main stem or trunk, and makes a more controlled fall for the branch. * '''[[w:Polesaw|Polesaw]]''' - A pruning saw attached to a pole to reach higher without a ladder. Many have a levered pruning blade with a cord, to cut smaller high branches. * '''[[w:Garden_hose|Garden Hose]]''' - For delivering water where needed in a yard. A simple spray or pistol nozzle is enough to start, but there are a number of other special purpose attachments. Rubber grommets are used to prevent leakage. * '''Containers''' - '''[[w:Bucket|Water Buckets]]''' and smaller containers can be used to transport small amounts of water. '''[[w:Fuel_container|Fuel Containers]]''' are needed for machines and devices that use them. Other yard supplies like fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides can be toxic. They either come with a container, or can be stored in suitable boxes and bags. ::'''Portable Power Tools''' &emsp;Outdoor power tools can be electrical, using either a power cord or internal batteries. Corded tools generally need outdoor-type extension cords of sufficient length and wire gauge for the required distance. Battery types typically need a matching charger for removable batteries. Portable generators and inverters connected to a vehicle can supply power at greater distances than extension cords. Other outdoor tools have combustion engines that require fuel or a fuel/oil blend, and some need separate lubricating oil. The choice among power types depends on cost, convenience, noise level, and required power level. * '''[[w:Leaf_blower|Leaf Blower]]''' - uses high-speed air to move leaves and other debris away from buildings and pavements or into piles. Mower blades act like a fan, and with a side discharge can both chop up and blow leaves into piles or rows for pickup. * '''[[w:String_trimmer|String Trimmer]]''' - Cuts grass and weeds around obstacles or edges of a yard, without damaging other items. Some types accept other accessories for different tasks. Alternately herbicides, woven or sheet weed barriers, and solid objects can prevent growth in unwanted areas. * '''Power Hedge Trimmer''' - Typically use a reciprocating blade that slides against stationary fingers. Does similar tasks to hand hedge shears and pruners. * '''[[w:Pressure_washing|Pressure Washer]]''' - Uses high pressure water, sometimes with additives like soap, to clean exterior surfaces. Some have different angle nozzles and adjustable pressure. * '''[[w:Brushcutter_(garden_tool)|Brush Cutter]]''' - The hand-carried type has more power than a string trimmer and accepts accessories like circular saw blades to cut thicker items. A '''[[w:Brush_hog|Brush Hog]]''' has wheels or is mounted to a larger machine, and functions like a heavy-duty lawn mower. ::'''Mobile Equipment''' * '''[[w:Lawn_mower|Lawn Mower]]''' - Uses blades to cut larger areas of grass to an even height. Most modern ones are powered. Smaller ones are walk-behind and either pushed or are self-propelled. Larger '''Riding Mowers''' have a seat and steerable wheels. Some types have a bag to collect grass clippings, and may have a side discharge to blow the clippings away from the blades. Even larger '''Lawn Tractors''' are powerful enough to tow wagons or mount other attachments. These start to overlap in function with small agricultural tractors with a mowing attachment. :&emsp;The type of mower to use depends on the area to be mowed, coverage speed, cost, noise level, whether it is for personal or commercial use, and what obstacles have to be worked around. For example, with '''[[w:Zero-turn_mower|Zero-Turn]]''' mowers the drive wheels rotate at different speeds/direction, and the other wheels swivel in any direction. This allows maneuvering in tighter spaces. ::'''Materials, Parts, and Supplies''' * '''[[w:Mulch|Mulch]]''' - A layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It can be applied around structures, plantings, and trees to make maintenance easier, conserve moisture, improve fertility, reduce erosion, and for looks. Ground covers can be artificial, like landscape fabric, inorganic like gravel, organic like wood chips, or living plants which are close to the ground. Organic mulches can be self-made on-site from items like fallen leaves and branches which are shredded or composted. * '''[[w:Lawn#Lawn_care_and_maintenance|Lawn Maintenance]]''' - Depending on the current and desired condition of a yard, this can include adding topsoil, organic material, sand, and other soil additives to improve its quality. Additional supplies include grass seed, fertilizers, pest controls, and herbicides. It can be much easier to work with the natural soil and climate conditions than to force a specific lawn type. For example, a grass/clover mix can self-fertilize since clover can fix nitrogen from the air. Other ground covers, perennials, shrubs, and trees may be less work to maintain. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 13 - Gardening</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Gardening|Gardening]]''' is distinguished from general yard work by intentionally planting and growing plants for food or aesthetic reasons. Yard work is more basic exterior maintenance to suppress weeds, maintain access, and reduce vermin. There is overlap between the two, but gardening typically has more specialized tools. &emsp;This is a very popular activity, so there are many reference sources, suppliers, organizations and groups, and outside help such as '''[[w:Agricultural_extension|Agricultural Extension]]''' education. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''Garden Trowel''' - a small pointed shovel designed to use with one hand. * '''Hand Cultivator''' - small single hand, or long handle two hand types. They have several curved tines for breaking up soil or pulling weeds by the roots. * '''Hand Weeder''' - any of several tools to sever deeper roots or cut weeds near the surface. * '''Draw Hoe''' - has a blade set crosswise to the handle. It is intended to chop into the ground and then pulled or levered. Can be one or two-handed, with various blade shapes. Narrow blades are for hard soil, while wider ones can move looser soil. * '''Scuffle Hoes''' - The '''Hoop''' or action type has a cross blade more parallel to the handle, often sharpened to cut roots near the surface. '''Linear''' hoes have blades parallel to the handle and can cut roots without disturbing adjacent soil. * '''[[w:Garden_fork|Garden Fork]]''' - has around four sturdy tines set parallel to a D-ended handle. They are driven into the soil and then levered to loosen or lift it. The '''[[w:Pitchfork|Pitchfork]]''' has a longer straight handle and slightly curved tines. It is used to pick up and throw loose material rather than drive into the ground. * '''Bulb Planter''' - has pivoted cylinder halves and a serrated bottom to cut and lift soil for planting bulbs and other plants, then replacing the soil to cover them. * '''Wheel Hoe''' - A narrow wheel attached to handles, on which a hoop blade and other attachments can be mounted. It is useful where longer rows of soil need to be worked. * '''Root Cutter''' - any of a number of serrated tools designed to cut thicker roots. The shovel type has a chisel bottom edge and toothed sides, and is stepped on for cutting force. The one hand type have hooked saw blades or a toothed trowel shape. The shovel and trowel types are first used to expose the root before cutting. ::'''Stationary Equipment''' * '''Garden Shed''' - This is a building near a garden to store tools, equipment, and materials. It may also include a workbench for maintenance and tasks like potting plants. * '''[[w:Raised-bed_gardening|Raised Beds]]''' - are enclosed areas of soil above ground level set up for any of a number of reasons: easier access, erosion control, eliminate compaction by not walking on the soil, and others. * '''[[w:Garden_structure|Garden Structures]]''' - These are other structures like walls, fences, trellises, greenhouses, stakes, and wire mesh. They are used for weather and sun control, to keep out animals, and to support growing plants. The simplest gardens use none of these and must accept the yield losses. This may be less than the cost and work of building structures, and simply planting more to reach the desired yield. ::'''Mobile Equipment''' &emsp;For larger gardens and heavier soils, hand tools will take too long or are too hard to use. Wheeled power equipment, either electric or combustion engine, can handle the needed soil preparation. For new gardens, this includes breaking up the soil, removing excess rocks, grading for drainage, and mixing in soil amendments. It may make sense to hire the people and equipment for the heavier one-time tasks. Categories of equipment include self-powered walk-behind, and attachments to larger riding mowers and garden tractors (List 12). * '''[[w:Cultivator#Garden_cultivators|Garden Cultivator]]''' - walk-behind machine for breaking up and mixing soil using rotating tines. * '''Dump Cart''' - Two wheel cart attachment with a tilting bed. For moving larger amounts of material than a wheelbarrow or with less labor. * '''[https://brinly.com/product-category/ground-engaging/ Ground-Engaging Attachments]''' - These are used with larger garden tractors to turn and break up soil. They include a plow, cultivator, and harrow. ::'''Supplies''' * '''Water, Light, and Temperature''' - All plants need enough of these in the right amounts to grow. The easiest way to do this is selecting plants suited to the climate. For example '''[[w:Hardiness_zone|Hardiness Zones]]''' are mapped out by minimum annual temperature, and various information sources will list which zone(s) a given plant is suited for. &emsp;If natural conditions are unsuited, they can be modified artificially. There are many ways to do this from simple watering cans to complex irrigation systems, removing or adding items for shade and temperature control, and artificial lights. * '''[[w:Compost|Compost]]''' - is decomposed plant, food, and other organic material. It is used to fertilize and condition soil. It can be bought or made on-site from garden and other sources. Composting takes time, so making it involves an open pile or suitable container. * '''[[w:Seed|Planting Stock]]''' - Many plants grow from seeds, which can either be purchased, or obtained from previous generations of grown plants. Other forms of '''[[w:Plant_propagation|Plant Propagation]]''' don't require seeds, but need a previously existing plant, or parts from it, as starting material. * '''[[w:Fertilizer|Fertilizers]]''' - Besides the basics of water, light, air, and usually soil, plants need a variety of other nutrients to grow. If they can't obtain them from the available soil or water sources, they have to be added. General additions of fertilizers, based on knowledge of the soil and what given plants need can be helpful. More specific recommendations can come from '''[[w:Soil_test|Soil Tests]]'''. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 14 - Landscaping</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[[w:Landscaping|Landscaping]]''' is the intentional change of visible features of land. A landscape typically includes non-living features like steps, walls, and fences, and living items like grass, trees, ground cover, and ornamental plants. &emsp;Landscaping overlaps with yard work, gardening, and construction. Yard work is more concerned with maintaining an existing landscape, and gardening is focused on growing specific plants rather than all the land. Building construction often disturbs the land, requiring landscaping to restore it, and uses heavier equipment for excavation and contouring the land. Construction can also install utilities and equipment later needed in a landscape such as water and electric. &emsp;'''[[w:Landscape_architecture|Landscape Architecture]]''' is concerned with the design of landscapes. As a profession it is related to '''[[w:Architecture|Architecture]]''', which is concerned with structures. You can hire professionals for complex projects, but most home and small business projects don't need that level of training. '''[[w:Landscape_design_software|Landscape Design Software]]''' is available to help design and visualize projects. Many '''[https://archive.org/details/texts?query=Landscaping Books]''' and other reference sources are available on this subject. ::'''Hand Tools''' * '''[[w:Shovel|Shovels]]''' and '''[[w:Spade|Spades]]''' - These are variations of the general tool type used for digging and moving bulk material. A shovel has a rounded and more angled blade and is used at a lower angle. It is more suited for picking up and moving loose material. A spade has a flatter and in-line blade and is used vertically for trenching and other straight-sided digging. One general-purpose long-handled shovel is enough to start. Other variations can be added as needed. * '''[[w:Earth_auger|Earth Auger]]''' - The hand version has a wide screw or two curved vertical blades, with a T-handle for leverage. It is only suited for smaller holes in soil. * '''[[w:Digging_bar|Digging Bar]]''' - A long metal bar with various shaped ends, used to break up, pry, and tamp soil and rock, using their weight and thickness, and using repeated impacts or leverage. One about chest to head height with flat and pointed ends to start. * '''[[w:Pickaxe|Pickaxe]]''' - T-shaped tool with sturdy pointed and flat ends of the head. The swing motion allows more impact force than a digging bar, and is used for similar tasks. * '''[[w:Mattock|Cutter Mattock]]''' - Similar to pickaxe but has lengthwise and crosswise blades suited to exposing and cutting roots. * Post Hole Digger and Post Pounder * Soil Tamper * Power Auger ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 15 - Forestry</u></span>=== &emsp; * Hand Axes - Felling Axe for cutting trees, smaller Camp axe for trimming and notching branches. * Saws - '''[[w:Bucksaw|Bucksaw]]''' for cutting smaller logs to length. The '''[[w:Bow_saw|Bow Saw]]''' typically has a narrower blade and smaller frame for branches and working in tight spaces. The electric or fuel-powered '''[[w:Chainsaw|Chainsaw]]''' is for cutting larger trees down and to size. '''WARNING''' all serious timber cutting is very dangerous due to powerful machines with exposed teeth, and the weight of falling or shifting trees and branches. It should never be done alone or without some training. Methods like anchor ropes/chains can pull down trees from a safe distance. If you are at all unsure, hire professionals with the right equipment and experience. * Bark Tools - Spud, Bark Scraper/Pry Bar, Power Debarker ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 16 - Farming</u></span>=== &emsp; ==<span style="font-size:x-large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;">8.0 - Construction Projects</span>== &emsp; &emsp;Construction generally follows a sequence of steps, some of which may be skipped if not needed. The exact order of tasks depends on the design and access needed, so the lists in this section are not a strict sequence, but rather grouped by trade and skills. The main steps include: * '''Plans and Permits''' - Before physical work, design of the project, including making sure outside access and utilities will be available, what site features currently exist that may need to be changed or worked around, then obtaining needed permission such as building permits. * '''Site Work''' - This includes clearing, surveying, marking out, grading, compacting, and excavation, and providing temporary utilities and sanitation if needed. * '''Substructure and Foundations''' - These are the items that end up at or under ground level when complete, such as drainage, utility lines, and the building foundation. * '''Main Structure and Large Items''' - Walls, floors, roof, external doors and windows; and also items like heating and ventilation systems and bathtubs that are too large to install later. * '''Internal Utilities and Services''' - These are items like electrical and plumbing that will later be hidden by finished walls. * '''Finishing''' - The final surfaces, cabinets, interior doors, fixtures, and appliances that will be visible and used. &emsp;How many of the steps you can do yourself vs hiring contractors depends on your skills, crew size, and how often you expect to do it. Earlier work like excavation generally needs larger and more expensive equipment than later steps like finishing. So when starting out in construction we suggest contracting out the bigger steps. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 17 - General Construction</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Besides basic tools from Lists 1 and 2, some general equipment is used across multiple phases of construction projects. We try to list those here, and more specialized items in the later lists. ::'''Measurement Tools''' * '''[[w:Chalk_line|Chalk Line]]''' - For marking out straight lines by snapping a chalked string against a surface. * Measuring Tapes & Wheels - 10-100m (30-300 foot) Tapes for measurements and layout. * Transits - Builder's and Surveyors, for vertical and property measurement. * Mason's Twine - Light string to mark edges and horizontals with minimal stretch and sag. * Bullhorn * Portable Radios * Rubber Boots * Cold Weather Gear * Folding Chairs * Coolers - Drink, Food * Tables - Plan, Portable * Extension Cords, Multi-Plug Adapters, & Power Strips * Work Lights * Water Pump - Trash type. For removing water after rain or from holes. * Drop Cloths & Tarps - Painter's (Canvas, Plastic), Vinyl Cargo, Polyethylene * Weather Protection - For workers and worksites. Can be manufactured, or rigged from tarps, lumber with nails or screws at one or both ends as poles, anchor ropes, and either heavy objects like concrete blocks or ground stakes/anchors to secure the ropes. * Cleanup - Brooms, dust pans, trash cans & bags (can also use empty boxes) * Extension Poles - for tools and props * Fans - Box, Pedestal, Drum * Inverter and Portable Generator * Warning cones, signs, safety and erosion fencing, security equipment, safety vests * Seam Roller - has multiple uses for roofing, carpet, and wallpaper. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 18 - Carpentry</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Carpentry includes wood framing, roofing, structural metalwork, fireplaces, and drywall. Drywall is typically left until after internal utilities and services are installed. * Hammers - '''[[w:Framing_hammer|Framing Hammers]]''' are larger and heavier than claw hammers, for driving large nails into wood-frame construction. * Nail Guns - Assorted sizes. These drive nails with electric or air power, when large numbers or faster work is desired. * Drywall Square * Drywall Saw * '''[[w:Glass_cutter|Glass Cutter]]''' - for trimming window and other glass to size. ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 19 - Masontry & Concrete</u></span>=== &emsp; * Hammers - Brick, Engineer, Sledge * Chisels - Assorted types and sizes Brick, Concrete, Mason, Stone, Tile, Star Point. Hand protectors & Offset Holders as needed * Trowels - Pointing, Brick, Rectangular * Mortar Hoe - with holes to aid mixing * Mixers - Hand, electric blade, wheeled or trailer electric or fueled for larger amounts. Very large amounts typically use mixer truck delivery. * Mud Tray and Hawk - for holding smaller amounts of mortar for troweling * '''SDS Type Hammer Drill''' - ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 20 - Plumbing</u></span>=== &emsp; * Pipe and Tubing Cutters * Pipe Threading Taps & Dies - ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 21 - Electrical</u></span>=== &emsp; * '''Insulated Screwdrivers''' - To prevent electrical shocks. Generally power should be off while doing electrical work, so this is a safety measure in case it accidentally isn't. * '''Electric Circuit, Outlet, and Breaker Testers''' ===<span style="font-size:large; font-family:'Georgia', serif;"><u>List 22 - Finishing</u></span>=== &emsp; &emsp;Construction finishes are the final visible parts of a building after the structural, mechanical, and hidden utilities are installed. ::'''Finish Carpentry''' &emsp;This includes interior doors, cabinets, countertops, closet interiors, wood flooring, baseboards, and moldings. ::'''Paint and Wall Coverings''' * Combination and Razor Scrapers * Hand Sander * Can Hook & Key * Paint Brushes & Comb * Roller Tray & Liners, Roller Handles, Roller Brushes, * Paints and stains as needed per job. * Wallpaper Paste and Smoothing Brushes * Trimming Wheel - To trim or cut wallpaper to size, especially once pasted to a surface. ::'''Plumbing and Electrical Fixtures''' &emsp;This includes items like sinks and faucets, wall outlets, ceiling lights, and built-in electronics. It also includes installing built-in and free-standing appliances. ::'''Flooring and Tile''' &emsp;This includes flooring other than wood, such as carpet, sheet, and floor tiles. It also includes other tile work such as kitchens and bathrooms. * Caulk Gun * Putty Knives - Assorted sizes * Drywall Trowels - Narrow & Wide * Pole Sander * Floor Buffer * Floor Scraper </div> {{BookCat}} 000efs8px9ipf4q0ofsbcc5nnl8cu4q 4 359378 4095442 4095379 2022-08-23T15:14:37Z 146.189.182.8 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sandbox heading}} <!-- Hello! Feel free to try your formatting and editing skills below this line. As this page is for editing experiments, this page will automatically be cleaned every 12 hours. --> test inijag1c0u45ufxggsgzcvrwncrc4l3 4095445 4095442 2022-08-23T15:17:57Z 146.189.182.8 Undid revision 4095442 by [[Special:Contributions/146.189.182.8|146.189.182.8]] ([[User talk:146.189.182.8|discuss]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sandbox heading}} <!-- Hello! Feel free to try your formatting and editing skills below this line. As this page is for editing experiments, this page will automatically be cleaned every 12 hours. --> efa5udpbb942msq2oco4mlj2yz47q14 0 362263 4095737 3195534 2022-08-24T11:05:52Z Rich Farmbrough 9604 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{prognav|Perl|Numbers|Conditionals}} </noinclude> ==Comments== Comments should be used in your Perl script to help other developers who may look at your project later down the line understand what it is you have done. A comment can be made using the <tt>#</tt> key. Example: <syntaxhighlight lang="perl"> # This is commented out this is not commented out and is visible to the program meaning the program will try and interpret/compile it </syntaxhighlight> In some text editors, such as Sublime (link at the bottom), you can comment out large sections of code by highlighting the code and pressing <tt>ctrl+/</tt>. It doesn't matter what language you are coding in, if you have the file saved and sublime knows what file type it is, it will automatically put the right comment syntax in for you. This is useful, if you have not fully completed a function, for example and need to run/test the program. If you try running the program without commenting it out it will obviously throw an error (unless the function does do something, just not what you want it to). Commenting it out will mean that the program will not see the function and also means you don't have to delete it, meaning you can carry on right where you left off when you continue to edit. (To un-comment large sections in Sublime, just highlight the text and press the same keys). Comments are also a crucial part to declaring the file type, the authors name, the date the file was made and what it is the program is supposed to do. Developers will not respect your work unless you do this correctly and give them all the details they need. It should be written like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="perl"> #!/bin/usr/perl # Author: (your name) # Date : 2015-06-19 # Code to give an example to the wonderful Perl community on Wikibooks </syntaxhighlight> <noinclude> {{prognav|Perl|Numbers|Conditionals}} {{BookCat}} </noinclude> fzc1shslu37atvsd3h32e05pfi9353q 4095738 4095737 2022-08-24T11:09:21Z Rich Farmbrough 9604 /* Comments */ wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{prognav|Perl|Numbers|Conditionals}} </noinclude> ==Comments== Comments should be used in your Perl script to help other developers who may look at your project later down the line understand what it is you have done. A comment can be made using the <tt>#</tt> key. Example: <syntaxhighlight lang="perl"> # This is commented out this is not commented out and is visible to the program meaning the program will try and interpret/compile it </syntaxhighlight> In some text editors, such as Sublime (link at the bottom), you can comment out large sections of code by highlighting the code and pressing <tt>ctrl+/</tt>. It doesn't matter what language you are coding in, if you have the file saved and sublime knows what file type it is, it will automatically put the right comment syntax in for you. This is useful, to temporarily comment out a section of code, for example while you are re-writing its functionality, or if it is not yet ready to run. (To un-comment large sections in Sublime, just highlight the text and press the same keys). Comments are also a crucial part to declaring the file type, the authors name, the date the file was made and what it is the program is supposed to do. Developers will not respect your work unless you do this correctly and give them all the details they need. It should be written like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="perl"> #!/bin/usr/perl # Author: (your name) # Date : 2015-06-19 # Code to give an example to the wonderful Perl community on Wikibooks </syntaxhighlight> <noinclude> {{prognav|Perl|Numbers|Conditionals}} {{BookCat}} </noinclude> jiyfau6m1efsofp0nttv8g9u1f7162m 2 382752 4095485 4084831 2022-08-23T17:29:41Z PeterEasthope 660399 A page with the ETH Oberon license. wikitext text/x-wiki [[w:Wikipedia:Media_copyright_questions/Archive/2016/October#Compatibility_of_the_ETH_Oberon_license_with_CC-by-SA.|Compatibility of the ETH Oberon license with CC-by-SA]] evaluated by [[w:User:Seraphimblade|Seraphimblade]]. khjxkwyekzbvvyrqp8jnknlikjxbcng 4095492 4095485 2022-08-23T17:42:13Z PeterEasthope 660399 A page for the ETH Oberon license. wikitext text/x-wiki Refer to the evaluation by [[w:User:Seraphimblade|Seraphimblade]] of [[w:Wikipedia:Media_copyright_questions/Archive/2016/October#Compatibility_of_the_ETH_Oberon_license_with_CC-by-SA.|compatibility of the ETH Oberon license with CC-by-SA]]. ==ETH Oberon License== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| Formerly available from <nowiki>ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/license.txt</nowiki>. ETH Oberon Copyright (c) 1990-2003, Computer Systems Institute, ETH Zurich All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: o Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. o Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. o Neither the name of the ETH Zurich nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE ETH OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. }} 7937qkfnh30srat13ssrm570bmmkscj 4095495 4095492 2022-08-23T18:07:02Z PeterEasthope 660399 The ETH Oberon License. wikitext text/x-wiki Refer to the [[w:Wikipedia:Media_copyright_questions/Archive/2016/October#Compatibility_of_the_ETH_Oberon_license_with_CC-by-SA.|evaluation]] by [[w:User:Seraphimblade|Seraphimblade]] of compatibility of the ETH Oberon license with CC-by-SA. ==ETH Oberon License== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| Formerly available from <nowiki>ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/license.txt</nowiki>. ETH Oberon Copyright (c) 1990-2003, Computer Systems Institute, ETH Zurich All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: o Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. o Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. o Neither the name of the ETH Zurich nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE ETH OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. }} 71zjgsm3evrfmokuvqxsj6ulg6xsp8s 4095497 4095495 2022-08-23T18:26:22Z PeterEasthope 660399 wikitext text/x-wiki Refer to the [[w:Wikipedia:Media_copyright_questions/Archive/2016/October#Compatibility_of_the_ETH_Oberon_license_with_CC-by-SA.|evaluation]] by [[w:User:Seraphimblade|Seraphimblade]] of compatibility of the ETH Oberon license with CC-by-SA. ==ETH Oberon License== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| Formerly available from <nowiki>ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/license.txt</nowiki>. ETH Oberon Copyright (c) 1990-2003, Computer Systems Institute, ETH Zurich All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: o Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. o Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. o Neither the name of the ETH Zurich nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE ETH OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. }} [[Oberon/ETH_Oberon/License|ETH Oberon License]] 2twhmfa9jvrbx031i5wc5jgsiqa1ubq 0 383762 4095470 4095432 2022-08-23T16:22:42Z 2A02:C7C:BE51:5200:BCDC:B36E:A20C:EB11 wikitext text/x-wiki hi Andy I hope this is now suitable '''1.4 State why and when health and safety control equipment, identified by the principles of protection, should be used relating to types, purpose and limitations of each type, the work situation, occupational use and the general work environment, in relation to:''' '''– collective protective measures''' '''– personal protective equipment (PPE)''' '''– respiratory protective equipment (RPE)''' '''– local exhaust ventilation (LEV).''' ''1.4 Collective protective measures: include Risk assessments, COSHH assessments, Toolbox talks, method statements, hazard warning signs and Site induction. There are also safety measures on site such as handrails for protection where necessary. Signage and areas you are not allowed in will be clearly visible. All staff should be aware of safety measures and if not, new men to site should be informed at tool box talks.&nbsp;'' ''Purpose and limitations –are to ensure everyone is aware of the health and safety requirements on site, risks or potential hazards are limited where possible. Any hazards should be identified to all on site. New staff should be shown the risk assessments prior to joining site work. Increased knowledge will also increase chances of reducing injuries. &nbsp;Limitations: People not reading information available or following instructions.'' ''Personal protective equipment (PPE) consists of - Steel toe boots - Protect feet from stubbing toes falling objects, Hi visibility jacket to be seen, Ear defenders to protect hearing. &nbsp;Hardhat is worn to protect head from falling objects, banging head. Goggles essential to protect eyes, Gloves for hand or any finger injury reduction. Gloves should be particularly used for Joinery and cutting materials with power tools or sharp blades/ saws. &nbsp;PPE will not protect form all hazards, for example hard hats will only protect from some falling objects not very heavy objects, but they would hopefully take some of the impact.&nbsp;'' ''Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE) Dust masks self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Need to know limitations and use of each piece of apparatus. The right equipment will stop lungs breathing in harmful dust, toxic fumes and gases. Training is essential to use correctly and maintenance of all PPE must be maintained.'' ''Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) LEV is an engineering control system to reduce dust, mist, fume, vapour or gas in the workplace. It assists by extracting harmful toxic gases from the environment. LEV relies on power and will not work if there is a power cut.'' '''1.5 State how the health and safety control equipment relevant to the work should be used in accordance with the given instructions.'''&nbsp; ''1.5 All relevant health and safety equipment should be used in relevant work situations as stated in the health and safety regulations. Workers must be trained in using all equipment and maintaining their own PPE. New workers to site should be inducted and have tool box talks, if unsure how to use anything site foreman should be asked. What I would do if there was a changed circumstance or incident in work place: I would report it to my supervisor. How I would comply to environmental requirements: I would comply with the company policies and tool box talk instructions to dispose of waste and reduce dust and other pollutants. Switch off lights and equipment when not in use. Do not play radio loud as this can be distracting and can also stop people hearing if there is an incident.&nbsp;'' '''1.6 State which types of health, safety and welfare legislation, notices and warning signs are relevant to the occupational area and associated equipment.''' ''1.6 The health, safety and welfare regulations relevant to site work is the construction regulation 2013. warning signs are there to support the mandatory wearing of helmet goggles and safety boots. Some sites require high visibility garments. Others signs that could be seen; Scaffold not in use, moving vehicles or crane in use. Hazard signs include electric cable to avoid trips and falls hazards. Notices to visitors; to sign in usually in main office before site entry.&nbsp;'' '''1.7 State why health, safety and welfare legislation, notices and warning signs are relevant to the occupational area.''' ''1.7 Ensure workers, visitors and site personnel are kept safe and their health and safety needs are met. Sites should where possible include toilets and clean eating areas.&nbsp;'' '''1.8 State how to comply with control measures that have been identified by risk assessments and safe systems of work.''' ''1.8 Complying with control measures that have been identified by the risk assessments and safe systems of work is required to reduce injury to employees and risk of being sued to the employer. Risk assessments should be available and easily accessed by all involved. They should be discussed with staff on site.&nbsp;'' '''2.2 List typical hazards associated with the work environment and occupational area in relation to resources, substances, asbestos, equipment, obstructions, storage, services and work activities.''' ''2.2 Typical hazards associated with the work environment and occupational area in relation to the following are:&nbsp;'' ''Resources: materials too heavy to lift and lifting equipment not available can cause injury to back. Cuts to hands if gloves not worn whilst cutting or lifting difficult materials, scaffold unsafe causing falls, equipment poorly maintained, canteen not available or dirty.&nbsp;'' ''Work activities: not using correct lifting technique or equipment. Untidy work place leads to trips and falls, Bits going in eye when cutting with saw or tools. Injury to hands from cutting materials, Stubbing toes on stored materials.&nbsp;'' ''Substances: Dust from site or sawdust from wood cutting. Asbestos can be found in older buildings.&nbsp;'' ''Equipment: Noise from circular saw or hammer drills, routers etc.&nbsp;'' ''Obstructions: Obstructions can cause falls, and trips.&nbsp;'' ''Services: when removing materials on site or drilling walls there could be gas or electric piping. When digging out for foundations there are electrical and gas services that are hazards.&nbsp;'' '''2.3 List the current common safety risks.''' ''2.3 Current common safety risks are: For a joiner the biggest risks are injuries to the hands and loss of fingers. Injuries to back is common as there is a lot of heavy materials to lift, correct manual handling is essential. Sawdust in eyes is also common, reduced risk with protective goggles and PPE worn.&nbsp;'' '''2.4 List the current common health risks.''' ''2.4 Current common health risks are: Vibration finger due to machinery, hearing impairment, breathing issues due to dusty environments. Back pains due to position of working if in confined spaces. Skin cracks to hands in winter.'' '''2.5 State how changing circumstances within the workplace could cause hazards.''' ''2.5 Changing circumstances within the workplace can cause hazards due to: Employees on site not being aware of changes and potential risks. Employer not being aware of changes to change risk assessment and inform employees. Hazards may change as work progresses and staff should be updated regularly as should risk assessments.'' '''2.6 State the methods used for reporting changed circumstances, hazards and incidents in the workplace.''' ''2.6 Methods used for reporting changed circumstances, hazards and incidents in the workplace are:'' ''Updated risk assessments, toolbox talks, site meetings.&nbsp;'' '''3.6 State the organisational policies and procedures for health, safety and welfare, in relation to:''' '''– dealing with accidents and emergencies associated with the work and environment''' '''– methods of receiving or sourcing information''' '''– reporting&nbsp;''' '''– stopping work''' '''– evacuation''' '''– fire risks and safe exit procedures''' '''– consultation and feedback.''' ''3.6 The organisational policies and procedures for health, safety and welfare in relation to dealing with emergencies are to - stop work and contact site foreman immediately, everyone has a responsibility to report any accidents or near misses. If fire alarm starts or lights go out, making it dangerous to work, everyone must stop immediately. Evacuating the site leaving tools and going to nearest fire escape&nbsp;'' ''All men should be aware of fire risks and follow precautions to reduce risks at all times. Be aware of fire exits and plans for each building in case of fire.&nbsp;'' ''Site feedback book should be available to record any incidents Site manager should always be aware of any incidents. Site foreman and employees are responsible for ensuring they are aware of site safety procedures.'' '''3.7 State the appropriate types of fire extinguishers relevant to the work'''. ''3.7 Different types of fire extinguishers used in the workplace: CO2 for electrical fires, Water for wood and cloth. Foam for use on fuel fires'' ''Water extinguishers have a red band and are for wood, paper, textile, solid materials fires.'' ''Blue band extinguishers are for electrical fires and varnishes, flammable liquids. They use dry powder foam. &nbsp;'' ''Black carbon dioxide extinguishers are also used on electrical fires.'' '''3.8 State how and when the different types of fire extinguishers are used in accordance with legislation and official guidance.''' ''3.8 Extinguishers are used by releasing the pin, point at fire and press on the handle. Make sure not to endanger self or colleagues. Always assess fire and ensure feel can extinguish safely if not evacuate and call fire brigade immediately. Only trained people should use them.&nbsp;'' '''4.2 State how personal behaviour demonstrates responsibility for general workplace health, safety and welfare, in relation to:''' '''– recognising when to stop work in the face of serious and imminent danger to self and/or others''' '''– contributing to discussions and providing feedback''' '''– reporting changed circumstances and incidents in the workplace''' '''– complying with the environmental requirements of the workplace.''' ''4.2 You should stop work as soon as you see any sign of fire or concern and raise alarm.&nbsp;'' ''If fire alarm constantly rings go to nearest fire exit. Complete toolbox talk with site employees or attend if requested, If I did not understand anything I would ask questions.&nbsp;'' '''4.3 Give examples of how the behaviour and actions of individuals could affect others within the workplace.''' ''4.3 All employees behaviour on site could affect others, we should use power tools correctly, &nbsp;follow safety regulations and be aware of risk assessments and requirements. No fooling around in the workplace.&nbsp;'' '''5.2 State how security arrangements are implemented in relation to the workplace, the general public, site personnel and resources.''' 5.2 Security arrangements should be in the workplace for the general public they should not have access to a site that is unsafe, they would not have PPE, know the risks or safety requirements. Any site personnel should arrive on site and report to site manager, If unknown or visiting personnel they should give their registration for vehicle and give name, with arrival sign in and ensure aware to sign off site as they leave. Power tools should be stored in a secure container on site.&nbsp; <u>Unit no- QCF642 Conforming to &nbsp;Productive working practices in the workplace.</u> '''1.2 Describe the different methods of communicating with line management, colleagues and customers.''' ''1.2 Communicating with management can be through phone, face to face if urgent or difficult information to pass on, email, and completion of forms. Colleagues can communicate in the same ways. Customers should always be communicated with politely and listened to ensuring their needs understood. Customers can also be communicated through advertising online, posters and phone calls.'' '''1.3 Describe how to use different methods of communication to ensure that the work carried out is productive.''' ''1.3 Productive work relies on good communication with all site staff, employees should be aware of job sheets and expectations. Time lines assist with work to be completed and expectations of customers. Site meetings and method statements assist with communication and achieving productivity.'' &nbsp; '''2.3 Describe how organisational procedures are applied to ensure work is planned and carried out productively, in relation to:&nbsp;''' '''– using resources for own and other’s work requirements''' '''– allocating appropriate work to employees''' '''– organising the work sequence- reducing carbon emissions.''' ''2.3 Always apply organisational procedures to ensure work is planned and carried out productively:&nbsp;'' ''Using resources for own and others work requirements by ensuring job accurately measured to see time that will be required and materials that will be needed. Tools and materials should be made available as required.&nbsp;'' ''Site foreman usually allocates work to employees. They should understand employee’s knowledge and skill to ensure work allocated appropriately. If more men required, this should be communicated to foreman and organised. Waste should be minimised by only ordering necessary materials and not having delays.&nbsp;'' '''2.4 Describe how to contribute to zero/low carbon work outcomes within the built environment.''' ''2.4 Contributing to zero/low carbon work outcomes within the built environment can be achieved by the selection of appropriate raw materials. Always turn off equipment when not in use. Reduce waste always measure twice and cut once!'' '''3.2 Describe how to complete and maintain documentation in accordance with organisational procedures, in relation to:''' '''– job cards''' '''– worksheets&nbsp;''' '''– material/resource lists''' '''- time sheets.''' ''3.2 Job cards assist with complying to organization procedures by telling personnel about what is required and where, setting expectations and requirements. Jobs should be completed on the date assigned, clearly completed and signed appropriately. Time sheets should be completed by employees as they tell managers how many hours worked each week and ensure correct wages paid; they should be completed and handed directly to site foreman.&nbsp;'' '''3.3 Explain the reasons for ensuring documentation is completed clearly and within given timescales.''' ''3.3 Documentation should be completed accurately and within set timescales to ensure the job runs smoothly and safely. The site manager should be aware of progress and any issues.'' '''4.3 Describe how to maintain good working relationships, in relation to:''' '''– individuals.''' '''– customer and operative.''' '''– operative and line management.&nbsp;''' '''- own and other occupations.'''&nbsp; ''4.3 Good working relations are maintained in relation to the following in these ways:'' ''Individuals- knowing expectations and being informed.&nbsp;'' ''Customers can receive Emails, photos/plans/pictures and drawings. &nbsp;Site meetings. Ensuring informed means happy with work or ability to raise concerns timely.'' ''Regular site updates will create good team work as everyone clear of expectations.'' ''Understanding each other’s skills within professions, helps maintain good working relationships.&nbsp;'' '''4.4 Describe why it is important to work effectively with line management, colleagues and customers.''' ''4.4 It is important to work effectively with line managers, colleagues and customers to ensure expectations met, the job is completed within set timescales. Everyone is aware of progress, any issues and completion timescales.&nbsp;'' '''4.5 Describe how working relationships could have an effect on productive working.''' ''4.5 Working relationships have an effect on productivity as poor relationships can hinder progress. Cause slow working inaccurate completion of jobs and unhappy customers. Leads to poor communication amongst employees.'' '''4.6 Describe how to apply principles of equality and diversity when communicating and working with others.''' ''4.6 Principles of equality and diversity, when communicating and working with others can be achieved by knowing site employees, their background, skills, knowledge, and personal requirements. Everyone should be treated fairly.'' <u>Unit QCF643 Moving, Handling and Storing Resources in the workplace.</u> '''1.3 Describe the different types of technical, product and regulatory information, their source and how they are interpreted.''' 1.3 Different products come with their own technical and product information. These must be read and followed at all times. This information lets the user know of anything specific to ensure safe use, moving and storage of product. Technical information is often about the safe use of the product. If information not readily available can also be found on line for most products or gained from seller or manufacturer. &nbsp; '''1.5 Describe how to obtain information relating to using and storing lifting aids and equipment.''' ''1.5 Information related to using and storing lifting aids should come with the manual for the equipment. This is often attached to the equipment or stored in office; Staff should also attend training regularly and not be allowed to use any equipment if they are not trained in its use.&nbsp;'' '''2.1 Describe their responsibilities under current legislation and official guidance whilst working:''' '''– in the workplace, in confined spaces, below ground level, at height, with tools and equipment, with materials and substances, with movement/storage of materials and by manual handling and mechanical lifting.''' ''2.1 Responsibilities under current legislation and official guidance whilst working:'' ''In the workplace in confined spaces you should ensure a safe clear working area as possible confined cluttered spaces can often be more dangerous. H&S at work regulations 1999 say that risk assessments should be completed for all work environments, this is important for confined spaces. The task, materials and tools required, suitability of completing the task in this environment and arrangements for emergencies should all be considered. Below ground level workers must use PPE and have breathing apparatus if required. They should have gas meter reading equipment for toxic gasses. Should always be two people and someone at ground level that knows you are there. Risk assessments should be completed prior to commencing. If working in trenches ensure sides are propped safely. Working at height- safety harnesses should be used. Risk assessment carried out as previously. Scaffolds should be used and PASMA qualified staff only to use scaffolding. Cherry picker should be used if appropriate. Method statements should be followed. All employees must be qualified and competent to use any tools. Movement and storage of materials is also managed by correct manual handling and safe storage guidelines.'' ''&nbsp;'' '''2.2 Describe the organisational security procedures for tools, equipment and personal belongings in relation to site, workplace, company and operative.''' ''2.2 Site security should be covered by the company. Night site operatives should be employed if risks remain at night. All tools should be stored safely and securely when not in use with lock boxes available. All personal belongings should be stored safely and out of the way.&nbsp;'' '''2.3 Explain what the accident reporting procedures are and who is responsible for making the reports.''' ''2.3 How to report an accident:'' ''• If injury happens, person must report to site foreman and put in book'' ''• If injuries can be tended on site first aider to support.&nbsp;'' ''• If serious injury ambulance or attendance at A&E may be required.&nbsp;'' ''• Serious injuries must be investigated by the site foreman or the company representative.'' ''• Measures should be put in place to reduce risk of similar injury occurring again.&nbsp;'' 2.4 See Q 3.7 QCF 641 these assessment questions have already been answered. 2.5 As above met in QCF 641 Q 3.8 3.4 See unit QCF641 Q 1.4 question already answered&nbsp; 3.5 This question has already been answered in QCF 641 question 1.5 4.2 Describe the characteristics, quality, uses, sustainability, limitations and defects associated with the occupational resources in relation to: Lifting and handling aids, Container, Fixing, holding and securing systems&nbsp; Characteristics Quality &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Uses Sustainability Limitations Defects Lifting and handling aids Buckets/wheel barrows&nbsp; Fork lift Trolley Plaster board lifter.&nbsp; Genie.&nbsp; Must be maintained to keep workable standard. &nbsp; specific uses otherwise quality cannot be guaranteed Lifting of heavy &nbsp;material. Used for transferring materials and equipment/tools etc Made of strong materials that should last a long time. Must be used correctly to secure and maintain safe use and durability Manufacturing instructions must be followed. If any defects found do not use Container Metal materials Strong durable quality Storage of materials/tools for security and safety Long lasting, material reusable Required in different sizes Lock breakages door hinges break Fixings Wall ties, retainers, screws Fixing inner and outer walls Screws are used to fix doors and windows. Retainers hold insulation in place Reusable materials Specific fixings for different tasks Usually strong lasting any defects do not use. 4.3 Describe how the resources should be handled and how any problems associated with the resources are reported. 4.3 Any resources should be used according to manufacturer’s instructions. With any problems reported to site manager and provider of resources. 4.4 Explain why the organisational procedures have been developed and how they are used for the selection of required resources. 4.4 Organisational procedures are in place to ensure material is selected and controlled to prevent theft, over ordering and stocking and to ensure enough materials are available to maintain productivity. It also ensures the correct materials for the job are used. All materials should be handled according to the manufacturer’s instructions and any risk assessments.&nbsp; 4.5 Describe any potential hazards associated with the resources and methods of work. 4.5 Potential hazards associated with the resources and methods of work include injury from tool use, falls trips and slips from risks on site, manual handling injuries through incorrect manual handling. Exposure to hazardous substances. Environmental risks associated to asbestos, mould and bacteria if not stored correctly prior to use.&nbsp; 5.4 Describe how to protect work from damage and the purpose of protection in relation to general workplace activities, other occupations and adverse weather conditions. &nbsp;5.4 All materials should be stored as recommended to avoid damage. Adverse weather to untreated timber is damaging. This will lead to a less than standard finish. If removing doors and windows of properties that are habited this must be planned around the weather to avoid damage to property and belongings. If unable to avoid weather tarpaulin could be used to protect property.&nbsp; 5.5 Explain why the disposal of waste should be carried safely in accordance with environmental responsibilities, organisational procedures, manufacturers’ information, statutory regulations and official guidance. 5.5 Disposal of waste should be carried out safely, Correct skips for recycling waste should be used, all waste should be stored safely and securely until collected. Ensure waste is moved correctly using PPE and lifting aids as required.&nbsp; 6.2 State the purpose of the work programme and explain why deadlines should be kept in relation to: – progress charts, timetables and estimated times– organisational procedures for reporting circumstances which will affect the work programme. 6.2 Progress charts are to show start and finish times of jobs. The building contractor has a contractual obligation to provide these charts. If there is no progress plan it would be difficult to manage the work as no one would understand the scheduling of events to ensure completion.&nbsp; 7.4 If resources are moved and stored differently I would need to ensure other colleagues aware, prior to me moving them and where they are moved to, this would then not disrupt their working and productivity.&nbsp; QCF628 v2 Setting up and using transportable cutting and shaping machines. 1.3 Describe the organisational procedures developed to report and rectify inappropriate information and unsuitable resources and how they are implemented. 1.3 If there was any information I have that was wrong or inappropriate I would inform my supervisor; he would then refer to site manager. I would then wait instruction on how to proceed. &nbsp;1.4 Describe different types of information, their source and how they are interpreted in relation to: – specifications, current legislation, method statements, risk assessments and manufacturer’s information 1.4 Describe different types of information, their source and how they are interpreted in relation to: Drawings show what is to be built some of it will be very detailed and may be to scale. It will have sizes of rooms and heights and instruct what materials to be used. Usually found in site office. Job specifications, is a written description of the quality of materials and details of any fixing and dimensions of the construction work to be used with drawings when building. Found in site office. Risk assessments, provide a process of identifying any potential risks that may be involved in an activity, referencing the risk assessment helps prevent accidents. Increases the understanding of potential risks. Found in site office. Method statements help manage the work ensuring necessary precautions have been shared with those involved. Method statements help reduce hazards by planning an operation. Found in site office. Schedules are used for listing repetitive items in a construction project, such as doors windows and their ironmongery, manholes, finishing to rooms, etc. Found in site office. A Manufacturer’s information can be found on the product itself and explains how the item should be handled or used. Local council offices regulate building developments and renovations.&nbsp; 2.1 Describe their responsibilities under current legislation and official guidance whilst working: – in the workplace, at height, in confined areas, with tools and equipment, with movement/ storage of materials and by manual handling 2.1 Whenever working on site anything that you think may endanger the health and safety of yourself, other persons or members of the public should be reported to the supervisor/site manager.&nbsp; Correct PPE should always be used as required by health and safety legislation.&nbsp; Manual Handling can be very dangerous when not carried out correctly, should always follow risk assessment as you do not want any trip hazards popping up when carrying heavy objects. Carrying equipment should always be used if weight above recommendations for personal lifting, and should only be used if correctly trained.&nbsp; Working below ground level there's a danger of being buried or crushed if the area working in collapses, there should always be someone working above ground who is able to raise alarm.&nbsp; When working on a scaffold you must be aware of falling over the edge, to reduce the potential risk of falling hand rails should be all around at a height of 950mm to prevent falling over the edge. 2.2 This has previously been answered in questions QCF 643 Q 2.2&nbsp; 2.3 This question has been answered in QCF 643 Q 2.3 2.4This question has been answered in QCF 641 Q 3.8 3.3 This question has been previously answered in QCF 641 Q1.4 3.4 This question has previously been answered in QCF 641 Q 1.5 3.5 This question has been previously answered in QCF 643 Q 3.6 4.2 Tools and equipment –Describing the characteristics, quality, uses, sustainability, limitations and defects.&nbsp; Characteristics uses Limitations Defects Sustainability Wood products /Doors Windows. Should be made from hardwood or softwood, machined correctly. Separate rooms, insulate/ fit into frames. Have to be correct measured size to fit openings. If not manufactured or stored correctly can bow and twist out of shape. All wood is sustainable. Sustainable sources should be found and used as a priority. Fixings, Screws, bolts, nails etc Made from metals, stainless steel etc. Should be rust proof if used for outside fixings. Used for fixing materials together. Only suitable for particular fixings wrong fixings will not hold as well as they should. Can come damaged and bent should not be used If correctly used should last a long time.&nbsp; Insulation Kingspan, compressed insulation. For insulating spaces usually loft space or wall space. Prevent heat escaping can also assist with sound proofing. Come in different thickness and sizes should be used appropriately No good if cracked or wet Can be made from recycled materials. Power tools Made from steel and plastic, rubber handles. Used for wood working, machining woods. Make machining wood much quicker than by hand, more efficient and if used correctly can be safer. Only as good as the tradesman using them. Often can develop faulty cables, or blades can become less effective. Require maintaining well to ensure long use. Do burn out depending on use. &nbsp;Some products have recyclable properties.&nbsp; 4.3 Describe how the resources should be used correctly, how problems associated with the resources are reported and how the organisational procedures are used 4.3 All resources should only be used in line with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Any defects should be reported immediately and the tools taken out of use and clearly marked as defective do not use.&nbsp; 4.4 Explain why the organisational procedures have been developed and how they are used for the selection of required resources. 4.4 Organisational procedures are used for the selection of required resources to ensure the correct materials are used for the job, the correct amounts are available to prevent over ordering and to monitor use to ensure theft of resources does not occur. All materials should be delivered as close to the area they will be required in as possible to reduce the need for manual handling unnecessarily.&nbsp; 4.5 Describe any potential hazards associated with the resources and methods of work. 4.5 If rules and regulations are followed injury from resources and materials could be reduced, such as slips, trips, falls over misplaced materials. Injury from over lifting weights that is outside capability. Health risks apply if PPE is not used correctly as previously stated. &nbsp;Injuries have the potential to be serious, dangers from working with materials and resources of this nature should not be underestimated.&nbsp; 4.6 Describe how to calculate quantity and length associated with the method/procedure to erect and remove specialist access equipment. 4.6 Calculating quantity and length associated with specialist access equipment is achieved by: I would specify to a scaffolding company how high, how long and how many lifts the specialist access equipment would be required to be. This would need to be within building safety requirements for specific task in hand. They would measure the height and length of scaffold required, ensuring steps are built into the scaffolding to comply with health and safety regulations. &nbsp;5.4 Describe how to protect work from damage and the purpose of protection in relation to general workplace activities, other occupations and adverse weather conditions 5.4 We protect timber and other materials to keep as dry as possible, to prevent twisting. When working in joiner’s shops all timber is stacked on metal shelving to keep straight. It must also be stacked safely and not too high so it topples over. Doors must always be stored flat on top of each other to stop twisting. If timber is used for outside purposes, it should always be treated first to prevent damage and make weatherproof.&nbsp; 5.5 Explain why the disposal of waste should be carried out safely in accordance with environmental responsibilities, organisational procedures, manufacturers' information, statutory regulations and official guidance. 5.5 If working on a site there should be different skips to put different waste into, this helps to ensure recycling of materials occurs. Company policy on waste management and recycling should always be adhered to.&nbsp; 6.2 Describe the purpose of the work programme and explain why deadlines should be kept in relation to: organisational procedures for reporting circumstances which will affect the work programme 6.2 The purpose of a progress chart is to show start and completion times of operations. These are contractual obligation and if they are not meet there can be financial penalties to the building contractor. The programme can identify problems or progress. It enables planning of materials plant and personnel and helps plan for remedial actions to get back onto schedule. Should there be a situation with resources that may cause delays to the work then we are to report to my supervisor immediately. 7.5 Describe how to apply safe work practices, follow procedures, report problems and establish the authority needed to rectify them, to: – check powered transportable cutting and shaping machines (fuel and electric mains/battery) for serviceability – check voltage requirements, safety cut offs and circuit breakers&nbsp; – set up machines in preparation for use – fix and secure work – select and ensure safety guards are in place in accordance with machine instructions – select accessories for the machine and the work – identify maintenance requirements for accessories. 7.5 Applying safe work practices Follow procedures Report problems Establish authority required to rectify Power tools Follow instructions Ensure trained to use Ensure blades are kept sharp, all leads have no splits. Safety guards are available and in good working order Ensure pat tested To site foreman first. Manufacturer if required Foreman Electrician to get pat tested.&nbsp; Manufacturer Voltage requirements Preferred 110 voltage for all power tools on site Competent to use tools, Ensure new staff aware of regulations As Above As above Set up machines in preparation for use Dust extraction kits to be used if required.&nbsp; Ensure automatic feeds are set correctly. Ensure check in good working order, guards in place, no lose wiring.&nbsp; Staff trained in set up and use. Follow manufacturing set up guidelines for each piece of equipment Ensure all equipment is maintained appropriately as per instructions. As Above As Above Fix and secure work Use G cramps to secure wood to bench. Health and safety procedures Ensure G cramps in working order. And secured properly Inform foreman if any problems.&nbsp; 7.6 Describe how to apply safe work practices, follow procedures, report problems and establish the authority needed to rectify them, to: – cut and shape materials to agreed tolerances – change saw blades: circular, chop, mitre, bench, jig, reciprocating, alligator and scroll – change accessories: drill bits, router bits, discs, planner blades, abrasives. – use templates, profiles and jigs – operate fixed machines – use tools, accessories and equipment – work at height – use access equipment. 7.6 Safety work practice is a set guideline to help workers perform tasks that may not require step by step procedure. They must be applied when cutting and shaping materials by ensuring guard rails are kept close to the saw blades, not exposing the saw. If changing blades, router bits etc always ensure power is turned off first. &nbsp;Ensure PPE is worn when handling blades and hazardous tools and material. Ensure trained in safe use of tools and changing accessories. When using templates, profiles and jigs you must make sure they are correctly cramped to work place. If work becomes lose this could be dangerous. When operating fixed machines, the same principles apply, ensure all blades and guards are fixed correctly. Ensure dust extraction is in working order when using fixed machines. Working at height increases risk of injury, use harness and hard hats as required. Make sure correct height adjusting equipment, ladders or scaffolding is set correctly. Problems with all of the above would be reported through site foreman and manager and written in site safety book. Any damaged equipment would be removed and labelled as not working.&nbsp; Site health and safety procedures are there for the safe management of staff on site. The procedures guide employees as they are a series of steps that guide you from start to finish of a job in chronological order. All employees must know site rules, attend tool box talks and understand the reporting procedures. &nbsp; 7.7 Describe the needs of other occupations and how to effectively communicate within a team when setting up and using powered transportable cutting and shaping machines. 7.7 When setting up and using powered transportable cutting and shaping machines it is important the team know how to effectively communicate and understand the needs of other occupations. This can be achieved by ensuring all aware of site management requirements, plans of completion and deadlines for each part of the job. Training sessions should be made available for all employees, toolbox talks should be held regularly and employees should be encouraged to attend. All machines should be pat tested, and within date. Each occupation has its own hazards, requirements, risks and timescales and all site staff should be made aware of them and updated regularly as situations change. &nbsp;All communication across different occupational teams should be polite and clear. 7.8 Describe how to maintain the tools, accessories and ancillary equipment used when setting up and using transportable cutting and shaping machines. 7.8 Before setting up and using any tools they should be completely checked to ensure they are in good working order and comply with site regulations. All safety guards should be in place and available, all wires/cords should be checked to ensure not damaged. The tools should be dry and ensured that they have not got wet in storage. Storage and maintenance of tools is important to assist with keeping them in good working order. Some tools require oil spraying and silicone spraying to ensure they run freely. QCF12 v2 Maintaining Non-structural Carpentry Work in the Workplace.&nbsp; 1.3 State the organisational procedures developed to report and rectify inappropriate information and unsuitable resources and how they are implemented. 1.3 The organisational procedures developed to report and rectify inappropriate information and unsuitable resources are access to site foreman, communication books and tool box talk events for sharing information, incident books. They are implemented across sites by all employees being aware they are available and having the responsibility to read and complete. &nbsp;All staff has good site training on how to comply with site rules and regulations. Ensuring how to access organisational procedures is the individuals and foreman responsibility.&nbsp; 1.4 Describe different types of information, their source and how they are interpreted in relation to: – specifications, current legislation, method statements, risk assessments and manufacturer’s information 1.4 Information to employees are available in many forms job specifications are available to inform employees of what is required to be completed and the tools required to complete. It may also have timescales. This is often given in paper form or can be made available through email. Current legislation for site management should be available to all staff on site in folders; it is also available on line. Every employee has a responsibility to know where to access legislation.&nbsp; Method statements would be made available by email or in paper form on site. They should be made available before job is started and agreed. Method statements identify the method of completing the tasks in hand.&nbsp; Risk assessments should be carried out if any risks are identified, sites will have common risks and specific risks to each site. Risk assessments are to identify risks and put the plan in place to minimise the risk by suggesting ways of minimising risk. Risk assessments are usually kept in site folders. All staff should be aware of how to access.&nbsp; Manufacturer’s information should be available on line if not available on site.&nbsp; 2.1 Describe their responsibilities under current legislation and official guidance whilst working: – in the workplace, at height, in confined areas, with tools and equipment, with movement/ storage of materials and by manual handling 2.1Responsibilities under current legislation whilst working in the workplace at height are that safe procedures should be used, the height should be risk assessed and if meets the needs for scaffolding this should be put in place, with barriers around at suitable height to prevent falls, If ladders used these should always be securely placed and have an extra person supporting at the bottom. I should never over reach of a ladder as this causes risk of falling. If working in confined spaces ensure safe, access and exit routes appropriate and easily achieved. Ensure safe to manoeuvre and use any tools in the confined space. Ensure someone aware you are there. Movement should not be restricted as this could cause manual handling injury or muscle injury due to poor positioning.&nbsp; 2.2 Describe the organisational security procedures for site security procedures for tools, equipment, and personal belongings in relation to site, workplace, company and operative 2.2 Organisational security procedures are there to maintain the security of site, tools, equipment and personal belongings, workplace, company and operative. &nbsp; They are available in many forms. All sites should be safe and locked when not in use, general public should not be able to access. If visitors do need to access in the day they should be seen at the site entrance office and not allowed to just enter unknown. Full PPE should then be provided as required. All tools and equipment should be stored safely and locked away when not in use, storage containers with sturdy locks should be made available. Tools and equipment left out can be very dangerous. Employees should be encouraged not to bring personal belongings on site, as a cluttered site is a dangerous one, however if they do it should be locked up and stored safely and securely. This provision should be available to employees. There should be a sign in and out book for all sites, all procedures should be available and followed, there are often site cabins available for personal storage and van checks can be carried out to ensure theft is not achieved. Each company will have its own procedures and employees should be informed of these as soon as they enter the site.&nbsp; 2.3 Explain what the accident reporting procedures are and who is responsible for making reports. 2.3 Accident reporting procedures are available on all sites; all incidents and accidents should be reported immediately. If injury occurs, injured party should be given first aid as soon as possible by the site first aider, assistance to attend emergency department should be given if required. The incident should be entered into the accident book by the injured party if possible, or the site foreman if not. Site foreman should be informed as soon as possible of all injuries.&nbsp; 2.4 This question has been answered in 3.7 and 3.8 in QCF 641.&nbsp; 3.2 This question has been addressed in QCF 641 Q 1.4, 1.5. Gloves protect fingers from splinters, saw and blade injuries. Ear protectors reduce the damage caused by loud machines and tools. Head protection is used in case anything should fall over and hit head. Dust mask should be used when cutting wood to reduce inhalation of sawdust and fine dust from cutting materials.&nbsp; RPE and LEV should be used on site when working in confined spaces with dust and sawdust specifically to reduce inhalation. Joiner’s shops should have specific ventilation to assist with reduction of air pollutants.&nbsp; Collective PPE should be used at all times as specified.&nbsp; 3.3 Describe how the relevant health and safety control equipment should be used in accordance with the given instructions. 3.3 All health and safety control equipment comes with manufactures use guidelines; these should be followed at all times. Instructions should be available at all times to staff. Staff should have appropriate training to ensure they know how to use correctly.&nbsp; If unsure or instructions not available seek advice.&nbsp; 3.4 State how emergencies should be responded to in accordance with organisational authorisation and personal skills when involved with fires, spillages, injuries and other task-related hazards 3.4 Personal response to hazards and incidences: &nbsp; Fires – Raise alarm first, fire should be tackled with appropriate fire extinguisher if small enough to make a difference and feel can do so. If you hear fire alarm and the alarm is continuous go to nearest fire exit, leave all tools and equipment. Make for the fire assembly point.&nbsp; If spillages found or occur, ensure aware of what the substance is first, if appropriate clean up with appropriate cleaning substances. Make the area safe, if floor wet ensure wet floor warning sign available. Ascertain where spillage is from and reduce further leakage/ Spillage.&nbsp; If accident occurs at work inform first aider. If serious injury stay with injured party and ring ambulance or get colleague to do so. &nbsp;All accidents should be reported in accident/ incident book. Ensure foreman aware and informed.&nbsp; 4.2 Describe the characteristics, quality, uses, sustainability, limitations and defects associated with the resources in relation to: – timber, manufactured sheet material, prefabricated components, ironmongery, metals, sash cord, adhesives, sealants, guttering, downpipe, fixings and associated ancillary items– hand and/or powered tools and equipment. 4.2&nbsp; Characteristics Quality Uses Sustainability Limitations Defects Timber Comes in Soft wood –Pine. Hard wood – oak, mahogany are the most used. Soft wood is soft and not known to be long lasting unless pressure treated. Both woods can be used for doors, windows, skirting etc hard wood long lasting and better for outdoor uses and durability. Both sustainable Soft wood requires pressure treating to last, both require treating to endure outside weather conditions Knots in wood can weaken the plank. Should be treated if present as they can bleed. Can also twist and bow if not stored correctly. Manufactured sheet materials Known as MDF, internal and external ply, Come in different thicknesses and have different purposes. Boxing pipes in, flat roofs, Over boarding flooring It is sustainable Does not have a very good finish unless veneered. Can be dangerous when cutting as causes dust.&nbsp; Prefabricated components Window frames and door frames, modular buildings Good for speed of completing jobs. Houses and buildings Yes Have to be pre measured and ordered. Twisting Ironmongery Door handles window locks, screws fixings, window stays, door closers, locks etc Come in different metal finishes, stainless steel, brushed aluminium, brass. Different quality according to cost. For closing, locking and decoration of doors and windows. Can be used as scrap if not wanted and recycled. Quality is associated with cost.&nbsp; Finish is personal taste, though if used outdoors and long lasting would be best getting better quality. Check if all working prior to fitting.&nbsp; Metals As Above Sash cord Rope for windows usually waxed finish. Come as standard For box sash windows on pulleys. NA Can snap and frey over time and often require replacing. Ensure no defects prior to fitting Adhesives and sealants Bonding agents, waterproof sealing agents Can come in various qualities, fungal retardant waterproof sealants, Adhesives can come for the use with wood and for use with specific material. Adhesives used for sticking skirting boards in place, glueing sheet veneers.&nbsp; Sealants used for sealing round sinks, baths, windows and door frames. NA Can wear and shrink over time. Can dry if not stored correctly.&nbsp; Once opened need to be used within limited time. &nbsp; Guttering and down pipes Come in plastic, wood or composite. PVC plastic last longer, all come in different qualities. Wood ones are used for conservation and period properties. Assisting with drainage of water Sustainable Only used in specific types on specific properties.&nbsp; Different durability Holes, damaged pipes. Twisted. Fixings and associated ancillary items Screws, nails, bolts, etc Come in different qualities and materials Screwing materials together, nails for holding materials together. Yes Have to use right product for the right job, not necessarily interchangeable uses. Can be bent, not finished correctly, check for defects before use.&nbsp; Hand or power tools Drill, planer, sander, Circular saw etc Come in different makes and qualities. Tools used by skilled tradesman need to be of a better quality for sustained use. For speed of completing work and making the job easier. They have progressed from many hand tools. Some parts are. Can be repaired by having parts added or replaced Batteries run out, leads split, motors burn out, brushes require changing. Ensure no defects pre use, check dry and wires not split. Any guards must be present.&nbsp; 4.3Answered in QCF 641 Q 4.3 4.4 Answered in QCF 641 Q 4.4 4.5Answered in QCF 641 Q 4.5 4.6 Answered in QCF 641 Q 4.6 5.4 Answered in QCF 628 Q 5.4 5.5 Answered in QCF 628 Q 5.5 6.2 Answered in QCF 641 Q 6.2 7.7 Describe how to apply safe work practices, follow procedures, report problems and establish the authority needed to rectify them, to: – splice and replace frames and mouldings – repair and replace doors and windows – repair and replace ironmongery – repair or replace guttering, downpipes – replace sash cords – replace architraves, skirting, dado rails and picture rails – form joints associated with repairs – use hand tools, power tools and equipment – work at height – use access equipment. 7.7&nbsp; Safe working practices Follow Procedures Report problems Establish Authority required to rectify. Splice and replace frames PPE should be worn, all collective PPE should be considered if working from heights. Remove damaged piece, cut and remove at 45 degrees cut new splice to fit. Glue and or screw back in place with new piece. Any problems should be reported Site manager would be next in authority to report to.&nbsp; Repair and replace doors and windows As Above Remove door and windows. Replace with new and make good to any surrounding damaged area. Ensure site tidy. Report problem to site manager or customer. If manufacture fault with door or window inform manufacturer. Site mgr/Customer/ manufacturer. Repair and replace ironmongery PPE&nbsp; Follow instructions of what is required. Remove old damaged ironmongery and replace with repaired or replacement Problems should be reported to manufacturer or retailer. Inform site manager or customer As above Repair and replace guttering and downpipes PPE and collective PPE. Ensure safe working height, use harness and hard hat. Scaffold if required. If on ladder ensure tied off at the top. Angle no more than 75%. Remove old materials, replace with new, Ensure securely fastened in place. ensure all waste removed safely. As above As above Replace sash cords Goggles and gloves. Remove box sash and remove staff bead. Remove wooden fillet at bottom window to reveal lead weight. Drop moues down back window, connect to lead weight, Remove any salck and staple sash cord to sash. Connect all back in place As Above As Above Replace architraves, skirting, dado rails and picture rails PPE to be worn. Remove and replace As Above As Above Form joints associated with repairs PPE Remove old material, cut 45 degree mitre glue and nail back on. Pin mitre. As Above As Above Use hand tools, power tools and equipment PPE To be worn at all times Check for any damage pre use. Keep maintained at all times. Ensure trained and competent to use. Inform site manager if any problems, see manufacturer if any problems within warranty. As Above Work at height-Using access equipment PPE head protection, harness, scaffold, tied ladder. Collective PPE should be considered. Look out for overhead cables. &nbsp; Ensure appropriate height lifting equipment used for the height being worked at and securely in place. Must be PASMA trained and competent to use. Inform site manager if any concerns or problems Site manager &nbsp;7.8 Describe the needs of other occupations and how to effectively communicate within a team when maintaining non-structural carpentry work. When setting up and using powered transportable cutting and shaping machines it is important the team know how to effectively communicate and understand the needs of other occupations. This can be achieved by ensuring all aware of site management requirements, plans of completion and deadlines for each part of the job. Training sessions should be made available for all employees, toolbox talks should be held regularly and employees should be encouraged to attend. All machines should be pat tested, and within date. Each occupation has its own hazards, requirements, risks and timescales and all site staff should be made aware of them and updated regularly as situations change. &nbsp;All communication across different occupational teams should be polite and clear. 7.9 Describe the methods of sharpening the hand tools used when maintaining non-structural carpentry work. They should be sharpened as per manufacturer’s instructions following the RAMS provided for the purpose. 7.10 Describe how to maintain the tools and equipment used when maintaining non-structural carpentry work. These should only be used for the purpose foe what they were manufacturer for. They should be used as the manufacturer’s recommendations and the RAMS provided. Many tools require training to use effectively. QCF09Av2 Installing First Fixing Components in the Workplace. 09 1.3 met in 12 1.3 09 1.4 met in 12 1.4 09 2.1 met in 12 2.1 09 2.2 met in 12 2.2 09 2.3 met in 12 2.3 09 2.4 met 12 2.4 09 2.3 met in 12 2.3 09 4.2 met in 12 4.2&nbsp; 09 4.3 met in 12 4.3 09 4.4 met in 12 4.4 09 4.5 met in 12 5.5 09 4.6 met in 12 4.6 09 5.4 met in 12 5.4 09 5.5 met in 12 5.5 09 6.1 met in 12 6.2 09 7.6 met in 12 7.6 09 7.7 met in 12 7.7 09 7.8 met in 12 7.8 09 7.9 met in 12 7.9 {{BookCat}} {{booklet}} {{Shelves|Trades}} {{Status|50%}} tfz06c5s6tk5p5zvcqqah1582an6asz 0 394829 4095674 3743415 2022-08-24T06:08:09Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationP2| | Prev = Internal hardware components of a computer | Next = The processor and its components}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Machine Level Architecture: The stored program concept}} </NOINCLUDE> When we talk about the '''stored program concept,''' we need to think with regard to the internal layout and architecture of a computer. Early computers such as the IBM had no form of internal storage - all instructions and data were held on punch cards, which could be fed into the IBM to process data. In the 1960s, when the IBM was used, calculations were performed to get astronauts into orbit, and back, with the processing power of a modern day toaster! Nowadays, computers typically use '''Von-Neumann Architecture''', which reflects the idea of the stored program concept. [[File:Von Neumann Architecture.svg|thumb|The Von Neumann Architecture uses the stored program concept where ''instructions and data are loaded from main memory into the processor to be executed''.]] The Von-Neumann Architecture, and stored-program concept, works where ''machine code'' ''instructions and data are stored, and loaded from memory'' ''into the processor to be executed in sequential order''. Von-Neumann Architecture is used for general purpose machines, where instructions and data are held in the same memory location - this is our '''main memory''', or RAM. On the other hand, Harvard Architecture follows the stored-program concept, however it takes into account the use of the memory unit. With both instructions and data being held in the same address, the processor is unable to work at optimum speed as the two are competing over the same data bus. In addition, one data bus may have an insufficient '''bus width''' for program instructions i.e. increased traffic due to program instructions having a greater word length. Harvard Architecture is often used for specialist embedded computer systems, where optimum speed is the priority of the system. {{Dbox|stored program concept|a program must be in main memory in order for it to be executed. The instructions are fetched, decoded and executed one at a time}} Building on the Von Neumann architecture we get the idea of how the stored program concept works. If you have ever loaded a game on a console you might notice that: # you need to insert a disc # the disc spins # the game says loading # the game plays This is the stored program concept in motion! Let's take apart what is happening: # You insert an optical disk (secondary storage) with the code on # The code is loaded into main memory # The processor fetches, decodes and executes instructions from main memory to play game [[File:CPT-System-Architecture-Stored-Program.svg|400px|center]] {{ExerciseRobox|title=Exercise: Characteristics of a processor}} {{CPTQuestion|How many different addresses can a 8 line address bus address?}} {{CPTAnswer|<math>2^8 = 256</math>}} {{CPTQuestion|How does the address bus width affect main memory?}} {{CPTAnswer|If you have a small address bus then you will be limited in the number of addresses you can talk to and therefore how much main memory you can directly address.}} {{CPTQuestion|How wide would the address bus have to be to talk to 1024 addresses?}} {{CPTAnswer|1=10 lines wide since <math style="vertical-align:-25\%;">2^{10} = 1024</math>}} {{CPTQuestion|What is wrong with using a 9 bit address bus but having 700 memory locations in main memory?}} {{CPTAnswer|1=We can only address <math style="vertical-align:-25\%;">2^9 = 512</math> different locations. It wouldn't be able to talk to address locations <math style="vertical-align:-25\%;">513-700</math>.}} {{CPTQuestion|Define the stored program concept:}} {{CPTAnswer|1=A program must be (resident) in main memory in order for it to be executed. The instructions are '''fetched''' from main memory, then '''decoded and executed''' in the CPU.}} {{Robox/Close}} {{BookCat}} === Harvard Architecture === The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture which uses physically separate memory locations for instructions and data. This is done through the use of embedded '''Digital Signal Processing''' (DSP) systems. The two memories may have different characteristics. In '''embedded systems''', instructions may be stored in read-only memory whereas data may be held in read-write memory. '''Embedded systems''' include many specialised computers built in that operate in real-time, such as traffic lights. To summarise, the '''Von Neumann architecture''' uses a shared memory and bus for both data and instructions whereas the '''Harvard architecture''' has physically separate memories for instructions and data. alv2zz1tbz488prkadvt1aw0d3nitoq 0 408866 4095685 3773611 2022-08-24T06:19:10Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki In mathematics, it is important to find patterns. That is what mathematicians do almost everyday of their lives. How they determine patterns is different depending on the type of mathematics they work with. For college algebra, determining patterns is part of the curriculum. The problem below demonstrates one way we determine these patterns. Keep in mind that the problem below is an Exploration and most likely not representative of the types of problems you may see in the CLEP College Algebra exam. {{Question-answer| question= '''Exploration 0-1''': Imagine the Standard English Alphabet on a page, listed in order from left to right. After the last letter in the Standard English Alphabet, <math>\text{Z}</math>, define a next letter <math>\text{AA}</math> that will be added to the Standard English Alphabet. Continue listing the alphabet as normal (<math>\text{AB},\,\text{AC},\,\ldots,\,\text{BA},\,\text{BB},\ldots</math>) until you get to letter <math>\text{ZZ}</math>, the last letter of this "New Alphabet." Assume letter <math>\text{A}</math> is defined as the first letter in this "New Alphabet." At what position will you find the letter <math>\text{HY}</math> in the "New Alphabet."| answer= In the standard English Alphabet, there are <math>26</math> letters in total. Let us define the list of all the letters A-Z as the "Old Alphabet." Concatenating the letter <math>\text{A}</math> to <math>\text{A}</math> will give us a new letter, <math>\text{AA}</math>. Adding this to the "Old Alphabet" obviously does not make it the old set anymore, so let us define the alphabet in which you add new letters to the old one the "New Alphabet" How many of the new letters are in this set? Well, each letter from "Old Alphabet" must get another additional letter to make the "New Alphabet" Therefore, for each letter, <math>26</math> letters are added to the old one (i.e. the letter "A" will have letters "A", "B", "C",...,"Z" concatenated to "A", so 26 more letters are added to each letter of the "Old Alphabet"). Since each letter is used, exactly <math>26^{2}\text{ new letters}</math> are created in the "New Alphabet" The figure below may help demonstrate this new fact. <math display="block">{26\begin{cases} \overbrace{AA,\, AB,\, AC,\ldots,\, AY,\, AZ}^{26}\\ \overbrace{BA,\, BB,\, BC,\ldots,\, BY,\, BZ}^{26}\\ \text{ } \qquad\qquad\quad\;\; \vdots\\ \overbrace{YA,\, YB,\, YC,\ldots,\, YY,\, YZ}^{26}\\ \overbrace{ZA,\, ZB,\, ZC,\ldots,\, ZY,\, ZZ}^{26} \end{cases}}\! </math> <!--Do not delete \!. This is to keep the equation rendered as a PNG instead of HTML.--> The left brace tells us how many letters are in the "Old Alphabet"; the top brace for each "row" tells us how many new letters are created per letter of the alphabet. Since 26 letters are created for each letter of the "Old Alphabet," add every new letter created into this subset of the "New Alphabet." Since there are <math>26</math> rows, and each row creates <math>26</math> new letters,<br> <math display="block">{\underbrace{26+26+26+...+26+26}_{26}=26\cdot26=26^2=676\text{ letters in the subset of the New Alphabet.}}</math> Remember that there are still 26 other letters in the "old alphabet" not included in the figure above. As such, add 26 to the answer above to get the total number of letters in the New Alphabet. Given that we know the total number of letters in the "New Alphabet," we can find out what position letter HY is in this subset of the "New Alphabet." First, the letter position of H is <math>8</math>. Second, the letter position of Y is <math>25</math>. Since the above figure shows a table, we can find HY by looking up that "coordinate." Since the position of HY contains all the terms in that given area, we can multiply the two values to get the area (i.e. it is a rectangle that contains all those letters). This is not the final answer, however. Realize that we excluded some <math>7+26</math> other letters by multiplying in that block and subset; ergo, the position of the letter <math>\text{HY}</math> is <math display="block">8 \cdot 25 + (7+26) = 233.</math>}} What were we doing in the problem above? Essentially, we were simply trying to find what position some "term" is in. Does it not intrigue you to see math try to find a position of some "term" in a list? We have problems like these as mathematicians because the patterns underlying a "list" of numbers can help us determine new facts of mathematics. After all, what were we doing when using functions? We were trying to find a number using a pattern (the function). Unlike the previous sections, however, we were not given a formula. Luckily enough, it is not difficult to make a formula for a given "list" of numbers. Before we dive into these new problems. It helps to establish definitions. {{Calculus/Def | title = Definition. | text = A '''sequence''' is a list of elements, such as numbers, figures, or letters, that is generally written in some pattern.}} {{Calculus/Def | title = Objects in Sequences. | text = A '''term''' is an item found within a sequence.}} There is a little disclaimer to get out of the way before we try to solve some problems. First, a sequence can have no pattern. However, for our purposes, we will not count any list of numbers in which no pattern exists. Second, even in simple sequences, numbers of any kind can be named if they follow after a sequence rule. For example, here's a sequence in which the rule is to list prime numbers: <math>{\left\{ \mathit{2},\mathit{3},\mathit{5},\mathit{7},\mathit{11},\ldots\right\}}</math> If you were like most people, you would probably name the prime numbers in order. However, you could perhaps finish the sequence like this: <math>{\left\{ \mathit{2},\mathit{3},\mathit{5},\mathit{7},\mathit{11},\mathit{13},\mathit{23},\mathit{2011},\mathit{(2^{82,589,933}-1)}, \ldots\right\}}</math> For our purpose of standardization, we will follow a pattern by stating what number you must find first or identify the pattern. Let's begin exploring the world that is Sequences and Series. == Sequences == As you already know, a sequence is a list of objects that generally follow a pattern. However, the type of pattern that is described will classify sequences into either '''arithmetic sequences''' or '''geometric sequences'''. Each will be explored in depth within the next sections. === Arithmetic Sequences === {{Calculus/Def | title = Location of a term. | text = An '''index''' is the location of a term within a sequence, usually denoted by <math>i</math> or <math>k</math>.}} {{Calculus/Def | title = Definition of Arithmetic Sequence. | text = An '''arithmetic sequence''' is a sequence <math>{\left\{ x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{k}, x_{k+1}, \ldots\right\}}</math> in which an added real number <math>d</math>, called the '''difference''', is added to each successive term, except the first term, <math>x_{1}</math>, such that the sequence forms <math>{\left\{x_{1}, x_{1} + d, x_{1} + 2d, x_{1} + 3d, \ldots\right\}}</math> in a one-to-one correspondence.}} An example could perhaps help you figure with the formal definition above: The sequence <math>{\left\{ 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, \ldots\right\}}</math> has a one-to-one correspondence with the general sequence <math>{\left\{ x_{1}, x_{2}, x_{3}, x_{4}, x_{5}, \ldots\right\}}</math> since the first term <math>x_{1}=2</math>, second term <math>x_{2}=4</math>, third term <math>x_{3}=6</math>, and so on. The difference is the amount added to each previous term to get the new term. For <math>x_{2}</math>, <math>x_{1} + d = x_{2}</math> or <math>2 + d = 4</math>. Solving for <math>d</math> is the difference of the two terms. In this example, the difference is <math>d=2</math>. This is how we define an arithmetic sequence. ==== Recursive Formula ==== Often times, we want to generate a sequence using a formula (we are mathematicians, after all, and we like to study sequences to see if there are any general patterns). If we want to find <math>x_{i}</math>, we may use the following formula: <math display="block">x_{i} = x_{i-1} + d.</math> However, the above formula could describe any sequence that has that general pattern. To fix this, we need to describe the first term as well when using the formula above. There are two ways to describe this formula: # We have it horizontally deliniated: <math>x_{1}=a; x_{i} = x_{i-1} + d</math>. # We have it vertically deliniated: <math>\begin{cases} x_{1}=a \\ x_{i} = x_{i-1} + d \end{cases}</math> To save space, we will horizontally deliniate formulas for arithmetic sequences in this WikiBook. Formulas in which the first term is identified along with an equation in which the previous term is added by <math>d</math> to get the next term is called a '''recursive formula'''. {{Calculus/Def | text = A '''recursive formula''' is a formula that describes how to get a term or many terms of a sequence by stating the starting value or values and each previous term or terms and adding difference <math>d</math> to each subsequent term.}} {{Calculus/Def | title = Recursive Formula for an Arithmetic Sequence |text = Given an initial value <math>a</math> and constant difference <math>d</math>, the <math>i</math>^th term in an arithmetic sequence is given by the previous <math>(i-1)</math>^th term of the sequence: :<math>x_{1}=a;x_{i}=x_{i-1}+d</math> OR :<math>\begin{cases} x_{1}=a \\ x_{i} = x_{i-1} + d\end{cases}</math>}} {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 1.1.1.a''': Find the <math>7</math>^th term to the arithmetic sequence <math>{\left\{ 19, 18.25, 17.5, 16.75, 16, \ldots\right\}}</math>}} To determine the next term, we first need to find the difference <math>d</math>. Note that an arithmetic sequence will have the next term add <math>d</math> to the previous term. Since that is how the arithmetic sequence works, <math>19+d=18.25</math> is a valid way to find the difference between two terms. Solving for <math>d</math>, we find the constant difference is <math>d=-{3 \over 4}=-0.75</math>. Since the difference is the same for each given term in the sequence, we can find the 7^th term by adding <math>d=-0.75</math> to <math>16</math>, which gives us <math>16-0.75=15.25</math>. Finally, add <math>d</math> to the next term to get the final answer: <math display="block">15.25-0.75=14.5.</math>{{Robox/Close}} There are many reasons why it is more important to have a recursive formula. It is not always slow; it may be easier to understand. The next example shows why this is exactly true {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 1.1.1.b''': Write the recursive formula to the sequence <math>{\left \{ 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, \ldots \right \}}</math>.}} Many of you will perhaps know this famous pattern as the Fibonacci Sequence. For those of you who do not know this sequence, the way we determine the next term is by using the previous terms and adding them together. In our notation, we would say that the term <math>a</math> at index <math>i</math>, <math>a_{i}</math> is equivalent to <math>a_{i-2} + a_{i-1}</math>. Remember, however, we are not done. If a mathematician saw the sequence <math>{\left\{ 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26, 42, \ldots \right\}}</math>, he (or she) would determine that <math>a_{i}=a_{i-2} + a_{i-1}</math> also describes that sequence. Therefore, we must list the first two terms because listing only the first term would not allow us to get the next term. This means our final answer is <math display="block">a_{1}=1, a_{2} = 1; a_{i}=a_{i-2} + a_{i-1}.</math>{{Robox/Close}} Note that Example 1.1.b is not an example of an arithmetic sequence. Your next exploration will be to determine why this is true. Along with that, you will use your critical thinking skills to argue for or against something in the explorations after that one. {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 1-1''': '''Explain''' why the Fibonacci Sequence is not considered arithmetic. '''Determine''' how to change the formula for the Fibonacci Sequence so that it becomes an arithmetic recursive formula; '''explain''' why must the formula be written that way.|answer=A term <math>x</math> at index <math>i</math> is not added by a common difference <math>d</math>, where <math>d</math> must remain constant. By definition, the Fibonacci Sequence does not have a constant difference to get to the next term because the formula <math>a_{1}=1, a_{2} = 1; a_{i}=a_{i-2} + a_{i-1}.</math> does not have a constant difference. Ergo, the Fibonacci Sequence formula is not arithmetic, but it is recursive. To make it arithmetic, identify only the first term because we can find the second term by using the constant difference <math>d</math>, then add the previous term of <math>i</math>, <math>a_{i-1}</math>, by constant difference <math>d</math>: <math>a_{1}=1; a_{i}=a_{i-1} + d</math>.}} {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 1-2''': Let the first two terms of a sequence be <math>x_{1} = a</math> and <math>x_{2} = b</math> where <math>a \neq b</math>. *'''Argue''' either <u>for</u> OR <u>against</u> the claim that the recursive formula <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is arithmetic and recursive. :* If you disagree that <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is arithmetic and recursive, '''''write''''' a formula that is arithmetic and recursive. :* If you agree that <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is arithmetic and recursive, '''''explain''''' why it is so. Finally, if <math>x_{1} = a</math>, <math>x_{2} = b</math>, and <math>a=b</math>, * '''argue''' either <u>for</u> OR <u>against</u> the idea that the formula <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is arithmetic and recursive.|answer= * The sequence generated by using the formula is <math>{\left\{ a, b, \left ( a + d \right ) , \left ( b + d \right ) , \left ( a + 2d \right ) , \left ( b + 2d \right ) , \left ( a + 3d \right ) , \left ( b + 3d \right ) ,\ldots \right\}}</math> For a sequence to be arithmetic, the common difference <math>d</math> must be constant. While the common difference is constant, the sequence must be in the form <math>{\left\{ a, \left ( a + d \right ) , \left ( a + 2d \right ) , \left ( a + 3d \right ) , \left ( a + 4d \right ) \ldots \right\}}</math>; otherwise, it is not arithmetic. Therefore, the recursive formula <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is not arithmetic. To make it an arithmetic recursive formula, change the previous formula such that <math>x_{1} = a; x_{i} = x_{i-1} + d</math>. *If <math>a=b</math>, then the sequence generated by using the formula <math>x_{1} = a, x_{2} = b; x_{i} = x_{i-2} + d</math> is <math>{\left\{ b, b, \left ( b + d \right ) , \left ( b + 2d \right ) , \left ( b + 3d \right ) , \left ( b + 4d \right ) , \left ( b + 5d \right ) ,\ldots \right\}}</math> However, for a sequence to be arithmetic, each term must be added by the constant difference. Since the term in index <math>i=2</math> is not added by <math>d</math>, the formula is not arithmetic.}} {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 1-3''': Let the first term <math>x_{1} = a</math>. '''Argue''' either <u>for</u> OR <u>against</u> the idea that sequence <math>{\left\{ x_{1}, x_{2}, x_{3},\ldots \right\}}</math> is arithmetic if you change it to <math>{\left\{ a, a, a,\ldots \right\}}</math>|answer=Since <math>{x_{1}=a; x_{i}=x_{i-1}+d}</math> is the arithmetic recursive formula, <math>a=a+d</math> is valid. The only way for <math>a=a+d</math> to be true is by making <math>d=0</math>. However, since you are adding each term by using a constant difference <math>d</math>, and you are using the previous term to do so, the new sequence forms: <math>{a, a + 1 \cdot 0, a + 2 \cdot 0, a + 3 \cdot 0, a + 4 \cdot 0, \ldots}</math> By definition, the sequence formed is arithmetic.}} ==== Direct Formula ==== By now, you may be wondering if there is a way to find the term of an arithmetic sequence directly. Well, there is. Before giving you the formula, let us go through the motions for our general recursive arithmetic formula <math>{x_{1}=a; x_{k}=x_{k-1}+d}</math>. Let's chart the recursive arithmetic formula. <math display = "block">\begin{array}{|c|c|} k & x \\ \hline 1&a\\ \hline 2&a+d\\ \hline 3&a+2d\\ \hline 4&a+3d\\ \hline \vdots & \vdots \end{array} \! </math> <!--Do not delete \!. This is to keep the equation rendered as a PNG instead of HTML.--> If you think about it, the table above is basically a linear function, although starting at <math>k=1</math> instead of <math>k=0</math>. Write out the function as <math>x=a+kd</math>. We get near our answer. Our independent variable <math>k</math> is horizontally translated by <math>1</math> to the right, so <math>x=a+(k-1)d</math> is our function. In fact, we found our direct relationship. Rewrite it the way we normally write it and we found our '''direct formula''': <math>x_{k}=a+(k-1)d</math>. {{Calculus/Def | text = A '''direct formula''' describes how to get a term or many terms of a sequence by only using a formula that directly finds a particular value, without stating the first term or terms of a sequence.}} {{Calculus/Def | title = Direct Formula for an Arithmetic Sequence |text = Given an initial value <math>a</math> and constant difference <math>d</math>, the <math>i</math>^th term in an arithmetic sequence is given by the direct formula: <math display="block">x_{i}=a+(i-1)d.</math>}} {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 1.1.2.a''': An arithmetic sequence <math>{\left \{ 22.4, 29.2, 36, 42.8, 49.6, \ldots \right \}}</math> is discovered. What is the <math>450</math>^th term in the sequence?}} As always, before we can determine the answer, we need to find the "rate of change" of our sequence. Since <math>a=22.4</math>, we know that <math>x_{i}=22.4+(i-1)d</math>. The second term is <math>29.2</math>, so when <math>i=2</math>, <math>29.2=22.4+(2-1)d</math>. Of course, now we can solve for <math>d</math>: :<math>29.2=22.4+(2-1)d</math>; :<math>29.2=d</math>; :<math>6.8=d</math>. Since we now know the common difference, we can find the smallest <math>450</math>^th term in the sequence. By using our direct formula for an arithmetic sequence, we can find the index in which it is possible. Since <math>x_{i}=22.4-6.8(i-1)</math>, we find the <math>450</math>^th term by substituting <math>i=450</math>. Ergo, <math>x_{450}=22.4-6.8(450-1)</math>. Solve for <math>x_{450}</math> to get the final answer. :<math>x_{450}=22.4-6.8(450-1)</math>; :<math>x_{450}=22.4-6.8(449)</math>; :<math>x_{450}=22.4-3121.2</math>; <math display="block">x_{450}=-3030.8.</math>{{Robox/Close}} The example above would be a routine, straightforward problem in the CLEP College Algebra exam. However, as practice makes perfect, we will also have non-routine problems that involve thorough understanding of the topic and concepts and skills learned, which will make up 50% of the exam. This is why it is important to do the explorations. While they may not be on a CLEP exam, they are vital in making you think like a mathematician. The next problem will be non-routine problem. {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 1.1.2.b''': What is the smallest index needed to find a negative term in the arithmetic sequence <math>{\left \{ 22.4, 21.2, 20, 17.6, 16.4, \ldots\right\}}</math>?}} As always, before we can determine the answer, we need to find the "rate of change" of our sequence. Since <math>a=22.4</math>, we know that <math>x_{i}=22.4+(i-1)d</math>. We know that the second term is <math>21.2</math>, so when <math>i=2</math>, <math>21.2=22.4+(2-1)d</math>. Of course, now we can solve for <math>d</math>: :<math>21.2=22.4+(2-1)d</math>; :<math>21.2=22.4+d</math>; :<math>-1.2=d</math>. Since we now know the common difference, we can find the smallest term needed to reach a negative number in our sequence. By using our direct formula for an arithmetic sequence, we can find the index by solving for <math>i</math>. Since <math>x_{i}=22.4-1.2(i-1)</math>, we find the minimal index in which it is possible to have a number less than zero. Ergo, <math>0 \geq 22.4-1.2(i-1)</math>. Now all we have to do is solve for <math>i</math>. :<math>22.4-1.2(i-1) \leq 0</math>; :<math>-1.2(i-1) \leq -22.4</math>; :<math>i-1 \geq {-22.4 \over -1.2}</math>; :<math>i \geq {22.4 \over 1.2} + 1</math>; :<math>i \geq 19.\overline{6}</math>. Since index <math>i</math> must be greater than <math>19.\overline{6}</math>, the minimal index required to find the term that is negative is at <math display="block">i = 20.</math>{{Robox/Close}} ==== CLEP Practice Problems: Check Your Understanding ==== <quiz display=simple> {In the arithmetic series <math>{\left\{ 2,\,6,\,10,\,14,\ldots,\,398\right\}}</math> in which <math>398</math> is the last term, how many terms are in the sequence? |type="{}"} { 100 _9 } terms. (Note: typing a comma will give you a decimal, so do not type a comma.) || To find the number of terms, first find the constant difference <math>d</math> from subtracting the first two values (this is just easier to do). We learn <math>d=4</math>. Next, since a direct arithmetic formula helps us find any value of index <math>i</math>, we can find the number of terms by using the direct arithmetic formula: <math>x_{i}=a+d(i-1)</math>. Since we know that at some value <math>i</math>, we can find term <math>x_{i}=398</math>, we simply use those values into our direct arithmetic formula. Therefore, <math>398=2+4(i-1)</math> can help us find the number of terms <math>i</math>, since the last term is <math>398</math>. With this, after doing all the math, you get <math>i=100</math>. {A school district has set-up a system whereby each school week day (days Monday through Friday) is categorized into either an ''A-day'' or ''B-day''. Abigail is tired of having her pencils not returned to her. She decided to devise a system in which each student will record their first and last name. The pencils are free for anyone to borrow. However, should a student forget to return a pencil to her before the end of class, a student is charged <math>25</math> cents first. After, another <math>25</math> cents are charged per ''cycled'' block day the pencil is not returned – e.g. if a student accidentally forgot to give back Abigail's pencil, they will be fined the next A-day after the B-day. Joseph had forgotten to return the pencil for <math>60</math> school week days. How much does Joseph owe Abigail, according to her system? |type="()"} - $<math>15.00</math> || While a student may have used the correct formula, the student did not account for block days. Since there are two (2) block days, once a full cycle passes (A-days and B-days are finished), Joseph is charged <math>25</math> cents on top of the original <math>25</math> cents. Because the test-taker did not account for this, the answer would have been overestimated. - $<math>14.75</math> || The student did not account for block days. Since there are two block days, once a full cycle passes (A-days and B-days are finished), a student is charged <math>25</math> cents on top of the beginning amount of <math>25</math> cents. A student may have made another additional mistake. The student did not account for the initial 25 cents. This value is underestimated yet overestimated at the same time. - $<math>7.75</math> || While the student may have correctly divided the number of weekdays in half to get the following answer, he or she may have forgotten to subtract one from her index and multiply it to the difference. Make sure to start with $<math>0.25</math> on the sequence instead of $<math>0.50</math> cents. + $<math>7.50</math> || The student who answered this correctly deserves a round of applause for paying attention and being careful. Never be too hasty, despite the timer hanging over your head. Always make sure to double check the question and answer before making a hasty jump towards your pseudo-answer. In case the individual guessed, here is an explanation. Since there two different block days (A- and B-block), the number of school days in which the student missed the return of the pencil is greater than the per ''cycled'' block day. Therefore, if Joseph borrowed a pencil in B-day but forgot to pay back, he will have to give <math>25</math> cents for forgetting to return the pencil and <math>25</math> more cents per ''cycled'' block days in which Joseph forgot to return the pencil (i.e B-day). As such, an individual will have to pay for the <math>30</math> missed days as opposed to the <math>60</math> found in the problem. Finally, since an individual must pay <math>25</math> cents, the student must be charged first <math>25</math> cents, not <math>0</math>. Along with using the correct formula, the individual can finally finish this problem. - $<math>7.25</math> || Since there two different block days (A- and B-block), the number of school days in which the student missed the return of the pencil is greater than the per ''cycled'' block day. If Joseph borrowed a pencil in B-day but forgot to pay back, he will have to give <math>25</math> cents and <math>25</math> more cents per ''cycled'' block days in which Joseph forgot to return the pencil (i.e B-day). As such, an individual starts off with $<math>0.25</math> in debt. If the individual did not make this mistake, be sure not to simply multiply $<math>0.25</math> by the number of days. {The following arithmetic sequence is listed: <math>{\left\{ -{1 \over 3},\,0,\,{1 \over 3},\,{2 \over 3},\,1,\,1{1 \over 3},1{2 \over 3},\,2,\ldots\right\}}</math> Which of the following is the formula that represents the sequence directly using any index <math>i</math> to find term <math>x_{i}</math>? |type="()"} - <math>x_{i}={1 \over 3} - {1 \over 3}(i+1)</math> || The formula used is incorrect for three reasons: [1.] the sequence starts at <math>-{1 \over 3}</math>, not <math>{1 \over 3}</math>; [2.] the sequence adds <math>{1 \over 3}</math>, not <math>-{1 \over 3}</math>; finally, [3.] the index term does not start at <math>-1</math> (i.e. notice <math>i+1</math> instead of <math>i-1</math>). - <math>x_{i}={1 \over 3} - {1 \over 3}(i-1)</math> || The formula used is incorrect for two reasons: [1.] the sequence starts at <math>-{1 \over 3}</math>, not <math>{1 \over 3}</math>; [2.] the sequence adds <math>{1 \over 3}</math>, not <math>-{1 \over 3}</math>. - <math>x_{i}=-{1 \over 3} + {1 \over 3}i</math> || The formula used is incorrect because the index term does not start at <math>0</math> (i.e. notice <math>i</math> instead of <math>i-1</math>). + <math>x_{i}=-{1 \over 3} + {1 \over 3}(i-1)</math> || The student is able to successfully make an arithmetic formula when asked. - <math>x_{i}=-{1 \over 3} + {1 \over 3}(i+1)</math> || The formula used is incorrect because the index term does not start at <math>-1</math> (i.e. notice <math>i+1</math> instead of <math>i-1</math>). {If the first term is <math>x</math> in a sequence, the last <math>501</math>^st term of the sequence is <math>9,000</math>, and the constant difference is <math>20</math>, what is the second term of the sequence? |type="()"} - <math>-1,000</math> || Be sure not to rush! Notice that the question asked what is the second term, not the first term. Since <math>a_{501}=x+20(501-1)=x+10000=9000</math>, the first term <math>x=-1,000</math>. However, to get the second term, one must add 20 to the answer found. + <math>-980</math> || Goob job! For any individual that guessed, notice that the question asked what is the second term, not the term before the first one. Since <math>a_{501}=x+20(501-1)=x+10000=9000</math>, the first term <math>x=-1,000</math>. However, to get the second term, one must ''add'' 20 to the answer found. - <math>-1,020</math> || Be sure not to subtract your answer! Notice that the question asked what is the second term, not the term before the first one. Since <math>a_{501}=x+20(501-1)=x+10000=9000</math>, the first term <math>x=-1,000</math>. However, to get the second term, one must ''add'' 20 to the answer found. - <math>1,000</math> || Take a look again at the Algebra! Since <math>a_{501}=x+20(501-1)=x+10000=9000</math>, the first term <math>x=-1,000</math>. However, to get the second term, one must ''add'' 20 to the answer found. - <math>980</math> || Take a look again at the Algebra! Since <math>a_{501}=x+20(501-1)=x+10000=9000</math>, the first term <math>x=-1,000</math>. However, to get the second term, one must ''add'' 20 to the answer found. {Given <math>a_{i}</math> is the term of a sequence at index <math>i</math>, the first term of a sequence is <math>x</math>, and the constant difference is <math>d</math>, which of the following <u>must</u> be TRUE? Indicate <u>'''all'''</u> such statements. |type="[]"} + <math>a_{1}=x; a_{i}=x+d(i-2)+d</math> || Note that a sequence can still follow using a recursive formula. As such, knowing that <math>a_{i}=x+d(i-1)</math>, <math>a_{i-1}=x+d([i-1]-1)=x+d(i-2)</math>. In which case, <math>a_{1}=x; a_{i}=a_{i-1}+d</math> which is equivalent to <math>a_{1}=x; a_{i}=x+d(i-2)+d</math>. - <math>{x-a_{i} \over d}-1=i</math> || Note that the normal arithmetic sequence is <math>a_{i}=x+20(i-1)</math>. If one wants to find index <math>i</math>, then subtract <math>x</math>, divide by <math>20</math>, and <math>1</math> to yield <math>{a_{i}-x \over 20}+1=i</math>. + <math>a_{i}-x+d=di</math> || Note that the normal arithmetic sequence is <math>a_{i}=x+20(i-1)</math>. Since you multiply the constant difference <math>20</math> to <math>i-1</math>, distribute it to each term in the parenthesis. Given <math>a_{i}=x+20(i-1)=x+20i-20</math>, try to isolate <math>20i</math> on the right side by subtracting <math>x</math> and adding <math>20</math>: <math>a_{i}-x+20=20i</math>. </quiz> === Geometric Sequence === {{Calculus/Def | title = Definition of Geometric Sequence. | text = A '''geometric sequence''' is a sequence <math>{\left\{ x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{k}, x_{k+1}, \ldots\right\}}</math> in which a multiplied real number <math>r</math>, called the '''common ratio''', is multiplied to each successive term, except the first term, <math>x_{1}</math>, such that the sequence forms <math>{\left\{ x_{1}, x_{1}r, x_{1}r^{2}, x_{1}r^{3},\ldots\right\}}</math>}} As always, if you are unable to understand, try a few examples of numbers to think of in your head. Let the common ratio <math>r=2</math> and let <math>x_{1}=1.5</math>. The next term <math>{x_{2}=x_{1}r}</math>, so <math>x_{2}=1.5\cdot2=3</math>. If you keep the pattern going for each term of the sequence, you would get the following: <math>{\left\{ 1.5, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48,\ldots \right\}}</math> ==== Recursive Formula ==== As with the arithmetic formula, you can find the recursive formula and the direct formula for a geometric sequence. Since every term is multiplied by common ratio <math>r</math>, let any term of index <math>i</math> be represented by <math>x_{i}</math>. To find the next term requires knowing the previous term. Ergo, <math>x_{i}=rx_{i-1}</math> {{Calculus/Def | title = Recursive Formula for a Geometric Sequence |text = Given an initial value <math>a</math> and constant difference <math>d</math>, the <math>i</math>^th term in an arithmetic sequence is given by the previous <math>(i-1)</math>^th term of the sequence: :<math>x_{1}=a;x_{i}=rx_{i-1}</math> OR :<math>\begin{cases} x_{1}=a \\ x_{i}=rx_{i-1} \end{cases}</math>}} ==== Direct Formula ==== As with the arithmetic sequence, Let us chart the recursive geometric formula. <math>{x_{1}=a; x_{k}=rx_{k-1}}</math>. <math display = "block">\begin{array}{|c|c|} k & x \\ \hline 1&a\\ \hline 2&ar\\ \hline 3&ar^{2}\\ \hline 4&ar^{3}\\ \hline \vdots & \vdots \end{array} \! </math> <!--Do not delete \!. This is to keep the equation rendered as a PNG instead of HTML.--> If you think about it, the table above is basically an exponential function, <math>f(k)=ab^{k}</math>, starting at <math>k=1</math>. Write out the function as <math>x=ar^k</math>. We get near our answer. Our independent variable <math>k</math> is translated to the right <math>1</math> unit, so <math>x=ar^{k-1}</math> is our function. In fact, we found our direct relationship. Rewrite it the way we normally write it and we found our direct formula: <math>x_{k}=ar^{k-1}</math>. {{Calculus/Def | title = Direct Formula for a Geometric Sequence |text = Given an initial value <math>a</math> and common ratio <math>r</math>, the <math>i</math>^th term in an geometric sequence is given by the direct formula: <math display="block">x_{i}=ar^{i-1}</math>}} {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 1.2.2.a''': A geometric sequence <math>{\left \{ 22.4, 11.2, 5.6, 2.8, 1.4, \ldots \right \}}</math> is discovered. What is the <math>18</math>^th term in the sequence?}} To find the answer, we need to know the common ratio <math>r</math> of the sequence above. Pick any arbitrary term in the sequence and apply it to the direct geometric formula: <math>x_{2}=ar^{2-1}</math>. Find <math>r</math>: :<math>11.2=22.4r.</math> :<math>r=0.5={1 \over 2}.</math> Knowing the value of <math>r</math>, you can find the <math>18</math>^th term in the sequence by using the direct formula: :<math>x_{18}=22.4 \left ( \frac{1}{2} \right ) ^ {18 - 1}</math> :<math>x_{18}=22.4 \left ( 0.00000762939 \right )</math> <math display="block">x_{18}=0.00017089843</math>{{Robox/Close}} As always, these examples are things you can work through yourself or follow along so that you can see how to do a problem. {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 1-4''': Let the first term <math>x_{1} = a</math>. '''Argue''' either <u>for</u> OR <u>against</u> the idea that sequence <math>{a, -2a, 4a,\ldots}</math> is geometric.|answer=A geometric sequence must have the terms be multiplied by a common ratio <math>r</math>. If the sequence were arithmetic, a term must be added such that adding the previous term by a constant difference <math>d</math> will result in the alternation of negative and positive terms. Since that is impossible, you must multiply the terms in the sequence above by a common ratio <math>r</math>.}} {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 1-5''': A ''power function'' is a function <math>f</math> that has the power term <math>p</math> be any real number <math>\mathbb{R}</math> or <math>p\in \mathbb{R}</math>, where <math>f(x)=ax^{p}</math>. Let <math>p={1 \over 2}</math> and <math>a=2</math>. If <math>f(x)=ax^{p}</math>, * multiply each value of <math>x</math> by a common ratio <math>r</math>. '''Determine''' whether the range will also be a geometric sequence <u>through example</u> using any value of <math>r</math>. * '''prove''' that multiplying the domain, <math>x</math>, by a common ratio <math>r</math> will give a range that is geometric (where the common difference for the domain is <math>r_{f})</math>. |answer= * Since the domain of <math>f</math> must be a geometric sequence multiplied by a common ratio <math>r</math>, multiply each value of <math>x</math> by <math>r=2</math>. The following geometric sequence is formed: since <math>x\cdot2</math>, given <math>f(2x)=2\sqrt{2x}</math>, <math>f(2x)</math> will form <math>{2\sqrt{2},\,4,\,2\sqrt{6},\,2\sqrt{8},\ldots}</math>. Each sequence must have values multiplied by <math>\sqrt{2}</math>. As such, the range of <math>f</math> must be geometric for this given <math>r</math> value. * The question is asking whether or not <math>f(xr)</math> will give a range for <math>f(x)</math> such that you multiply by a constant. Let's define that constant as <math>r_{f}</math>. Let <math>f(x)=f\left ( x_{1} \right )</math>. Since <math>f \left ( x_{1} \right )=a\left ( x_{1} \right )^{p}</math>, if <math>x_{2}=x_{1}r</math>, then <math>f \left ( x_{2} \right )=a\left ( x_{2} \right )^{p}</math>. Since <math>x_{2}=x_{1}r</math>, function <math>f\left ( x_{2} \right )=a\left ( x_{1}r \right )^{p}</math>. Since any term <math>(ab)^m</math> will give <math>a^{m} b^{m}</math>, function <math>f\left ( x_{2} \right )=ax_{1}^{p}r^{p}</math>. Since <math>ax_{1}^{p}=f\left (x_{1} \right )</math>, function <math>f\left ( x_{2} \right )=f\left (x_{1} \right )r^{p}</math>. Since <math>r</math> and <math>p</math> are constant, the expression <math>r^{p}</math> will be constant. Since you are multiplying the range, <math>f\left (x_{1} \right )</math>, by a common ratio (otherwise known as a geometric sequence), given the constant <math>r^{p}=r_{f}</math>, then when multiplying the values of the domain, the range must be multiplied by a constant: <math display="block">f\left ( x_{2} \right )=f\left (x_{1} \right )r_{f}.</math>}} == Series == It is great to find these patterns to these sequences, but is that the only use we have for these sequences? As always, the answer in math is never no in regards to a low amount of utility (i.e. usefulness). A function does not only describe the pattern associated with numbers but also predicts the graph created when plotted using <math>x</math> for its inputs and <math>y</math> for its outputs. Using the terms of a sequence, can we determine a sum? We can, and it is called a '''series'''. {{Calculus/Def | title = Definition of a Series. | text = A '''series''' is the sum of the terms of a sequence.}} There is always a way to find the sum of a sequence by force: add up the terms one by one and get the answer. Mathematicians are lazy people and don't want to do more work than necessary. That is to say, mathematicians ''work smart, not hard''. === Arithmetic Series === {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.1.1.a''': What is <math>{1+2+3+\ldots+97+98+99+100}</math>?}} This is a classic example among many mathematicians. You may be reaching for your calculator, but that will definitely take a long time to punch in all those numbers, and you may accidently make mistakes while writing out the expression. The question is, how do we solve this in the short amount of time we are given on the CLEP exam? Notice that there is a pattern at play: the first term of the series, <math>1</math>, plus the last term of the series, <math>100</math>, will give us <math>101</math>. The second term of the series, <math>2</math>, plus the second-to-last term of the series, <math>99</math>, will give us <math>101</math>. In fact, for all <math>100</math> terms in the series, each pair of numbers, according to their "placement," adds to <math>101</math>. Since there are <math>50</math> pairs in this series, and the sum of each pair of numbers always yields <math>101</math>, <math display="block">101\cdot50=5050 \text{ is the sum of the expression above.}</math>{{Robox/Close}} Let us make a conjecture for the above statement. After all, we are not robots that are simply fed a method and do something the same way. We will contract parts of the above expression in the question above to see if our method will be useful for any number of terms. Let <math>n</math> be the number of terms in the arithmetic series <math>A_{E}</math>, let <math>S</math> be the sum of <math>A_{E}</math>, and let <math>S_{m}</math> be the column in which the same method we used in Example 2.1.1.a will, hopefully, get us the sum <math>S</math>. <math display = "block">\begin{array}{|c|c|} n & A_{E} & S & S_{m} \\ \hline 2 & 1+2 & 3 & (1+2)\cdot1=3\\ \hline 3 & 1+2+3 & 6 & (1+3)\cdot1.5=6\\ \hline 4 & 1+2+3+4 & 10 & (1+4)\cdot2=10\\ \hline 5 & 1+2+3+4+5 & 15 & (1+5)\cdot2.5=15\\ \hline \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots\\ \hline n & 1+2+\ldots+(n-1)+n & S & (1+n)\cdot{n \over 2}=S \end{array} \! </math> <!--Do not delete \!. This is to keep the equation rendered as a PNG instead of HTML.--> Notice how the odd terms have this weird (or perhaps ''odd'') behavior where not all pairs of terms have the same sum (because there is not an even amount of pairs). While it may seem that using the method in Example 2.1.1.a will work for all odd number of terms based on the table above, maybe it is not true for some really high odd term. Therefore, it is important to prove this is true. For now, let us simply define the formula to be true for both even and odd number of terms. {{Calculus/Def | title = Gaussian method for finding the sum of an arithmetic series. | text = For any '''finite''' sequence <math>{\left \{ x_i \right \} }</math>, where <math>x_i = a+(i-1)d</math>, that contains <math>k</math> terms, the sum of each term is <math display="block">S_{A}={a+x_{k} \over 2}\cdot k.</math>}} A '''finite''' set of things is something that has a determined ''number'' of anythng within that set. An '''infinite''' set is a set ''not'' described by a determined number of the amount within that set. Note: the above formula is not known as the "Gaussian method" among mathematicians. This wikibooks will simply refer to this method as the "Gaussian method."^{''[see footnote 1.]''} {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.1.1.b''': Knowing the sum to an arithmetic series is <math>600</math> and the first term is <math>50</math> but the last term is <math>250</math>, what is the constant difference?}} This seems like an impossible problem to someone who does not know about the Gaussian method or the properties of an arithmetic sequence. However, since you have paid attention, you can figure out for yourself. For the purposes of giving an example, this Wikibooks will explain. We do not know how many terms there are in the sequence, so let's find out how many terms there are. Since<br> <math display="block">S_{A}={a+x_{k} \over 2}\cdot k,</math> <math display="block">600={50+250 \over 2}\cdot k.</math> This subject is not called College Algebra for nothing, so do some algebra. <math display="block">600={300 \over 2}\cdot k</math> <math display="block">600=150k</math> <math display="block">40=k</math> Note, however, that we are not looking for the number of terms in the series. We want to know the constant difference of the arithmetic series. Therefore, use the arithmetic sequence direct formula: <math>x_{k}=a+d(k-1)</math>! <math display="block">x_{40}=250</math> <math display="block">250=50+d(40-1)</math> <math display="block">200=39d</math> <math display="block">{200 \over 39}=d</math> <math display="block">5{5 \over 39}=d</math>{{Robox/Close}} '''Example 2.2.1.b''' helps us know how to find the number of terms and the constant difference. Sometimes, you may simply not know one or both of the information you needed to find in Example 2.2.1.b., more often the number of terms. The next example helps illustrate the usefulness of knowing about the properties of arithmetic series and arithmetic sequences. {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.1.1.c''': What is the sum of the arithmetic series <math>{4+9+14+\ldots+2,494+2,499+2,504}</math>?}} To find the sum, we need to know how many terms there are; otherwise we cannot use the Gaussian method. Because we do not know the sum of the series, let's use the direct arithmetic sequence formula (since we know which terms correspond to place). We want to find the number of terms, <math>k</math>, so use the last term (<math>x_{k}=2,504</math>). First, find the constant difference. To get from <math>4</math> to <math>9</math>, we need to add <math>5</math> to <math>4</math>. Therefore, the constant difference is <math>d=5</math>. To put it more formally: if recursive formula <math>x_{1}=4; x_{2}=4+d</math> and <math>x_{2}=9</math>, then <math>x_{1}=4; 9=4+d</math> means <math>d=5</math>. Second, find the number of terms. If <math>x_{k}=2,504</math>, <math>d=5</math>, and <math>x_{1}=a=4</math>, then <math>2,504=4+5(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math>: <math display="block">2,500=5(k-1)</math> <math display="block">500=k-1</math> <math display="block">501=k.</math> Finally, use the Gaussian Method: <math display="block">S_{A}={4+2,504 \over 2}\cdot 501</math> <math display="block">S_{A}={2,508 \over 2}\cdot 501</math> <math display="block">S_{A}=1,254\cdot 501</math> <math display="block">S_{A}=628,254.</math>{{Robox/Close}} As you can see, an arithmetic series can be useful in describing any type of sequence. Now that we have sufficiently explored arithmetic series, let's prove that the Gaussian method works for odd number of terms. ''Note: what you are about to learn is NOT required for the curriculum. If you do not understand this proof, do not worry, for it does not matter for the CLEP exam. These proofs are only to build a mathematical understanding of the concepts. As such, you may skip these if you want.'' {{Calculus/Def | title = Given that <math>{a+x_{k} \over 2}\cdot k</math> finds the sum of an arithmetic series, Prove that <math>{a+x_{k} \over 2}\cdot k</math> works for odd number terms. | text = Given there are <math>k</math> terms in the arithmetic sequence, <math>x_{k}=a+d(k-1)</math>. Adding one more term makes the sequence even because <math>k</math> is odd: <math>x_{k+1}=a+d([k+1]-1)=a+dk</math>. Since <math>x_{k+1}=a+dk</math>, adding <math>x_{k+1}</math> to the series makes that the last term, so <math>{a+a+dk \over 2}\cdot(k+1)</math>. Because <math>{x \over z}=xz^{-1}</math> and <math>xz=zx</math>, <math>2^{-1}\cdot(a+a+dk)\cdot(k+1)=(a+a+dk)\cdot2^{-1}(k+1)=(a+a+dk)\cdot{k-1 \over 2}</math>. <math>-(a+dk)+(a+a+dk)\cdot{k-1 \over 2}</math> will help us find the number of terms we are looking for: :<math>{{(2a+dk)(k-1) \over 2}-a-dk={2ak+2a+dk+dk^{2} \over 2}-a-dk={2ak+2a+dk+dk^{2} \over 2}-{2a-2dk \over 2}=}</math> :<math>{{2ak+2a+dk+dk^{2}-2a-2dk \over 2}={2ak-dk+dk^{2} \over 2}={k(2a-d+dk) \over 2}={k \over 2}\cdot(2a-d+dk).}</math> :Since <math>-d+dk</math> has multiplier <math>d</math> for both terms, <math>d(k-1)</math>. :<math>{[2a+d(k-1)]\cdot{k \over 2}=[a+a+d(k-1)]\cdot{k \over 2}}.</math> :Because <math>x_{k}=a+d(k-1)</math>, <math>{[a+a+d(k-1)]\cdot{k \over 2}=\left( a+x_{k} \right)\cdot{k \over 2}={a+x_{k} \over 2} \cdot k}</math>. <math>{a+x_{k} \over 2}\cdot k</math> is the same formula we started with; ergo, the same formula works for odd number terms and even number terms.}} ==== CLEP Practice Problems: Check Your Understanding ==== <quiz display=simple> {Given the arithmetic series <math>50+45+30+\ldots-700</math>, determine the number of terms in the arithmetic series. |type="{}"} { 151 _5 }. (Note: typing a comma will give you a decimal, so do not type a comma.) ||To find the number of terms in the arithmetic series, {Given the arithmetic series <math>50+45+30+\ldots-700</math>, determine the sum of the arithmetic series. |type="{}"} { -49075|-49075 _8}. (Note: typing a comma will give you a decimal, so do not type a comma.) {Function <math>S</math> has the following properties: <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math> and <math>S(x)=3x+1\text{ if }50<x\le200</math>. A student decided to add all terms for all <math>x\in\mathbb{Z}</math> or for all x that belong to the set of integers. What is the sum of the terms of function <math>S</math> for all <math>x\in\mathbb{Z}</math>? |type="()"} - <math>56,625</math> || You were so close! You forgot to add <math>1,065</math> to the sum. For the individual who guessed, know that this question was difficult. First, given that <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, since adding all <math>x</math> for this piece of the function is equivalent to <math>-20-19-18-\ldots+48+49+50</math>, <math>{-20+50 \over 2}k</math> is the sum of that piece. To find the number of terms in that sequence, use the ''direct arithmetic formula'': knowing <math>x_{k}=50</math>, <math>50=-20+(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math> to get <math>71=k</math>. Now find the sum: <math>{-20+50 \over 2}\cdot(71)=1,065</math>. Do the same process for the other piece. Simply substitute those values of <math>x</math> to that piece: <math>3(51)+1=154</math> and <math>3(200)+1=601</math>. Notice that the constant difference is <math>3</math> for every term, because <math>3(52)+1=157</math>, and <math>157-154=3</math>. Since we do not know how many terms there are, solve for <math>k</math>: <math>601=154+3(k-1)\implies 447=3(k-1)\implies 149=k-1\implies 150=k</math>. Find the sum: <math>{154+601 \over 2}\cdot(150)=56,625</math>. Finally, add the two sums of each piece: <math>56,625+1,065=57,690</math>. - <math>57,641</math> || You got some part of it right, but some other part of it wrong. While you were able to determine the sum for all <math>-20\le x\le50</math>, you mistakenly used <math>50\le x\le200</math> instead of <math>50<x\le200</math>. For the individual who guessed, know that this question was difficult. First, given that <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, since adding all <math>x</math> for this piece of the function is equivalent to <math>-20-19-18-\ldots+48+49+50</math>, <math>{-20+50 \over 2}k</math> is the sum of that piece. To find the number of terms in that sequence, use the ''direct arithmetic formula'': knowing <math>x_{k}=50</math>, <math>50=-20+(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math> to get <math>71=k</math>. Now find the sum: <math>{-20+50 \over 2}\cdot(71)=1,065</math>. Do the same process for the other piece. Simply substitute those values of <math>x</math> to that piece: <math>3(51)+1=154</math> and <math>3(200)+1=601</math>. Notice that the constant difference is <math>3</math> for every term, because <math>3(52)+1=157</math>, and <math>157-154=3</math>. Since we do not know how many terms there are, solve for <math>k</math>: <math>601=154+3(k-1)\implies 447=3(k-1)\implies 149=k-1\implies 150=k</math>. Find the sum: <math>{154+601 \over 2}\cdot(150)=56,625</math>. Finally, add the two sums of each piece: <math>56,625+1,065=57,690</math>. + <math>57,690</math> || The person who got this right deserves a round of applause because this question is trickier than you thought at first glance. For the individual that guessed, know that this question is a little more difficult than you most likely expected. First, given that <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, since adding all <math>x</math> for this piece of the function is equivalent to <math>-20-19-18-\ldots+48+49+50</math>, <math>{-20+50 \over 2}k</math> is the sum of that piece. To find the number of terms in that sequence, use the ''direct arithmetic formula'': knowing <math>x_{k}=50</math>, <math>50=-20+(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math> to get <math>71=k</math>. Now find the sum: <math>{-20+50 \over 2}\cdot(71)=1,065</math>. Do the same process for the other piece. Simply substitute those values of <math>x</math> to that piece: <math>3(51)+1=154</math> and <math>3(200)+1=601</math>. Notice that the constant difference is <math>3</math> for every term, because <math>3(52)+1=157</math>, and <math>157-154=3</math>. Since we do not know how many terms there are, solve for <math>k</math>: <math>601=154+3(k-1)\implies 447=3(k-1)\implies 149=k-1\implies 150=k</math>. Find the sum: <math>{154+601 \over 2}\cdot(150)=56,625</math>. Finally, add the two sums of each piece: <math>56,625+1,065=57,690</math>. - <math>57,450</math> || Note that your answer is very wrong. You may have used the correct numbers for <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, but the individual determined that there were 70 terms instead of 71 (make sure to include the first term). Second, make sure to use the correct numbers for <math>S(x)=3x+1\text{ if }50<x\le200</math>. Use all numbers above 50. For the individual that guessed, know that this question is a little more difficult than you most likely expected. First, given that <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, since adding all <math>x</math> for this piece of the function is equivalent to <math>-20-19-18-\ldots+48+49+50</math>, <math>{-20+50 \over 2}k</math> is the sum of that piece. To find the number of terms in that sequence, use the ''direct arithmetic formula'': knowing <math>x_{k}=50</math>, <math>50=-20+(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math> to get <math>71=k</math>. Now find the sum: <math>{-20+50 \over 2}\cdot(71)=1,065</math>. Do the same process for the other piece. Simply substitute those values of <math>x</math> to that piece: <math>3(51)+1=154</math> and <math>3(200)+1=601</math>. Notice that the constant difference is <math>3</math> for every term, because <math>3(52)+1=157</math>, and <math>157-154=3</math>. Since we do not know how many terms there are, solve for <math>k</math>: <math>601=154+3(k-1)\implies 447=3(k-1)\implies 149=k-1\implies 150=k</math>. Find the sum: <math>{154+601 \over 2}\cdot(150)=56,625</math>. Finally, add the two sums of each piece: <math>56,625+1,065=57,690</math>. - <math>56,776</math> || Note that your answer is very wrong. You may have used the correct numbers for <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, but the individual determined that there were 70 terms instead of 71 (make sure to include the first term). Second, make sure to use the correct numbers for <math>S(x)=3x+1\text{ if }50<x\le200</math>. Use all numbers above 50. Finally, if you wanted to find the ''sum'' of the two pieces, then you had to add. For the individual that guessed, know that this question is a little more difficult than you most likely expected. First, given that <math>S(x)=x\text{ if }-20\le x\le50</math>, since adding all <math>x</math> for this piece of the function is equivalent to <math>-20-19-18-\ldots+48+49+50</math>, <math>{-20+50 \over 2}k</math> is the sum of that piece. To find the number of terms in that sequence, use the ''direct arithmetic formula'': knowing <math>x_{k}=50</math>, <math>50=-20+(k-1)</math>. Solve for <math>k</math> to get <math>71=k</math>. Now find the sum: <math>{-20+50 \over 2}\cdot(71)=1,065</math>. Do the same process for the other piece. Simply substitute those values of <math>x</math> to that piece: <math>3(51)+1=154</math> and <math>3(200)+1=601</math>. Notice that the constant difference is <math>3</math> for every term, because <math>3(52)+1=157</math>, and <math>157-154=3</math>. Since we do not know how many terms there are, solve for <math>k</math>: <math>601=154+3(k-1)\implies 447=3(k-1)\implies 149=k-1\implies 150=k</math>. Find the sum: <math>{154+601 \over 2}\cdot(150)=56,625</math>. Finally, add the two sums of each piece: <math>56,625+1,065=57,690</math>. {The first term of an arithmetic sequence is <math>a<0</math>. Let there be two separate sequences, <math>\left \{ x_{i} \right\}=a+d(i-1)</math> and <math>\left \{ a_{k} \right\}=a+d(k-1)</math>, with <math>500</math> terms in each sequence. If the constant difference is <math>d<0</math> for <math>\left \{ x_{i} \right\}</math>, but the constant difference is <math>d>0</math> for <math>\left \{ a_{k} \right\}</math>, which of the following must be true? Indicate <u>'''all'''</u> such statements |type="[]"} + <math>x_{1}-x_{2}-\ldots-x_{499}-x_{500}-a_{1}-\ldots-a_{499}-a_{500}=998a</math> + <math>x_{1}+x_{2}+\ldots+x_{499}+x_{500}+a_{1}+\ldots+a_{499}+a_{500}=-1,000a</math> + <math>x_{500}<0</math> </quiz> Note, this practice quiz is unfinished. ==== Proof of Arithmetic Series ==== ''Note: what you are about to learn is NOT required for the curriculum. If you do not understand this proof, do not worry, for it does not matter for the CLEP exam. These proofs are only to build a mathematical understanding of the concepts. As such, you may skip these if you want.'' === Geometric Series === While it is amazing one can find the sum of an arithmetic sequence, what about the sum of a geometric sequence? Thankfully, mathematicians have found a way to calculate this idea. This theorem (not conjecture, as you will hopefully see with the geometric series proof) is one of many ways mathematicians have found solutions to problems coming from the abstract. As always, it is best to understand the way you can use a formula first before getting the formula introduced. To invoke deeper learning, we want to understand the concept, not reciprocate the formula outloud on a test and say, "I know the answer." {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.2.1.a''': What is the sum of the geometric series <math>{1+2+4+8+\ldots+512}</math>?}} Let's define a sum <math>S</math> for the geometric sequence: <math>{1+2+4+8+\ldots+512=S}</math> Notice that all the terms except <math>x_{1}=1</math> has a factor <math>2</math>. Therefore, move the first term to the other side by subtracting <math>1</math>: <math>{2+4+\ldots+512=S-1}</math>. Then, factor the two on the left side: <math display="block">{2(1+2+4+\ldots+256)=S-1}</math> The key discovery of this exercise is noticing that <math>{1+2+4+\ldots+256}</math> is <math>S</math> but without <math>512</math>, so given that <math>{S=1+2+4+8+\ldots+512}</math>, <math display="block">{1+2+4+\ldots+256}=S-512</math> Solve using elementary algebra: <math display="block">{2S-1024=S-1}</math> <math display="block">{2S-S=-1+1024}</math> <math display="block">{S=1023}</math>{{Robox/Close}} Notice how we solved the problem. We said that the sum must equal something positive, so we determined that if it does equal something, we could figure it out in some way without having to do any long calculations. Can we use this method for some general geometric sequence? This how we determine a formula. In your Exploration, you will be tasked with presenting a proof for the formula of the geometric series. We will still give you the formula, but you must prove it yourself in the next exploration. Of course, we will also present another way to prove the geometric series formula in the next section. {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 2-1''': Given: a geometric series with first term <math>a</math>, common ratio <math>r</math>, and <math>k</math> terms.<br> '''Prove''': The sum of a geometric series <math>S={a\left( 1-r^{k} \right) \over 1-r}</math>.|answer=Given <math>k</math> terms, and geometric sequence <math>\left\{ a_{i} \right\} =ar^{i-1}</math> will have added terms up to <math>k</math> in this form: <math>S=a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-1}</math>. We know that <math>S-a</math> will make it so that all terms to the right of the equal sign have factor <math>r</math>. Ergo, <math display="block">S-a=r\left( a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2} \right) .</math> Note that <math>S-ar^{k-1}=a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}</math>, so divide by <math>r</math> and apply the identity to the expression to yield <math display="block">{S - a \over r} = S-ar^{k-1}.</math> Subtract <math>S</math> and write the expression to the left as a fraction: <math display="block">{S - a \over r} - {S \over 1} = {S - a - Sr \over r} = -ar^{k-1}.</math> Multiply by <math>r</math> and add <math>a</math>: <math display="block">S-Sr=a - ar^{k}.</math> Factor <math>S</math> on the left, factor <math>a</math> on the right and divide by <math>1-r</math>: <math display="block">S={a\left( 1 - r^{k} \right) \over 1-r}.</math>}} {{Calculus/Def | title = Formula of the Geometric Series. | text = For any finite geometric sequence <math>{\left \{ x_i \right \} }</math>, where <math>x_i = ar^{i-1}</math>, that contains <math>k</math> terms, the product of each term is <math display="block">S_{G}={a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right ) \over r - 1}</math> for this Wikibooks^{''[see footnote 2]''}.}} <!--Note: will add more example problems in the future.--> ==== Proof of Geometric Series ==== ''Note: what you are about to learn is NOT required for the curriculum. If you do not understand these concepts, do not worry, for it does not matter for the CLEP exam. These proofs are only to build a mathematical understanding of these concepts. As such, you may skip these if you want.'' {{Calculus/Def | title = Given a geometric series with <math>k</math> terms and a common ratio <math>r</math>, prove that the sum of the series, <math>S</math>, equals <math>{a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}</math>.|text = By definition, a geometric series has the sequence <math>x_{i}=x_{1}\cdot r^{i-1}</math>, with <math>x_{1}=a</math>. As a result, the following is true: <math>a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1}</math>. Let <math>a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1}=S</math>. Add <math>ar^{k}</math> to both sides:<br> <math display="block">a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1}+ar^{k}=S+ar^{k}.</math> Subtract <math>a</math> to the other side:<br> <math display="block">ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1}+ar^{k}=S+ar^{k}-a.</math> Factor the common ratio <math>r</math> to all terms in the left side of the equation:<br> <math display="block">r\left ( a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1} \right)=S+ar^{k}-a.</math> Factor <math>a</math> for the expression <math>ar^{k}-a</math> to the right side of the equation:<br> <math display="block">r\left( a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1} \right)=S+a\left( r^{k}-1 \right).</math> Notice that because <math>a+ar+ar^{2}+\ldots+ar^{k-2}+ar^{k-1}=S</math>, we can substitute that into the expression on the left side:<br> <math display="block">rS=S+a\left( r^{k}-1 \right).</math> Finally, solve for <math>S</math>:<br> <math display="block">rS-S=a\left( r^{k}-1 \right)</math> <math display="block">S(r-1)=a\left( r^{k}-1 \right)</math> <math display="block">S={a\left( r^{k}-1 \right) \over r-1}.</math> Therefore, the sum of a geometric series must be <math>S={a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}</math>.}} === Sigma Notation === How many of you are tired of writing out the expressions? How many of you are tired of figuring out how many expressions there are in a series? Where is this short-hand that we conveniently have for an arithmetic or geometric sequence? Thankfully, all of your answers are coming soon. Say you want to write out the expression <math>\underbrace{1+1+1+1+\ldots+1+1}_{500}</math>, in which there are <math>500</math> terms in the series, each of which are the number <math>1</math>. We hopefully can evaluate the series without having to think too much about it, or even think about a short-hand about this expression immediately without too much thought. However, the purpose of this easy exercise is to introduce a new notation. Let <math>\sum</math> denote the sum of a series. Located at the bottom of the symbol is the start of the series at index <math>i=a</math> (blue) and the top of the symbol is the last index of the series, <math>k</math> (red). The term inside the parentheses represents the sequence that the series follows, <math>f(i)</math> (orange). The use of the notation of is shown below <math display="block">\sum_{ {\color{Blue}i=a} }^{ {\color{Red} k} } \left( {\color{Orange} f \left( i \right) } \right) .</math>Here, we know that <math>\left\{ 1, 1, 1, 1, \ldots 1, 1 \right\}</math> must have the sequence <math>x_{i}=1 + 0(i - 1) = 1=f\left( i \right)</math>. Interpreting the meaning of <math>f(i)</math> tells us that for any number in the sequence, the <math>i</math>^th term of the expression is <math>1</math>. Knowing that the sequence starts at index <math>1</math>, meaning <math>i=1</math>, and there are <math>500</math> terms, meaning <math>k=500</math>, we may write the '''sigma notation''' as below: <math display="block">\sum_{ {\color{Blue}i=1} }^{ {\color{Red} 500} } \left( {\color{Orange} 1 } \right) .</math> It is important to write the sigma representation having <math>f(i)</math> in parenthesis. Often, if you don't have it, you can confuse other terms by accident. It is for this reason that this Wikibooks recommends writing the <math>f(i)</math> term in parentheses. {{Calculus/Def | title=Sigma representation of a general series | text=For any series that has formula <math>f(i)</math>, starting from arbitrary point <math>i=a</math>, and given <math>k</math> terms, the '''sigma''' <math>\left( \sum \right)</math> representation is written as follows: <math display="block">\sum_{i=a}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right).</math>}} Some more ways in which sigma notation is written is often a short-hand, especially when handwriting. This should be used if you want to save time. * <math>\sum_{i=a}^{k}\left(f(i)\right) = \sum_{a\le i\le k} \left(f(i)\right)</math> * <math>\sum_{i=a}^{\infty}\left(f(i)\right) = \sum_{i\ge a} \left(f(i)\right)</math> Before we jump into our exploration, it may be a good idea to introduce some more expressions that can be rewritten into its sigma form equivalents. Some of the expressions may not even follow from a formula we have seen so far. Nevertheless, let us continue with this concept. {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.3.1.a''': Write the sequence into its sigma form equivalent: <math>\frac{2}{3}+\frac{3}{4}+\frac{4}{5}+\cdots+\frac{70}{71}+\frac{71}{72}</math>}} A good idea before getting started is to look for any possible patterns. Because you are working with sigma notation, check whether there has to be a pattern involving addition. Look at the numerator of the first two terms. Let us assume we are starting at index <math>i=1</math>. To get from the first term in the numerator to the second term in the numerator, one simply has to add 1 to the first term. Similarly, to get from the first term in the denominator to the second term in the denominator, one simply has to add 2 to the first term. Both of these are true on a term-by-term basis. :<math>f(i)=\frac{i+1}{i+2}</math>. This is easy to verify for every term in its respective index. Because this function is true, let us use this to find the number of terms in the expression (i.e., look at the final term in the expression). :Let <math>f(k)=\frac{71}{72}=\frac{k+1}{k+2}</math>. There are many ways to solve for <math>k</math>, the last term of the expression, in this equation. We will show the standard way. ::<math>\frac{k+1}{k+2}=\frac{71}{72}</math> ::<math>\Leftrightarrow72\cdot(k+1)=71\cdot(k+2)</math> ::<math>\Leftrightarrow72k+72=71k+142</math> ::<math>\Leftrightarrow k=70</math> We have demonstrated this expression involves 70 terms. With the index, number of terms, and function ready, we may now write the sigma equivalent: <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{70}\left(\frac{i+1}{i+2}\right)\blacksquare</math> Alternatively, one can change the index to get a completely different sigma notation. Notice how when the index starts at an <math>i>1</math>, the formula and the final term's index also changes. Here, we will look specifically at <math>i=2</math>. Keeping in mind the index represents the placement along the series, going from 2 to 3 is simply a matter of changing along with the numerator. Because the denominator is simply the same idea except displaced by 1 more than the index, the denominator follows a pattern of <math>i+1</math>. Therefore, the function of the sigma notation is :<math>g(i)=\frac{i}{i+1}</math>. This is easy to verify for every term in its respective index. Use this function to find the the final term's index. :Let <math>f(k)=\frac{71}{72}=\frac{k}{k+1}</math>. We will solve this one the simplest way. Because both the numerator and the denominator are constant, non-zero terms, and <math>k</math> is simply an expression of the index for its final term, one can simply set the numerator equal to the other numerator, and the same is true for the denominator. That is, ::<math>\begin{cases} k=71 \\ k+1=72 \end{cases}</math> :This is perhaps the easiest systems of equations one had to deal with this year learning college algebra. From this, it is obvious <math>k=71</math>. Knowing the index starting point, function, and final index, the sigma form of this situation is <math display="block">\sum_{i=2}^{71}\left(\frac{i}{i+1}\right)\blacksquare</math> Notice how the pattern changed. Quite intriguing, would you not say? {{Robox/Close}} Some expressions are too hard to determine simply from looking. These are likely going to involve factors multiplied to another. THe best way to determine such a pattern would be to divide terms to see what the factors are. {{ExampleRobox|theme=3|title='''Example 2.3.1.b''': Write the sequence into its sigma form equivalent: <math>0-2-2+0+4+10+\ldots</math>}} There seems to be no pattern here. The best thing to do is to determine any similarities between terms and see if there seems to be a pattern from there. Notice how the first and fourth term are zero. This means that there is a term that allows us to obtain a value of zero. Let us assume they are linear functions. If <math>k=0</math> is the index of the first term and <math>k=3</math> is the third term, then a possible summation function is <math>\sum_{k\ge0} \left(k(k-3)\right)</math>. Let us apply this and see if it works. * <math>k=0\Rightarrow 0</math> * <math>k=1\Rightarrow -2</math> * <math>k=2\Rightarrow -2</math> * <math>k=3\Rightarrow 0</math> * <math>k=4\Rightarrow 4</math> * <math>k=5\Rightarrow 10</math> It seems this function works for each term. Therefore, this works. : <math>\sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \left(k(k-3)\right)=\sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \left(k^{2}-3k\right)\blacksquare</math> {{Robox/Close}} ''More examples will be added later.'' The next exploration will ask you write out a variety of expressions using sigma form: {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 2-2''': Rewrite each expression below into its sigma form equivalent:<br> (a) <math>1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +\ldots + 541 + 543</math><br> (b) <math>1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 8}</math><br> (c) <math>1 + 2 + 3 + \ldots + 99 + 100 + 102 + 104 + \ldots + 200</math><br> (d) <math>100 - 20 + 4 - {4 \over 5} + {4 \over 25} - 100 - 120 - 140</math>|answer=To answer each question, you need to know how many terms are in each series. The only way to determine that is by determining the type of sequence being applied. (a) Remember how we needed to find out how many terms there are in a sequence and the constant difference to find the sum of an arithmetic sequence? It is the same here. The sigma representation, well, ''represents'' the adding of each term in the series. In which case, we need to know the constant difference and the number of terms in the series to determine any validity from it. Note how <math>\left\{ 1,\,3,\,5,\,\ldots,\,543 \right\}</math> is an arithmetic sequence that has the common difference two. Therefore, given the first term is <math>1</math>, the arithmetic sequence formula is <math>x_{i}=1 + 2(i - 1) = f(i)</math>. From this, we can determine the final term's position: <math>543=1 + 2(i-1)</math>. After solving for <math>i</math>, you find that there are <math>i=273</math> terms in the sequence. As such, you may finally write out the final answer:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{273} \left( 1 + 2\left( i - 1 \right)\right).</math><br> Note, because you can start counting the terms at <math>i=0</math>, you may rewrite the expression as follows:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=0}^{272} \left( 1 + 2i\right).</math> (b) Use the same idea from item (a) to rewrite the expression into its sigma equivalent. Notice that the series shows a geometric series, with common ratio of <math>{1 \over 2}</math> starting at <math>1</math>. Therefore, <math>f(i)=\left( { 1 \over 2} \right)^{i-1}</math>. Since there is no need to use a formula to find out how many terms there are in the series, simply count and you have your answer:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{4} \left( {1 \over 2} \right)^{i-1}.</math><br> Again, you may rewrite the sigma form equivalent starting at <math>i=0</math>:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=0}^{3} \left( {1 \over 2} \right)^{i}.</math> (c) There are two series shown in the expression. Separate each series within as the following: <math>f_{1}\left( i \right) = 1 + 2 + 3 + \ldots + 99</math> and <math>f_{2}\left( i \right) = 100 + 102 + 104 + \ldots + 200</math>. Both <math>f_{1}</math> and <math>f_{2}</math> are arithmetic sequences but with different differences and starting numbers. Instead of explaining each one, only the formula will be provided for each sequence: <math>f_{1}(i)=1+1(i-1)</math> and <math>f_{2}(i)=100+2(i-1)</math>. Note that the starting number and end numbers are not appropriate to use in the same sigma notation, so separate them into two sigma representations and add them together. Thus, the sigma representation for this expression is<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{99} (1 + 1(i-1)) + \sum_{i=1}^{51} (100 + 2(i-1)).</math><br> Do you see why we ask you to write the formula using parentheses? Also, you may have separated the series differently. In which case, if <math>f_{1}\left( i \right) = 1 + 2 + 3 + \ldots + 99 + 100</math> and <math>f_{2}\left( i \right) = 102 + 104 + \ldots + 200</math>, then <math>f_{1}(i)=1+1(i-1)</math> and <math>f_{2}(i)=102+2(i-1)</math>, where <math>f_{1}</math> has <math>100</math> terms and <math>f_{1}</math> has <math>50</math> terms. Therefore, another representation is also appropriate:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{100} (1 + 1(i-1)) + \sum_{i=1}^{50} (100 + 2(i-1)).</math> (d) There are two series shown in the expression. Separate each series within as the following: <math>f_{1}\left( i \right) = 100 - 20 + 4 - {4 \over 5} + {4 \over 25}</math> and <math>f_{2}\left( i \right) = - 100 - 120 - 140</math>. While <math>f_{1}</math> is geometric, with common ratio <math>-{1 \over 5}</math>, <math>f_{2}</math> is arithmetic, with constant difference <math>-20</math>. Instead of explaining each one, only the formula will be provided for each sequence: <math>f_{1}(i)=100\left( -{1 \over 5} \right)^{i-1}</math> and <math>f_{2}(i)=-100-20(i-1)</math>. Because of the difference in formula and difference in starting numbers used, it is impossible to put them together in the same sum. Therefore, the sigma form of the series is<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{5} \left( 100\left( -{1 \over 5} \right)^{i-1}\right) + \sum_{i=1}^{3} (-100-20(i-1)).</math><br> Notice how you added the other term instead of substracting. If you were to subtract the second sigma representation you would in effect flip the sign on every other term. As such, the second series representation would be wrong unless you were to change it to this:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{5} \left( 100\left( -{1 \over 5} \right)^{i-1}\right) - \sum_{i=1}^{3} (100+20(i-1)).</math>}} ==== Sigma Simplification Techniques ==== In some textbooks, this section would be called rules. We call them what they really are: techniques to simplify common sigma representations. {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series that has constant term <math>c</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c \right)=ck.</math>}} As always, if you are confused, write out some terms. The above sigma representation states that for any constant term <math>c</math> added <math>k</math> times, the resulting sum is equivalent to <math>\underbrace{c+c+c+\ldots+c+c+c}_{k}=ck</math>. Never forget that multiplication is repeated addition. This axiom you heard in elementary school is still important to this day. {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series that has constant term <math>c</math> multiplied by changing index <math>i</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ci \right)=c\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( i \right).</math>}} This second "rule" can be simplified as the following. Since <math>\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ci \right)</math>, we can conclude that <math>\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ci \right)=1c+2c+3c+\ldots+c(k-2)+c(k-1)+ck</math>. Each term in the expression <math>1c+2c+3c+\ldots+c(k-2)+c(k-1)+ck</math> has common factor <math>c</math>, so <math>c(1 + 2 + 3 +\ldots+(k-2)+(k-1)+k)</math>. Notice that each term on the inside of the parenthesis is a basic series where <math>i</math> starting at <math>1</math> goes to final term <math>k</math> as a sum, so <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ci \right)=c\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( i \right).</math> {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series that has constant term <math>c</math> in addition to changing index <math>i</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+i \right)=kc+\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( i \right).</math>}} This one is harder to see why it is true. As always, however, try it out by hand. Remember that sigma notations are short hands of sums that have some sort of formula, so write out a term in case you are ever confused. Notice that <math>\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+i \right)=(c+1)+(c+2)+(c+3)+(c+4)+\ldots+(c+k-1)+(c+k)</math>. Because adding is commutative, and because the parentheses do not change the sum of the series, you may group terms such that <math>(c+1)+(c+2)+(c+3)+(c+4)+\ldots+(c+k-1)+(c+k)=\underbrace{c+c+c+c+\ldots+c+c}_{k} + (1+2+3+\ldots+k-1+k)</math> We have already determined the sigma notation for each grouping, so we may put it together to say the following is true: <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+i \right)=kc+\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( i \right).</math> {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series that has constant term <math>c</math> in addition to the range of the function of <math>i</math> or <math>f\left( i \right)</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+f\left( i \right) \right)=kc+\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right).</math>}} Realize that the above "rule" is simply an extension of the previous one. If <math>f(i)=i</math>, then <math>\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+f\left( i \right) \right)=kc+\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right)</math>. Realize that any function can comply with this rule. By extension: <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( cf\left( i \right) \right)=c\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right)</math> Using this general knowledge, one can also argue the next following "rule": {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series that has constant term <math>a</math> multiplied by the function of <math>i</math> or <math>f\left( i \right)</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, when adding constant <math>c</math> to the product, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( c+af\left( i \right) \right)=kc+a\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right).</math>}} Given the way we found the same identities, you may do the proof for this one by yourself as an exercise in sigma notation. The best way to understand this new notation is to practice it. (Of course, this Wikibooks will provide plenty of practice.) Along with that practice, you may also try to show that the identity for the next "rule" is also true: {{Calculus/Def | text=For any series in which the formula is two different arbitrary functions: <math>f\left( i \right)</math> and <math>g\left( i \right)</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right)+g\left( i \right) \right)=\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( f\left( i \right) \right) + \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( g\left( i \right) \right).</math>}} With this, you now have a sufficient foundation for the necessary tools needed to prove and disprove statements as well as create your own identity. Before we move on the next section, we must mention the sigma identity for each of the series type we learned in this wikibooks. ==== Sigma Identities for Series Types ==== What is the sigma identity of an arithmetic series? Before we give you the identity, it is important to understand arithmetic series. If the person reading this wikibooks has jumped from one section to the other, we may recommend you read anything from the previous if the current reasoning seems to not make sense. First, how do we write an arithmetic sequence using a formula? Like this:<br> <math display="block">x_{k} = a + (k-1)d.</math><br> The formula for how to find an arithmetic series is this:<br> <math display="block">S_{a}={a + x_{k} \over 2} k.</math><br> Notice how <math>x_{k}</math> is in both formulas, so substitute <math>x_{k}</math> for <math>a+(k-1)d</math> and you get:<br> <math display="block">S_{a}={2a + (k-1)d \over 2} k = ak + {(k-1)d \over 2} k = \left[ 2a + (k-1)d \right] {k \over 2}.</math><br> Because <math>x_{k} = a + (k-1)d.</math> is also a formula that helps us find each term in the series, we have finally created our sigma identity: {{Calculus/Def | title=Formula for an Arithmetic Series in Sigma Form | text=An arithmetic series in which the formula is <math>f(i) = a + (i-1)d</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( a + (i-1)d \right)={2a + (k-1)d \over 2} \cdot k.</math>}} We can use the same process to find the sum of a geometric series. You may consider this your next exercise proving that the sigma form of the geometric series is the same one shown below. {{Calculus/Def | title=Formula for a Geometric Series in Sigma Form | text=A geometric series in which the formula is <math>f(i) = ar^{i-1}</math>, starting from index <math>i=1</math>, and given <math>k</math> total terms, <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r-1}.</math>}} ==== Check Your Understanding ==== The problems below are basically comprehension questions. If you can do all the problems below, you understand all you need to know about sigma notations. Keep in mind, these problems are much harder than usual CLEP problems; however, being able to do these problems with proficiency proves understanding of the material at a deeper level, which means you are better prepared for easier problems and harder problems down the line. {{Question-answer|question= '''<u>Non</u>-calculator problem. Expected completion time: 30 minutes.'''<br> 1. Find the smallest <math>x</math> necessary to give the smallest real number for the expression below. After, simplify and calculate for the smallest real value. Do <u>not</u> round your answer, and do <u>not</u> use a calculator or program. <math display="block">\log_{5} \left(\sum_{i=1}^{x} \left( -500 + {1 \over 3}i \right)\right)</math><br> |answer= Remember, <math>\log_{a} c = b</math> is the inverse of an exponential equation <math>a^{b}=c</math>. The properties are the following: <math>\left\{ a \vert a>0,\, a\ne1 \right\},\,\left\{ b \vert b>0,\, b\in\mathbb{R} \right\}\text{ and},\,c>0</math>. The real number requirement comes in the form of <math>c>0</math>, that is the inside of a logarithm must have a result of greater than zero (it cannot equal zero). This is the first step to solving the problem.<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{x} \left( -500 + {1 \over 3}i \right) > 0</math><br> Separate the two expressions inside the sum by applying a property rule, given constant <math>C=-500</math> and <math>f(i)={1 \over 3}i</math>:<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{x} \left( -500 + {1 \over 3}i \right) = -500x + \sum_{i=1}^{x} {1 \over 3}i > 0</math><br> Since <math>\sum_{k=1}^{n} Cf(i) = C\sum_{k=1}^{n} f(i)</math>, and <math>f(i)</math> is arithmetic, it must be that case that<br> <math display="block">\sum_{i=1}^{x} {1 \over 3}i = {1 \over 3} \cdot {1 + x \over 2}x = {1 \over 3} \cdot {x(x + 1) \over 2} = {x(x + 1) \over 6}.</math><br> From there, put the sum of the two expressions over the same denominator and simplify:<br> :<math>-500x + {x(x + 1) \over 6} > 0</math><br> :<math>\Rightarrow{-3000x \over 6} + {x(x + 1) \over 6} > 0</math><br> :<math>\Rightarrow{-3000x + x^2 + x \over 6} > 0</math><br> :<math>\Rightarrow{-2999x + x^2 \over 6} > 0</math><br> :<math>\Rightarrow -2999x + x^2 > 0</math><br> :<math>\Rightarrow x(x-2999) > 0</math> Finally, note that the zero factor property gives <math>ab=0</math> if and only if <math>a=0</math> or <math>b=0</math> or both. However, for a zero factor property in which the two multipliers give a positive product, it must be the case that either <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are positive or <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> are negative. Through that logic, we can determine four possible solutions: <math>x>0</math> ''and'' <math>x>2999</math>, OR <math>x<0</math> ''and'' <math>x<2999</math>. Despite the four solutions, only one solution must be true: <math>x>2999</math> because sigma notations only work through <math>x\in\mathbb{Z^{+}}</math> or <math>x</math> being the set of positive integers in the situation described in the problem. As such, all <math>x</math> ''greater than'' <math>2999</math> gives an acceptable solution. However, this is only the first part of the problem. Now comes the easy part. The smallest number must be <math>x=3000</math> in the situation described above:<br> :<math>\begin{align} \log_{5}\left(\sum_{i=1}^{3,000}\left(-500+{1 \over 3}i\right)\right)&=\log_{5} \left(-500(3,000)+{3,000(3,000+1)\over6}\right)\\ &=\log_{5}\left(-1,500,000+500(3000 + 1)\right)\\ &=\log_{5} \left( -1,500,000 + 1,500,000 + 500)\right)\\ &=\log_{5} \left(500 \right) \end{align}</math> Finally, simplify <math>\log_{5} \left( 500 \right)</math> to get the final answer: :<math>\begin{align} \log_{5}\left(500\right)&=\log_{5}\left(100\cdot5\right)\\ &=\log_{5}\left(10^{2}\cdot5\right)\\ &=\log_{5}\left((5\cdot2)^{2}\cdot5\right)\\ &=\log_{5}\left(5^{2}\cdot2^{2}\cdot5\right)\\ &=\log_{5}\left(2^{2}\cdot5^{3}\right)\\ &=3\log_{5}\left(5\right)+2\log_{5}\left(2\right)+1\\ &=3+2\log_{5}\left(2\right)\blacksquare \end{align}</math>}} {{Question-answer|question='''<u>Calculator</u> problem. Expected completion time: 30 minutes.'''<br> 3. A <math>58\times1</math> rectangle is drawn on the first quadrant of the <math>xy</math> plane. A ''cut-and-paste'' is an iterative process such that the original rectangle is duplicated and the width of the duplication decreases by <math>3</math> units and the height of the duplication increases by <math>1</math> unit. This new rectangle is displaced atop the original with its left-most height attached leftmost the original. The duplication is then cut-and-paste. This process continues until the width of the final duplication is at least <math>1</math> unit or at most <math>3</math> units. The length must be an integer. Given the <math>58\times1</math> rectangle, what is the cumulative area of the cut-and-paste figure? Write this in terms of a summation and then write the final answer. Show your work. |answer=The easiest way to answer this question would be to write the summation in terms of the area of a rectangle; so long as the width and the height increase together, and can be evaluated together, so too can the entire area. First, one wrong answer will be listed: :<math>A(20)=\sum_{i=1}^{19}\left(-500 +{1\over3}i\right)\cdot\sum_{i=1}^{19}\left(i\right)=5900</math> Notice the why the above answer is wrong. Multiplying the products of two sums does not imply the product is the sum of each index. It is the product of the sum of all the index with the given functions. The student that realizes this mistake will soon realize this problem is harder than it is. The problem can be easily fixed if one fixes the parentheses. Recall how we always state to pay attention to parentheses. This is one big reason why. The student that made the mistake above realizes a trick but did not utilize it correctly. As a result, the above answer is an <u>over-estimate</u> of the correctly applied solution. Let the length of each index be <math>l(i)</math> and the width be <math>w(i)</math>. Analyzing the pattern for this above process gives us insight into the resulting area of the cumulative area for each index. We want to find the end result, some <math>k</math>, that allows the width to be the following: :<math>1\le l(k)\le3</math>. First, notice how function <math>l(i)</math> is arithmetic and decreasing. We start at <math>l(1)=58</math>, and the difference is <math>3</math>, so :<math>l(i)=58-3(i-1)</math>. The same is true for <math>w(i)</math>. Because the width starts at <math>i=1</math> and ends at <math>i=k</math>, :<math>w(i)=i</math> Given we know <math>1\le l(k)\le3</math>, :<math>1\le 58-3(k-1)\le3</math> :<math>-57\le -3(k-1)\le -55</math> :<math>19\le k-1\le \frac{55}{3}</math> :<math>20\le k\le \frac{55}{3}+1</math> For <math>l(k)\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math>, <math>k=20</math>. Therefore, <math>w(20)</math> is also a maximum. The cumulative area function is given by: :<math>A(k)=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left[w(i)\cdot l(i)\right]</math> All that is left to do is apply the formulas and use a calculator to find the answer: :<math>\begin{align} A(k) &= \sum_{i=1}^{k}\left[(i)\cdot\left(58-3(i-1)\right)\right] \\ &= \sum_{i=1}^{k}\left[58i-3i(i-1)\right] \\ &= \sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(58i-3i^{2}-3i\right) \\ &= \sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(55i-3i^{2}\right) \end{align}</math> :<math>A(20)=2940\text{ units}^{2}\blacksquare</math>}} === Infinite Geometric Series === There is this old and famous paradox that perplexed many who listened to it. The problem stems from the Greek thinker Zeno of Elea. This old adage was the first example of ''reductio ad absurdum'' (disproving a statement by showing that the application of the statement will lead to a contradiction, and so the original statement cannot be true). However, today, a version is no longer a paradox, and it took the invention of calculus to prove this enigma is not an enigma^{[''see footnote 3'']}. The version of the problem that demonstrates the enigma is proven and shown below. '''Note''': the paradox will be shown soon. The age-old questions of most students in mathematics arise: "When are we going to need this?" The next exploration gives one problem in which everything you have learned will be tested. This is definitely harder than many CLEP exam questions; however, problems are what make you better at math. You learn as you do, and so you must. {{Question-answer|question='''Exploration 2-3''': Given each expression converges to a finite value, evaluate each expression in items (a) - (c). Use the infinite geometric series summation identity to solve these questions.<br> (a) <math>10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}</math><br> (b) <math>10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{\ldots}}}}}}</math><br> :(i) Given general form <math>a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{\ldots}}}}}}</math> of expression (b), find at least two integers, <math>a</math> and <math>n</math>, that will make the general expression equal to a perfect cube number. If it is impossible, prove that it is not possible.<br> (c) <math>3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}}</math><br> :(i) Given general form <math>a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}}</math> of expression (c), prove there are infinitely many distinct integers <math>a</math> and <math>b</math> that will make the general expression equal to a perfect square. Give at least <u>one</u> example. |answer= Notice that the problems are arranged such that the items start off with a concrete example and then get generalized in some way after the problem is first introduced. If the individual clicked this for a hint of how to solve the problem, look at the first item solution. After you have understood how this Wikibooks reached the conclusion, close this and try the other problems this time. (a) Since each term must converge to some finite value, and since each term in the sequence is multiplied by the <math>\sqrt{10}</math>, it is best to think of this problem as if were one term in the sequence. Discover the pattern and you may evaluate each series. Let <math>x_1=10</math>. Note that :<math>\begin{align} x_{2} &= 10\sqrt{x_{1}}\\ &= 10\sqrt{10}\\ &= 10\cdot10^{1 \over 2}\\ &= 10^{1+{1 \over 2}} \end{align}</math> If we keep the pattern going for each term, we find that <math>x_{n}=10\sqrt{x_{n-1}} = 10^{1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + \ldots + {1 \over 2^{n}}}</math>. This is simply a recursive geometric sequence, so in effect, as we keep adding terms to infinity in the exponent, <math>10^{1+{1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + \ldots + {1 \over 2^{n}} + \ldots}</math>. Note that <math>1+{1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + \ldots</math> is an infinite geometric series, so we may use the summation formula:<br> :<math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}</math>. Therefore, because <math>{1 \over 1 - {1 \over 2}} = 2</math>, the following is also true: <math>10^{2}=100</math>. As such,<br> <math display="block">10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{10\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}=100</math> '''Note:''' there is another way to "solve" these type of expressions; however, the method does not "prove" the general convergence towards a number and simply denotes a probable solution(s) to the problem. Using the method above will demonstrate clear convergence rather than the other method. (b) The same idea for (a) is used. The only difference will be that the sequence denotes a general pattern for a given term inside a square root. Note that first term <math>a=10</math> and second term <math>a_{2}=10\sqrt[n]{10}</math>. Given <math>\sqrt[k]{a^{m}}=a^{m \over k}</math>, the following must be true: <math>a_{2}=10^{1+\frac{1}{n}}</math>. If we keep the pattern going, we find the following is true: <math>a_{L}=10^{1+\frac{1}{n}+\frac{1}{n^{2}}+\ldots+\frac{1}{n^{L-1}}}</math>. As you keep going towards infinity, the power has an infinite geometric series that has<br> :<math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}={1 \over 1 - \frac{1}{n}}</math>. Note: <math>{1 \over 1 - \frac{1}{n}}={1 \over \frac{n}{n} - \frac{1}{n}}={1 \over \frac{n-1}{n}}=\frac{n}{n-1}</math>, the following is also true: <math>10^{\frac{n}{n-1}}</math>. As such,<br> <math display="block">10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{10\sqrt[n]{\ldots}}}}}}=10^{\frac{n}{n-1}}.</math> :(i) :Let <math>x\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math> be a perfect cubed number <math>u^{3}=x</math> for <math>u\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math>. If <math>a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{\ldots}}}}}}=x=u^{3}</math>, then for <math>a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{a\sqrt[n]{\ldots}}}}}}=a^{\frac{n}{n-1}}</math>, <math>a=u</math>. :Given this information, ::<math>\frac{n}{n-1}=3\Leftrightarrow 3(n-1)=n</math> ::<math>\Leftrightarrow 3n-3=n \Leftrightarrow n=\frac{2}{3}</math> :Because <math>n</math> does not belong to the set of integers, there can be no possible solution for this given problem. <math>\blacksquare</math> (c) Again, a similar idea is used as in (a) for solving the expression, although this one may be the most difficult one. Here, the difference is you cannot use simply <math>3</math> because <math>5</math> is inside the square root. Instead, use <math>x_{1}=3\sqrt{5}</math>. To continue the second sequence, <math>x_{2}=3\sqrt{5\sqrt{x_{1}}}</math>. In fact, the recursive formula continues as such: <math>x_{n}=3\sqrt{5\sqrt{x_{n-1}}}</math>. Focus on <math>x_{2}</math>:<br> :<math>x_{2}=3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{5}}}=3\left(5\left[3\left(5\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\right]^{\frac{1}{2}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}=3\cdot5^{\frac{1}{8}}\cdot3^{\frac{1}{4}}\cdot5^{\frac{1}{2}}</math><br> Because multiplying is commutative, multiply all terms involving the same base to the other and group it like so:<br> :<math>3\cdot5^{\frac{1}{8}}\cdot3^{\frac{1}{4}}\cdot5^{\frac{1}{2}}=\left(3\cdot3^{\frac{1}{4}}\right)\cdot\left(5^{\frac{1}{2}}\cdot5^{\frac{1}{8}}\right)=\left(3^{1+\frac{1}{4}}\right)\left(5^{\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{8}}\right)</math>.<br> From here, it is very easy to see that the expression <math>\left(3^{1+\frac{1}{4}}\right)\left(5^{\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{8}}\right)</math> will on the next pattern be <math>\left(3^{1+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{16}}\right)\left(5^{\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{8}+\frac{1}{32}}\right)</math>. This is simply because the values alternate inside the given square root. As the value of one is alternated, the value of each square root increases by <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> per number. Since a multiple of each number does not care about the order by which it is multiplied (i.e. multiplication is commutative), place the common base multipliers next to the other to get what we found. Therefore, a pattern emerges that can be exploited:<br> <math display="block">\left(3^{f(n)}\right)\left(5^{g(n)}\right)\text{, where }f(n)=\sum_{n=1}^{k} \left(\frac{1}{4}\right)^{n}\text{ and }g(n)=\sum_{n=1}^{k} \left(\frac{1}{2}\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]^{n}\right).</math> Let <math>k</math> tend towards infinity. Evaluate each function to find the final value:<br> :<math>f(n)=\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(\frac{1}{4}\right)^{n}=\frac{1}{\frac{3}{4}}=\frac{4}{3}.</math><br> :<math>g(n)=\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(\frac{1}{2}\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]^{n}\right)=\frac{\frac{1}{2}}{\frac{3}{4}}=\frac{2}{3}.</math> Therefore, the final value for (c) must be<br> <math display="block">3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{5\sqrt{3\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}}=\left(3^{\frac{4}{3}}\right)\left(5^{\frac{2}{3}}\right).</math> :(i) :As can be easily be inferred from item (c), <math>a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{b\sqrt{a\sqrt{\ldots}}}}}}}=a^{\frac{4}{3}}b^{\frac{2}{3}}</math>. To make the result a positive integer, where <math>a^{\frac{4}{3}}b^{\frac{2}{3}}\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math>, it needs to be the case that <math>a=u^3</math> and <math>b=v^{3}</math>, for <math>u,v\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math>. :Let <math>a^{\frac{4}{3}}b^{\frac{2}{3}}=t^{2}\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math>. Substituting for information we know, ::<math>u^{4}v^{2}=t^{2}</math>. :Let <math>u^{4}=s^{2}</math>. ::<math>s^{2}v^{2}=t^{2}\Leftrightarrow (sv)^{2}=t^{2} \Rightarrow sv=t</math>. :There exists some <math>a,b\in\mathbb{Z}^{+}</math> that allows the expression to be square. Because a value simply needs to be cube for each, there exists infinitely many possibilities. <math>\blacksquare</math> One non-trivial example would be <math>(a,b)=(29\,791, 887\,503 \,681)</math>, which will result in the perfect square <math>8.52891037\cdot10^{11}</math>, for which the square root gives <math>923\,521</math>. Taking the square root further gives <math>961</math>; furthering such actions gives <math>31</math>.}} ==== Proof of Infinite Geometric Series ==== <math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}\text{ if }0< \left| r \right \vert < 1</math>. How do we prove this is true? Again, this is way above most curriculum required textbooks. However, the goal of many mathematics textbooks is to get the user inspired in math and to use those concepts into other fields of interest. No matter what given field a person is going into, they are going to need to solve problems: a history major needs to understand what a person meant; an English major needs to find the right words that help them convey their ideas; a Science major will have to apply mathematical concepts to communicate ideas about science. As such, learn to love problems, for conquering a problem will make you stronger. ''Note: what you are about to learn is NOT required for the curriculum. If you do not understand these concepts, do not worry, for it does not matter for the CLEP exam. These proofs are only to build a mathematical understanding of these concepts. As such, you may skip these if you want.'' '''Prerequisite for the proof''': Imagine we want to find values of some function <math>f(x)</math>. Define this function as <math>f(x)={x^2 - 4 \over x - 2}</math>. If <math>x=2</math>, then <math>f(2)={(2)^{2} - 4 \over (2) - 2}={0 \over 0}</math>. Well, it seems this value is undefined when <math>x=2</math>, so it seems it does not equal anything. However, let's try graphing this rational function. First, let us divide: <math>{x^2 - 4 \over x-2} = {(x-2)(x+2) \over x-2} =x+2</math>. It seems once we simplify the rational expression, we are left with <math>x+2</math>. However, This is not exactly true because our function is still undefined at <math>x=2</math>, so we must add a constraint: <math>f(x)=x+2\text{ if }x\ne2</math>. To put it more formally: <math display="block">f(x) = \begin{cases} x+2, & \text{if} & -\infty<x<2 \\ {x^2 - 4 \over x-2}, & \text{if} & x=2\\ x+2, & \text{if} & 2<x<\infty \end{cases}</math> If we graph the relation, we find that there is a "hole" at that point in the function. Let's use values close to 2 so that we abide by those rules. <math display = "block">\begin{array}{|c|c|} x & f(x) \\ \hline 1.9 & (1.9)+2=3.9\\ \hline 1.99 & (1.99)+2=3.99\\ \hline 1.999 & (1.999)+2=3.999\\ \hline 2 & \text{undefined}\\ \hline 2.001 & (2.001)+2=4.001\\ \hline 2.01 & (2.01)+2=4.01\\ \hline 2.1 & (2.1)+2=4.1 \end{array} \! </math> <!--Do not delete \!. This is to keep the equation rendered as a PNG instead of HTML.--> It becomes clear that as values get "closer and closer" to <math>2</math>, <math>f(2)</math> "approaches" <math>4</math>. What is "close"? How close are your eyes to the screen? We would most likely say, "it is 45 cm. away from the screen." In which case, let's use the ''distance'' (i.e. absolute value) to define the word "close": <math>|2.001 - 2|=0.001</math> and <math>|1.999-2|=0.001</math>. ''(Answer this question: why did we use absolute values?)'' Let's define this process using two variables <math>x_1</math> and <math>x</math>: If <math>0< \left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <n</math>, then those two values are "close" or "approaches <math>L</math> of function <math>f(x)</math>," where <math>n</math> can be any value you want it to be, as long as it tolerates our definition. We can conclude the following: <math>\left | f(x) - L \right \vert</math> is "close" when <math>\left | x_{1} - x \right \vert</math> is close, given that <math>0< \left | f(x) - L \right \vert <n_{f}</math>. If we think about it, we have sufficiently proven what "close" means. Let us put this definition^{''[see footnote 4]''} up front: For any <math>0< \left | f(x) - L \right\vert <n_{f}</math>, there exists a <math>0< \left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <n</math>. Now, as mentioned, mathematicians like to "work smarter, not harder," so a mathematician does not want to write out "as <math>x</math> approaches <math>2</math>, <math>f(x)</math> approaches <math>4</math>." Instead, we write out using our fancy notation: <math>\lim_{x \to 2}f(x)=4</math>. This <math>\lim</math> is called "limit." All this notation says is that "as we limit our values of <math>x</math> approaching (<math>\to</math>) <math>2</math>, we find that <math>f(x)</math> approaches <math>4</math>." Now, you have a sufficient foundation for limits and are ready to begin the proof. {{Calculus/Def | title = Given that <math>\sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}</math> finds the sum of a finite geometric series, prove <math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}\text{ if }0\le\left| r \right \vert < 1</math> is the sum of an infinite geometric series.|text = ''Read the prerequisite to understand this proof.'' If we want to know what happens as <math>k</math> approaches infinity (<math>\infty</math>), we can write it like this: <math display="block">\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}</math> Note: <math>{a\left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}={ar^{k} - a \over r - 1}</math>. '''What happens when <math>|r|>1</math>?''' For <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={ar^{k} - a \over r - 1}</math>, the numerator will have values <math>ar^{k}</math> get closer and closer to infinity as <math>r</math> and <math>k</math> get larger, and therefore, do not converge to a finite value. '''What happens when <math>|r|=1</math>?''' For <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={ar^{k} - a \over r - 1}</math>, the denominator will have values <math>(1)-1=0</math>, which will <math>{a - a \over 0}={0 \over 0}</math>. It is indeterminate, and there are no tricks to find a value that it will converge to. As such, when <math>|r|=1</math>, the limit is indeterminate. '''What happens when <math>0\le |r|<1</math>?''' For <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={ar^{k} - a \over r - 1}</math>, the numerator will have values <math>ar^{k}</math> approach <math>0</math> as <math>r</math> and <math>k</math> get larger. Plus, the denominator will never be <math>0</math>, so everything works out. If <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} ar^{k}=0</math>, given that <math>0\le |r|<1</math>, then <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={-a \over r - 1}</math>. Note: <math>{-a \over r -1}={-a \over -(-r + 1)}={a \over -r + 1}={a \over 1 - r}</math>. Ergo: <math display="block">\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}\text{ if }0\le\left| r \right \vert < 1.</math> Note that by proving the following fact for the limit, we also "prove" the summation representation^{''[see footnote 5]''}.}} == Exercise Problems == == Footnotes == # The WikiBooks simply refers the formula used as the "Gaussian method" because of a famous mathematical tale. There was this intelligent mathematician named Carl Friedrich Gauss who, in second grade, was asked to find the sum of <math>1+2+3+4+\ldots+99+100</math>. The teacher that assigned this problem simply wanted some peace and quiet. However, Gauss was able to come up the answer using the same method in Example 1.3.1.a. Legend says that he did not write the method and did all the calculations in his head; he handed the piece of paper with just the answer. Nevertheless, the teacher had to check to see if he was right. It turns out, he was indeed right. If the reader needs to refer to this formula to other mathematicians, simply call it the "sum of an arithmetic series formula," although it does not have the same ring to it as the previous name. # It is very common for many textbooks to use the following formula for a geometric series: <math>S_{g}={a \left( 1-r^{k} \right) \over 1 - r}</math>. Both are technically correct; however, this Wikibooks has decided to use <math>S_{g}={a \left( r^{k} - 1 \right) \over r - 1}</math> because it is easier to remember that you subtract the first term from the final term at index <math>k</math>. # Although described technically correct, calculus was merely one piece of the puzzle that helped in solving the issue. The version that is described is shown in the example, but the original problem did involve calculus concepts that will not be talked about in this Wikibooks since it does not help us understand infinite geometric series. # Note the formal definition is technically complete; however, the variables refered to the distances are a little different. Instead of <math>0< \left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <n</math>, write it as <math>0< \left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <\delta</math> (read <math>\delta</math> aloud as "delta"). Instead of <math>0< \left | f(x) - L \right \vert <n_{f}</math>, write it as <math>0< \left | f(x) - L \right \vert <\epsilon</math> (read <math>\epsilon</math> aloud as "epsilon"). Consequently, the definition given for "close" changes: "For any <math>0< \left | f(x) - L \right\vert <\epsilon</math>, there exists a <math>0< \left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <\delta</math>." Also note that the definition may be written a little different as "for any <math>\epsilon>0</math>, there is a <math>\delta>0</math> such that <math>\left | f(x) - L \right\vert <\epsilon</math> and <math>\left| x_{1} - x \right\vert <\delta</math>." For the interest of not confusing the reader, we decided to make the definition more simple to understand. # Note that the limit can be used for any function. Let <math>L(x)=2x</math>. Say we want to find <math>\lim_{x\to10}L(x)</math>. We can do that because as we get closer and closer to <math>10</math>, we find that <math>L(x)</math> gets closer and closer to <math>20</math>. However, we can simplify the process by saying that <math>\lim_{x\to L}f(x)=f(L)</math>, given that a function is continuous. Because there are no jumps or asymptotes in <math>f(i)=\left( ar^{i-1} \right)</math> as long as <math>0\le|r|<1</math>, we can state <math>\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} f(i)={a \over 1 - r}\text{ if }0\le\left| r \right \vert < 1</math>. This is why we can use the limit and say that <math>\lim_{k\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^{k} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)=\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \left( ar^{i-1} \right)={a \over 1 - r}\text{ if }0\le\left| r \right \vert < 1</math>. {{BookCat}} 6kffe3350714msrc89lpcw3f3rbej9w 0 412637 4095472 4087117 2022-08-23T16:35:43Z Refcanimm 3267488 /* Requirement that the information provided be complete, true and correct */ wikitext text/x-wiki It is said that at its heart, the refugee process is about storytelling. Lawyer Tess Acton writes that "stories permeate the Canadian refugee determination system. At the port of entry a claimant tells their story to the border official, in preparation for a hearing a refugee claimant tells their story to their lawyer, and during the hearing the refugee claimant tells their story to a Board Member. After the hearing the claimant’s story is re-told in the form of a decision authored by the Board Member. These stories are the most important part of a refugee claim, as refugees often come with little else in the way of evidence of persecution."<ref>Acton, Tess, ''Understanding Refugee Stories: Lawyers, Interpreters, and Refugee Claims in Canada'', 2015, Master of Laws Thesis, <https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/6213/Acton_Tess_LLM_2015.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y>, page 37 (Accessed January 23, 2020).</ref> The set of rules described herein regulate, at a high level, the process by which claimants provide these stories to the Board. == RPD Rule 3(1)-(3) - Fixing date, time and location of hearing == The text of the relevant rule reads: <pre>Information and Documents to Be Provided Claims for Refugee Protection Fixing date, time and location of hearing 3 (1) As soon as a claim for refugee protection is referred to the Division, or as soon as possible before it is deemed to be referred under subsection 100(3) of the Act, an officer must fix a date, time and location for the claimant to attend a hearing on the claim, within the time limits set out in the Regulations, from the dates, times and locations provided by the Division. Date fixed by officer (2) Subject to paragraph 3(b), the officer must select the date closest to the last day of the applicable time limit set out in the Regulations, unless the claimant agrees to an earlier date. Factors (3) In fixing the date, time and location for the hearing, the officer must consider (a) the claimant’s preference of location; and (b) counsel’s availability, if the claimant has retained counsel at the time of referral and the officer has been informed that counsel will be available to attend a hearing on one of the dates provided by the Division.</pre> === Roles of officers, parties, and Board in scheduling matters === Responsibility for scheduling hearings before the Refugee Protection Division is multifaceted. As indicated by this rule, initial scheduling decisions are to be made by the IRCC or CBSA officer referring the claim. The parties to a proceeding then have the ability to request that the date and time of a claim be changed (Rule 54). The Board also has the power to act on its own motion in scheduling matters. === Rule 3(1): Regulation on mandatory timelines for scheduling claims === For the text of this regulation, see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Timelines]]. == RPD Rule 3(4)-(6) - Information an officer must provide to the claimant == <pre>Providing information to claimant in writing (4) The officer must (a) notify the claimant in writing by way of a notice to appear (i) of the date, time and location of the hearing of the claim; and (ii) of the date, time and location of any special hearing on the abandonment of the claim under subrules 65(2) and (3); (b) unless the claimant has provided a completed Basis of Claim Form to the officer in accordance with subsection 99(3.1) of the Act, provide to the claimant the Basis of Claim Form; and (c) provide to the claimant information in writing (i) explaining how and when to provide a Basis of Claim Form and other documents to the Division and to the Minister, (ii) informing the claimant of the importance of obtaining relevant documentary evidence without delay, (iii) explaining how the hearing will proceed, (iv) informing the claimant of the obligation to notify the Division and the Minister of the claimant’s contact information and any changes to that information, (v) informing the claimant that they may, at their own expense, be represented by legal or other counsel, and (vi) informing the claimant that the claim may be declared abandoned without further notice if the claimant fails to provide the completed Basis of Claim Form or fails to appear at the hearing. Providing information in writing and documents to Division (5) After providing to the claimant the information set out in subrule (4), the officer must without delay provide to the Division (a) a written statement indicating how and when the information set out in subrule (4) was provided to the claimant; (b) the completed Basis of Claim Form for a claimant referred to in subsection 99(3.1) of the Act; (c) a copy of each notice to appear provided to the claimant in accordance with paragraph (4)(a); (d) the information set out in Schedule 2; (e) a copy of any identity and travel documents of the claimant that have been seized by the officer; (f) a copy of the notice of seizure of any seized documents referred to in paragraph (e); and (g) a copy of any other relevant documents that are in the possession of the officer. Providing copies to claimant (6) The officer must provide to the claimant a copy of any documents or information that the officer has provided to the Division under paragraphs (5)(d) to (g).</pre> === Right to counsel === Rule 3(4) states that an officer must notify a claimant in writing that they may be represented "by legal or other counsel". For a discussion of the right to counsel, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Counsel of Record]]. == RPD Rule 4 - Claimant's contact information == <pre>Claimant’s contact information 4 (1) The claimant must provide their contact information in writing to the Division and to the Minister. Time limit (2) The claimant’s contact information must be received by the Division and the Minister no later than 10 days after the day on which the claimant receives the information provided by the officer under subrule 3(4). Change to contact information (3) If the claimant’s contact information changes, the claimant must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the Minister. Information concerning claimant’s counsel (4) A claimant who is represented by counsel must without delay, on retaining counsel, provide the counsel’s contact information in writing to the Division and to the Minister and notify them of any limitations on the counsel’s retainer. If that information changes, the claimant must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the Minister.</pre> === Rule 4(3): If the claimant's contact information changes, the claimant must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division === Rule 4(3) provides that if a claimant's contact information changes, the claimant must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the Minister. As a result of this requirement, the Federal Court has declined to find a breach of procedural fairness where an applicant’s opportunity to be heard was lost because they failed to advise the RPD of their updated address and consequently did not receive notice of the hearing.<ref>''Mendoza Garcia v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2011 FC 924 at paras 8, 14.</ref> This rule places the obligation on the claimant to advise where they can be contacted. The RPD has no positive obligation to conduct extensive investigations to locate a party, to the extent of engaging the enforcement powers of the Canada Border Services Agency that might be used to locate a person for apprehension.<ref>''Perez v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 1171 (CanLII), par. 30, <http://canlii.ca/t/jc9b0#par30>, retrieved on 2021-01-14.</ref> Furthermore, leaving a voicemail with the RPD is not sufficient to discharge a claimant's obligations under this rule, which explicitly requires that the claimant must provide the new contact information in writing.<ref>''Perez v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 1171 (CanLII), par. 34, <http://canlii.ca/t/jc9b0#par34>, retrieved on 2021-01-14.</ref> For additional discussion of principles relevant to this, see the discussion of principles related to whether the claimant has been diligent in keeping the Board up to date with their current and correct contact information at [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Abandonment#Rule 65(4) - Factors to consider at an abandonment hearing]]. === Rule 4(4): Information concerning claimant's counsel included the name of the body of which the counsel is a member and the membership identification number issued to the counsel === Rule 4(4) provides that a claimant who is represented by counsel must, on retaining counsel, provide counsel's contact information in writing to the Division. As per Rule 1, contact information means, with respect to a person, "(a) the person’s name, postal address and telephone number, and their fax number and email address, if any; and (b) in the case of counsel for a claimant or protected person, if the counsel is a person referred to in any of paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) of the Act, in addition to the information referred to in paragraph (a), the name of the body of which the counsel is a member and the membership identification number issued to the counsel.": [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions]]. == RPD Rule 5 - Declaration where counsel is not acting for consideration == <pre>Declaration — counsel not representing or advising for consideration 5 If a claimant retains counsel who is not a person referred to in any of paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) of the Act, both the claimant and their counsel must without delay provide the information and declarations set out in Schedule 3 to the Division in writing.</pre> === Counsel may be representatives without fee who are not lawyers, paralegals, or immigration consultants === The Federal Court has observed that "Counsel need not be legally qualified and many are not; they are frequently friends, relatives, clergymen or immigration consultants. The latter are not always competent."<ref>''Weerasinge v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration),'' 1993 CanLII 2996 (FCA), [1994] 1 FC 330.</ref> Similarly, the Board has stated that "a limited category of others can represent an individual in a volunteer, unpaid capacity—this could include family members, community groups, or members of a religious institution."<ref>ln the Matter of the Conduct of Gabriel Bazin before the Immigration and Refugee Board, 2022 CanLII 50884 (CA IRB), at para 11, <https://canlii.ca/t/jprvq#par11>, retrieved on 2022-06-30.</ref> Rule 5 applies where a claimant retains counsel who is not a person referred to in any of paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) of the Act. These paragraphs allow representation by lawyers, registered consultants, law students and others.<ref>''Bomidika v Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness),'' 2017 CanLII 30785 (CA IRB), par. 11, <https://canlii.ca/t/h3w4t#par11>, retrieved on 2021-03-31.</ref> Specifically, those provisions read, in context:<pre>Representation or advice for consideration 91 (1) Subject to this section, no person shall knowingly, directly or indirectly, represent or advise a person for consideration — or offer to do so — in connection with the submission of an expression of interest under subsection 10.1(3) or a proceeding or application under this Act. Persons who may represent or advise (2) A person does not contravene subsection (1) if they are (a) a lawyer who is a member in good standing of a law society of a province or a notary who is a member in good standing of the Chambre des notaires du Québec; (b) any other member in good standing of a law society of a province or the Chambre des notaires du Québec, including a paralegal; or (c) a member in good standing of a body designated under subsection (5). ... Designation by Minister (5) The Minister may, by regulation, designate a body whose members in good standing may represent or advise a person for consideration — or offer to do so — in connection with the submission of an expression of interest under subsection 10.1(3) or a proceeding or application under this Act.</pre>For the fuller context of the above provisions, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/91-91.1 - Representation or Advice]]. RPD Rule 5 provides that in the situation where a claimant retains counsel who is not a person referred to in paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) above, both the claimant and their counsel must without delay provide the information and declarations set out in Schedule 3 to the Division in writing. That schedule reads as follows:<pre>SCHEDULE 3 (Rules 5 and 13) Information and Declarations — Counsel Not Representing or Advising for Consideration Item Information 1 IRB Division and file number with respect to the claimant or protected person. 2 Name of counsel who is representing or advising the claimant or protected person and who is not receiving consideration for those services. 3 Name of counsel’s firm or organization, if applicable, and counsel’s postal address, telephone number, fax number and email address, if any. 4 If applicable, a declaration, signed by the interpreter, that includes the interpreter’s name, the language and dialect, if any, interpreted and a statement that the interpretation is accurate. 5 Declaration signed by the claimant or protected person that the counsel who is representing or advising them is not receiving consideration and the information provided in the form is complete, true and correct. 6 Declaration signed by counsel that they are not receiving consideration for representing or advising the claimant or protected person and that the information provided in the form is complete, true and correct.</pre>The declaration includes a statement that the counsel is not receiving consideration. This is discussed in the Board's Basis of Claim form which states that "The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act makes it an offence for any person not authorized under the Act to knowingly, directly or indirectly, represent or advise a person for consideration – or offer to do so – in connection with a proceeding or application under that Act. (Consideration includes money, or any other form of compensation or reward.)"<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf</nowiki>>, page 9.</ref> The Federal Court has noted that "there is a duty incumbent upon the Board to verify that those individuals representing clients with whom it has dealings are authorized representatives pursuant to the Regulations, or that they are not receiving a fee for their services."<ref>''Domantay v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2008 FC 755.</ref> The court articulated the rationale for this duty as follows: "This duty envisions the protection of applicants and the preservation of the integrity of Canada’s immigration system". This Rule is one of the ways that the Board fulfills that obligation. == RPD Rule 6 - Basis of Claim Form == <pre>Basis of Claim Form Claimant’s declarations 6 (1) The claimant must complete a Basis of Claim Form and sign and date the declaration set out in the form stating that (a) the information given by the claimant is complete, true and correct; and (b) the claimant understands that the declaration is of the same force and effect as if made under oath. Form completed without interpreter (2) If the claimant completes the Basis of Claim Form without an interpreter’s assistance, the claimant must sign and date the declaration set out in the form stating that they can read the language of the form and understand what information is requested. Interpreter’s declaration (3) If the claimant completes the Basis of Claim Form with an interpreter’s assistance, the interpreter must sign and date the declaration in the form stating that (a) they are proficient in the language and dialect, if any, used, and were able to communicate effectively with the claimant; (b) the completed Basis of Claim Form and all attached documents were interpreted to the claimant; and (c) the claimant indicated that the claimant understood what was interpreted.</pre> === History of this Rule === The text of Rule 6 is similar, but not identical, to the text of Rule 5 in the previous RPD rules:<ref>''X (Re),'' 2012 CanLII 100140 (CA IRB), at para 5, <https://canlii.ca/t/g6qjl#par5>, retrieved on 2022-03-28.</ref><pre>5. (1) The claimant must complete the Personal Information Form and sign and date the included declaration that states that (a) the information given by the claimant is complete, true and correct; and (b) the claimant knows that the declaration is of the same force and effect as if made under oath. (2) If the claimant completes the Personal Information Form without an interpreter, the claimant must also sign and date the included declaration that states that the claimant can read the language of the form and understands what information is requested. (3) If the claimant completes the Personal Information Form with an interpreter, the interpreter must sign and date the included declaration that states (a) the interpreter is proficient in the languages or dialects used, and was able to communicate fully with the claimant; (b) the completed form and all attached documents were interpreted to the claimant; and (c) the claimant assured the interpreter that the claimant understood what was interpreted.</pre> === Rule 6(1): The requirement that the claimant must sign and date the Basis of Claim form is waived during the Covid-19 pandemic === The RPD ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'' provides that, on occasion of the Covid-19 pandemic, the RPD has waived the requirement in the rules for signatures on documents until further notice.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'', June 23, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx> (Accessed August 1, 2020).</ref> === Requirement that the information provided be complete, true and correct === The Rule 6(1)(a) obligation to provide information that is "complete" should be read in conjunction with the instructions in the BOC form that claimants are to include everything that is important to their claims therein, "including dates, names and places wherever possible". Where a fact that is a "significant and central part of a claim" is omitted from the Basis of Claim form, then the Board can consider that when determining whether it has been established that the alleged incident more likely than not occurred; the omission may properly point away from the claimant having established the allegation on a balance of probabilities.<ref>''Uwejeyah v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 849 (CanLII), par. 13, <http://canlii.ca/t/jc7vl#par13>, retrieved on 2021-01-08.</ref> In the words of the Federal Court in ''Arroyave v. Canada'', it is clearly established that all the material facts of a story must appear in the Basis of Claim form and that failure to include them can be fatal to the credibility of a claim.<ref>''Arroyave, Yorlady Ramirez'' ''v. M.C.I.'' (F.C., No. IMM-6648-20), St-Louis, March 31, 2022; 2022 FC 426.</ref> See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#Evidence is primarily presented in written form in the Canadian process]]. That said, if a claimant's testimony simply adds to details in their Basis of Claim and does not contradict their previous statement, such additional details should not be considered to be omissions from the BOC form that properly detract from the claimant's credibility.<ref>''Zhang v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2007 FC 665, at para 6.</ref> In ''Bishop v. Canada'', the claimant wrote in her Basis of Claim form that the police had issued a warning to her husband in response to her complaint about threats and domestic abuse. At the hearing, the claimant indicated that the warning had been made jokingly. The court concluded that it was reasonable for the RAD to conclude that this was a material change from the BOC form and to impugn the claimant's credibility on this basis: "It is true that a warning made jokingly is still a warning. However, I agree with the Minister that a police warning is inherently serious, and subsequently stating that a police warning was made jokingly constitutes a material change. ... The police warning to Mr. Arthur was a significant event and a fact central to Ms. Bishop’s claim for refugee protection. By stating that the police warning was made jokingly, Ms. Bishop was not solely adding more detail, she was instead modifying her story and creating a material inconsistency."<ref>''Bishop v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 569 (CanLII), at para 22, <https://canlii.ca/t/jp10l#par22>, retrieved on 2022-05-18.</ref> Similarly, in that case the claimant made no mention in her BOC form of the fact that the agent of harm's father was a police officer in her country, something that also properly gave rise to a negative credibility inference in a case that centered on state protection, even where the claimant had amended her BOC form to add this information.<ref>''Bishop v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 569 (CanLII), at para 26, <https://canlii.ca/t/jp10l#par26>, retrieved on 2022-05-18.</ref> See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#The fact that a claimant amends their BOC form does not prevent the Board from drawing an adverse credibility inference as a result of the initially incorrect information]]. The obligation to provide information that is "complete, true and correct" in Rule 6(1)(a) tracks the following conclusion from the UNHCR ''Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status'': "The applicant should...Tell the truth and assist the examiner to the full in establishing the facts of his case." Furthermore, the Handbook provides that an applicant should "Supply all pertinent information concerning himself and his past experience in as much detail as is necessary to enable the examiner to establish the relevant facts. He should be asked to give a coherent explanation of all the reasons invoked in support of his application for refugee status and he should answer any questions put to him."<ref name=":1">UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), ''Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status and Guidelines on International Protection Under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees'', April 2019, HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV. 4, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/5cb474b27.html [accessed 26 January 2020], page 45.</ref> In the words of the Law Reform Commission of Canada's report on the refugee determination process, “There is no place in such a process for adversary tactics of surprise. If the process is to work effectively, there must be full and frank disclosure by all parties concerned and all documents must be available in time to allow them to be reviewed prior to commencement of any hearing.”<ref>Law Reform Commission of Canada, The Determination of Refugee Status in Canada: A Review of the Procedure (Draft Final Report) 128 (1992).</ref> See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#RPD Rule 9 - Changes to BOC Form]] and [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Principles for the interpretation of refugee procedure#Principles about the expectations that one reasonably has of claimants and counsel]]. === Providing exemptions to the Rule 6 requirements for illiterate claimants === When this Rule was being drafted, the Board received feedback that illiterate claimants should be given flexibility in those situations in which the BOC form is not filled out and signed as requested. The Board stated that as discretion rests with the Member to provide an exemption from the requirements of a rule when necessary, and after proper notice to parties, this comment did not necessitate a change in the rules.<ref name=":0">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''RPD Rules Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement,'' Date modified: 2018-07-04, Accessed January 3, 2020 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/act-rules-regulations/Pages/RiasReir.aspx>.</ref> == RPD Rule 7 - Providing BOC Form == <pre>Providing Basis of Claim Form — inland claim 7 (1) A claimant referred to in subsection 99(3.1) of the Act must provide the original and a copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form to the officer referred to in rule 3. Providing Basis of Claim Form — port of entry claim (2) A claimant other than a claimant referred to in subsection 99(3.1) of the Act must provide the original and a copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form to the Division. Documents to be attached (3) The claimant must attach to the original and to the copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form a copy of their identity and travel documents, genuine or not, and a copy of any other relevant documents in their possession. The claimant does not have to attach a copy of a document that has been seized by an officer or provided to the Division by an officer. Documents obtained after providing Basis of Claim Form (4) If the claimant obtains an identity or travel document after the Division has received the completed Basis of Claim Form, they must provide two copies of the document to the Division without delay. Providing Basis of Claim Form — port of entry claim (5) The Basis of Claim Form provided under subrule (2) must be (a) received by the Division within the time limit set out in the Regulations, and (b) provided in any of the following ways: (i) by hand, (ii) by courier, (iii) by fax if the document is no more than 20 pages long, unless the Division consents to receiving more than 20 pages, or (iv) by email or other electronic means if the Division allows. Original Basis of Claim Form (6) A claimant who provides the Basis of Claim Form by fax must provide the original to the Division at the beginning of the hearing.</pre> === When a claimant must provide their BOC form === * <u>Port of Entry claimants:</u> As per Rule 7(5)(a), for a Port of Entry claimant, their BOC must be submitted to the RPD within 15 days after referral per s. 159.8(2) of the Regulation.<ref>Berger, Max, ''Refugee Essentials,'' Canadian Bar Association Immigration Law Conference, Montreal, Quebec, May 2013, <http://www.cba.org/cba/cle/pdf/imm13_paper_berger.pdf>, page 4.</ref> However, for the duration of the Covid-19 pandemic, the RPD is temporarily extending the time limit for claims made on or after August 29, 2020. In these cases, the BOC form will now be due 45 days after the day on which the claim was referred to the RPD.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Practice notice on the temporary extension of time limits for filing the Basis of Claim form,'' August 28, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/practice-notice-temporary-extension-boc-form.aspx> (Accessed August 31, 2020).</ref> * <u>Inland claimants:</u> For inland claimants, their BOC must be submitted to IRCC at determination of eligibility, per s. 159.8(1) of the Regulation. * <u>Detained claimants:</u> CBSA has taken the position that individuals who initiate claims after being arrested or detained inland are required to complete all the forms, including the Basis of Claim form, within three working days. The basis for this interpretation appears to be the combination of IRPR s. 159.8(1) which says that a person who makes a claim for refugee protection inside Canada other than at a port of entry must provide an officer with the documents and information referred to in s. 99(3.1) not later than the day on which the officer determines the eligibility of their claim under IRPA s. 100(1). RPD Rule 7 specifies that the Basis of Claim must be provided to the officer referred to in IRPA s. 99(3.1).<ref>BC Public Interest Advocacy Centre (BCPIAC), ''Refugee Reform and Access to Counsel in British Columbia,'' July 30, 2015, <<nowiki>https://bcpiac.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/LFBC-Refugee-Reform-Paper-Final-July-30-2015-2.pdf</nowiki>> (Accessed January 12, 2020), page 33.</ref> See [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Time Limit for Providing Documents]] for the full text of the relevant regulations. === A BOC Abandonment hearing must be scheduled if a claimant fails to provide a completed Basis of Claim Form in accordance with RPD Rule 7 === RPD Rule 7(2) provides that a claimant making a claim at a port of entry (an airport, seaport or land border crossing) must provide the original and a copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form to the Division. As per RPD Rule 7(5), this must be received by the Division within the time limit set out in the Regulations. If it is not so received, then a special hearing on the abandonment of the claim for the failure to provide a completed Basis of Claim Form in accordance with paragraph 7(5)(a) must be held no later than five working days after the day on which the completed Basis of Claim Form was due: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Abandonment#RPD Rule 65(2) - When the BOC Abandonment hearing must be scheduled]]. === Documents attached to the BOC form need not be translated at the time that they are attached === Rule 7(3) requires a claimant to attach to their BOC Form a copy of their identity and travel documents, genuine or not, and a copy of any other relevant documents in their possession. In this way, Rule 7(3) functions as one of the main RPD Rules that oblige the disclosure of documents (in comparison, other rules regarding the disclosure of documents generally provide a claimant with discretion about what documents they will provide, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?]]). Such documents need not be translated in order for them to be accepted by the Board. This is because the rule on the language of documents, Rule 32 ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 32 - Language of Documents]]), only applies to documents that a claimant chooses to ''use'' in the proceeding: "All documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator." In this way, Rule 7(3) requires a claimant to provide all relevant documents in their possession at the time that they file their claim, but if a claimant wants to "use" such documents in the proceeding, then they will need to provide a translation of those documents prior to the hearing. Otherwise, the documents will be retained for the purposes of the record, but in an untranslated form, and will likely therefore be assigned limited or no weight. On the other hand, some untranslated documents such as original ID documents from a country may be assigned significant weight, especially where they can be authenticated or compared to sample documents available to the Board in the National Documentation Package or other sources. If these rules were interpreted any other way, for example to limit the ability of a claimant to provide documents such as their non-genuine ID documents where those ID documents are not accompanied by a translation, then it would frustrate the purpose of this disclosure obligation, which is clearly to ensure that the claimant provides, ''en masse'', relevant documents at the earliest time so that the Minister can assess those documents as part of any investigation into the claimant, their credibility, and their identity. If the claimant were only obliged to submit documents for which they had secured a translation, then it would either frustrate the broad mandatory language of the rule ("must attach") or else it could potentially impose significant translation costs on refugee claimants who may not have the resources to pay for, or the ability to procure translations of, the documents (especially in the four Canadian provinces that provide no legal aid to refugee claimants whatsoever: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Counsel of Record#Refugee-related%20services%20are%20provided%20by%20some%20provincial%20legal%20aid%20programs|Canadian Refugee Procedure/Counsel of Record]]). == RPD Rule 8 - Application for an extension of time to provide BOC Form == <pre>Application for extension of time 8 (1) A claimant who makes an application for an extension of time to provide the completed Basis of Claim Form must make the application in accordance with rule 50, but the claimant is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. Time limit (2) The application must be received by the Division no later than three working days before the expiry of the time limit set out in the Regulations. Application for medical reasons (3) If a claimant makes the application for medical reasons, other than those related to their counsel, they must provide, together with the application, a legible, recently dated medical certificate signed by a qualified medical practitioner whose name and address are printed or stamped on the certificate. A claimant who has provided a copy of the certificate to the Division must provide the original document to the Division without delay. Content of certificate (4) The medical certificate must set out the particulars of the medical condition, without specifying the diagnosis, that prevent the claimant from providing the completed Basis of Claim Form in the time limit referred to in paragraph 7(5)(a). Failure to provide medical certificate (5) If a claimant fails to provide a medical certificate in accordance with subrules (3) and (4), the claimant must include in their application (a) particulars of any efforts they made to obtain the required medical certificate, supported by corroborating evidence; (b) particulars of the medical reasons for the application, supported by corroborating evidence; and (c) an explanation of how the medical condition prevents them from providing the completed Basis of Claim Form in the time limit referred to in paragraph 7(5)(a). Providing Basis of Claim Form after extension granted (6) If an extension of time is granted, the claimant must provide the original and a copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form to the Division in accordance with subrules 7(2) and (3), no later than on the date indicated by the Division and by a means set out in paragraph 7(5)(b).</pre> === Extensions will only be granted if there is a justifiable reason for the delay === The Board's public commentary to the previous version of the RPD rules that "An extension [to provide this form] will only be granted if there is a justifiable reason for the delay" continues to apply to decisions made under the current Rule 8.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Date Modified: 2009-05-22 <<nowiki>https://web.archive.org/web/20100704062357/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/eng/brdcom/references/aclo/pages/rpdcomment.aspx</nowiki>> (Accessed January 28, 2020).</ref> The legal standard that the Board is to apply in assessing an application for an extension of time to provide the Basis of Claim form is that set out in subsection 159.8(3) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations'', which provides that "If the documents and information cannot be provided within the time limit ... the Refugee Protection Division may, for reasons of fairness and natural justice, extend that time limit by the number of days that is necessary in the circumstances." As such, a claimant should demonstrate that the form "cannot be provided within the time limit", that their inability to provide it within the time limit raises "reasons of fairness and natural justice", and that the period that they are requesting as an extension is what is "necessary" in the circumstances. One academic argues that as a principle, refugee claimants should have time to recover and be ready to disclose the reasons of their flight and the possible ill treatment they risk suffering in their country of origin in case of return prior to having to provide such information to the state.<ref>Mariagiulia Giuffré, ‘Access to Asylum at Sea? Non-Refoulement and a Comprehensive Approach to Extraterritorial Human Rights Obligations’ in Violeta Moreno Lax and Efthymios Papastavridis (eds), Boat Refugees and Migrants at Sea: A Comprehensive Approach: Integrating Maritime Security with Human Rights (Brill Nijhoff 2017) 265.</ref> It is frequently observed that there are gendered aspects to this short deadline, which is said to particularly penalize survivors of rape and sexual violence, since it is well-documented that these survivors often need time before they are ready to disclose their experiences, whether to a lawyer completing a form describing their experiences, or to decision-makers.<ref>Canadian Council for Refugees, ''The challenge of fair and effective refugee determination,'' 23 July 2009 <<nowiki>https://ccrweb.ca/files/fairdetermination.pdf</nowiki>> (Accessed April 24, 2020), page 7.</ref> === This Rule applies to applications for an extension of time, but does not constrain the Board's ability to extend deadlines on its own motion === At times, the IRB has extended the deadline for filing a Basis of Claim form of its own accord. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Board issued a ''Practice notice on the temporary extension of time limits for filing the basis of claim form''. This practice notice provided a temporary extension for filing a Basis of Claim form, specifically stating: "If your time limit for filing the BOC Form with the RPD falls between February 15 and April 15, 2020 inclusive, the deadline is extended to May 30, 2020." The authority for this rule was cited as subsection 159.8(3) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations'' which provide that the RPD may extend the time for providing the BOC Form for port of entry claimants by the number of days necessary for reasons of fairness and natural justice. Furthermore, that practice directive noted that section 165 of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'' provides that the RPD may do whatever is necessary for a full and proper hearing.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Practice notice on the temporary extension of time limits for filing the basis of claim form'', Signed March 15, 2020 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-covid19.aspx> (Accessed March 16, 2020).</ref> The principle is that this rule does not constrain the Board from extending a deadline and only governs how the Board should exercise its discretion where a claimant applies to extend the deadline. === Applications for an extension of time must be received at least three working days before the expiry of the time limit for providing the form === As per Rule 8(2), the application for an extension of time to provide the BOC must be received by the Division no later than three working days before the expiry of the time limit set out in the Regulations. The 3 working day time period is counted backwards from the expiry date to provide the BOC. Day 1 is the first business day before the expiry date. The application must be received no later than the third business day before the expiry date to provide the BOC. This arises as a result of the definition of "working day" in RPD Rule 1. Applications received after that date will be dealt with under the BOC abandonment rule, Rule 65(2): [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Abandonment#Rule 65(2) - When the BOC Abandonment hearing must be scheduled]]. The interaction between this rule and the abandonment rule was discussed in the Board's commentary to the previous version of the RPD Rules, which remains instructive:<blockquote>An application for an extension of time received after the [time limit] will be considered at a special hearing held under [presently, subsection 65(2)] of the Rules. At that hearing, the claimant will be given a chance to explain the delay in filing the [Form]. The claimant should make every effort to provide a completed [Form] to the Division before or at the special hearing. If there is no justifiable reason for the delay, the Division may declare the claim to be abandoned (''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', subsection 168(1)).<ref name=":3">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Date Modified: 2009-05-22 <https://web.archive.org/web/20100704062357/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/eng/brdcom/references/aclo/pages/rpdcomment.aspx> (Accessed January 28, 2020).</ref></blockquote>Thus, for example, the Board has denied requests for an extension of time to file Basis of Claim forms where the claims had already been declared abandoned.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 98260 (CA IRB), par. 8, <http://canlii.ca/t/gm0xt#par8>, retrieved on 2020-03-15.</ref> As such, the proper procedure in such cases is for the claimant to either participate in the abandonment process under Rule 65 or, if that has been completed, then to apply to reopen the claim pursuant to Rule 62. == RPD Rule 9 - Changes to BOC Form == Changes or additions to Basis of Claim Form 9 (1) To make changes or add any information to the Basis of Claim Form, the claimant must (a) provide to the Division the original and a copy of each page of the form to which changes or additions have been made; (b) sign and date each new page and underline the changes or additions made; and (c) sign and date a declaration stating that (i) the information given by the claimant in the Basis of Claim Form, together with the changes and additions, is complete, true and correct, and (ii) the claimant understands that the declaration is of the same force and effect as if made under oath. Time limit (2) The documents referred to in subrule (1) must be provided to the Division without delay and must be received by it no later than 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing. === History of this rule === The previous 2002 version of the RPD rules did not include an analogous rule. For example, there was no rule which mentioned adding information to the then-PIF. Instead, the most on point rule was Rule 6, the relevant parts of which read as follows: <pre>Changes to the claimant’s information (4) If a claimant wants to change any information given in the Personal Information Form, the claimant must provide to the Division three copies of each page of the form to which changes have been made. The claimant must sign and date each new page and underline the change made. This subsection does not apply to a change in the choice of language for the proceedings or the language of interpretation. Documents obtained after providing the form (5) If the claimant obtains a passport, travel document, identity document or any other relevant document after providing the Personal Information Form, the claimant must provide three copies of the document to the Division without delay.</pre> === Claimants are under an ongoing obligation to amend their Basis of Claim form should additional information arise === Claimants are under an ongoing relationship to update their Basis of Claim form to ensure that it is complete. The process for making such changes is described by this rule, RPD Rule 9. The obligation to provide such updates arises from the fact that claimants swear or affirm at the beginning of their hearing that their Basis of Claim form is "complete, true, and correct",<ref>Community Legal Education Ontario (CLEO), ''Refugee Rights in Ontario: Answering questions at the hearing'', Updated Jan 29, 2014, Accessed January 5, 2020, <https://refugee.cleo.on.ca/en/answering-questions-hearing>.</ref> the instruction on the BOC form that "if your information changes or if you want to add information, you must inform the IRB",<ref name=":02">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form,'' November 2012 version, Accessed January 5, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf>.</ref> the statements in the IRB's Claimant's Guide that "If you find a mistake on your <abbr>BOC Form</abbr> or realize that you forgot something important, or receive additional information, you must tell the <abbr>RPD</abbr>",<ref name=":7">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Claimant's Guide'', Date modified: 2018-08-29, Accessed January 5, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/refugee-claims/Pages/ClaDemGuide.aspx>.</ref> and caselaw that all the important facts of a claim for refugee protection must appear in the BOC Form.<ref>''X (Re)'', 2015 CanLII 56636 (CA IRB), para. 43 <https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/irb/doc/2015/2015canlii56636/2015canlii56636.html>.</ref> As is summarized in the Irwin Law text ''Refugee Law'', "the duty to provide a complete and accurate BOC Form has been interpreted as an ongoing one. A claimant must amend and update his BOC if circumstances change or new information comes to light; in the absence of such amendments, adverse inferences can be drawn."<ref>Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. ''Refugee Law (Second Edition)''. Irwin Law, 2017, page 293.</ref> This principle has been affirmed by the Federal Court in ''Olusola v. Canada'': "the RAD reasonably found that the Principal Applicant’s failure to update her BOC and report the new threat to the police, undermined her credibility".<ref>''Olusola v. Canada (Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship),'' 2019 FC 46 (CanLII), at para 22, <https://canlii.ca/t/hwzz4#par22>, retrieved on 2022-07-26.</ref> But see ''Zhang v. Canada'', in which the Court did not agree with the Board drawing an adverse inference from Ms. Zhang’s failure to amend her PIF to mention recent visits to her parents’ home by security officers: "These visits took place after she had filed her PIF. Again, the basis for the Board’s concern is difficult to appreciate. The applicant understandably felt that she could testify about recent events at her hearing without having to amend her written documents."<ref name=":8">''Zhang v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2007 FC 665, as cited in ''Weng v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 482 (CanLII), at para 8, <https://canlii.ca/t/jnlcx#par8>, retrieved on 2022-06-27.</ref> This decision was cited with approval in ''Weng v. Canada'' as continuing to apply despite the 2012 changes to the rules, including the addition of RPD Rule 9, albeit without any discussion of this change and its applicability, or lack thereof.<ref name=":8" /> In ''Ma v. Canada'', the court found "that it was improper of the RPD to ask the Applicant if the PSB had returned to her home after June 14, 2018, only to draw a negative inference from the fact that she failed to amend her BOC to include subsequent PSB visits".<ref>''Ma v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 1043 (CanLII), at para 16, <https://canlii.ca/t/jqgwm#par16>, retrieved on 2022-08-23.</ref> The court found that "the RAD erred by placing undue focus on the BOC omissions", pointing to the fact that even where a BOC omission occurs, the weight of that omission relative to all of the other evidence must be assessed. === No explanation for BOC amendments necessary === It was previously the case that a draft of this rule required that an explanation of changes to the BOC form be provided. Following stakeholder feedback, that requirement was eliminated. The Board commented on this feedback as follows in its ''RPD Rules Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement'':<blockquote>Respondents commented that the rule which addresses changes or additions to the BoC Form was overly complicated in its wording. Several respondents expressed confusion regarding how the requested explanations for any additions or deletions were to be provided. A respondent also suggested that the IRB ensure that claimants, when providing amendments to their BoC Form, be required to state that the changes are "true to the best of the claimant's knowledge". In response to these comments, the IRB has: (1) simplified the language in this rule, (2) removed the requirement for an explanation of changes, and (3) included an additional requirement that claimants provide a declaration which states that the information given by the claimant in the BoC Form, together with the changes and additions, is complete, true and correct, which is consistent with the declaration in the BoC Form that claimants must initially sign.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''RPD Rules Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement,'' Date modified: 2018-07-04, Accessed January 3, 2020 <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/act-rules-regulations/Pages/RiasReir.aspx</nowiki>>.</ref></blockquote> === The fact that a claimant amends their BOC form does not prevent the Board from drawing an adverse credibility inference as a result of the initially incorrect information === RPD Rule 9 sets out a process by which a claimant can make changes to the Basis of Claim form. The fact that a claimant has updated their BOC information does not prevent a panel from drawing a negative credibility inference as a result of contradictions between the earlier information that was included in the form and the information in the amended BOC form.<ref>''Jimoh-Atolagbe, Taiye, v. M.C.I.'' (F.C., no. IMM-3889-20), Pallotta, April 7, 2022; 2022 FC 500.</ref> See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Requirement that the information provided be complete, true and correct]]. == RPD Rule 10 - Order of questioning in hearings, oral representations, oral decisions, limiting questioning == <pre>Conduct of a Hearing Standard order of questioning 10 (1) In a hearing of a claim for refugee protection, if the Minister is not a party, any witness, including the claimant, will be questioned first by the Division and then by the claimant’s counsel. Order of questioning — Minister’s intervention on exclusion issue (2) In a hearing of a claim for refugee protection, if the Minister is a party and has intervened on an issue of exclusion under subrule 29(3), any witness, including the claimant, will be questioned first by the Minister’s counsel, then by the Division and then by the claimant’s counsel. Order of questioning — Minister’s intervention not on exclusion issue (3) In a hearing of a claim for refugee protection, if the Minister is a party but has not intervened on an issue of exclusion under subrule 29(3), any witness, including the claimant, will be questioned first by the Division, then by the Minister’s counsel and then by the claimant’s counsel. Order of questioning — application to vacate or cease refugee protection (4) In a hearing into an application to vacate or to cease refugee protection, any witness, including the protected person, is to be questioned first by the Minister’s counsel, then by the Division and then by the protected person’s counsel. Variation of order of questioning (5) The Division must not vary the order of questioning unless there are exceptional circumstances, including that the variation is required to accommodate a vulnerable person. Limiting questioning of witnesses (6) The Division may limit the questioning of witnesses, including a claimant or a protected person, taking into account the nature and complexity of the issues and the relevance of the questions. Oral representations (7) Representations must be made orally at the end of a hearing unless the Division orders otherwise. Oral decision and reasons (8) A Division member must render an oral decision and reasons for the decision at the hearing unless it is not practicable to do so.</pre> === Rule 10(6) provides that the Division may limit the questioning of witnesses === RPD Rule 10(6) provides that the Division may limit the questioning of witnesses, including a claimant or a protected person, taking into account the nature and complexity of the issues and the relevance of the questions. Generally speaking, this may involve limiting the questions put to and the responses of a witness, but will not involve refusing to hear from a witness altogether on the basis that their testimony is not relevant. As the Federal Court held in ''Kamtasingh v. Canada'', panels of the Board should be wary to refuse to hear from witnesses altogether on the basis that their testimony is not relevant, lest their conception of relevance be too narrow: <blockquote>The fundamental problem with the Respondent’s argument is that the Member’s narrow characterization of relevance was wrong. After correctly stating that the central issue before him was the genuineness of the marriage, the Member erred by telling Mr. Kamtasingh that the testimony of others, which only corroborated his evidence, would not be useful. The Member may well have had only a few issues of concern, but the credibility of Mr. Kamtasingh was obviously one of them. Corroborating evidence from other witnesses may have been sufficient to rehabilitate Mr. Kamtasingh’s credibility and to displace the Member’s other concerns. All of these witnesses had potentially relevant evidence to give concerning the genuineness of the marriage, even if their testimony was not “different” from Mr. Kamtasingh’s evidence. In effect, what the Member did was predetermine the issue of credibility without having heard the witnesses.<ref>''Kamtasingh v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 FC 45 (CanLII), at para 12, <https://canlii.ca/t/27mdg#par12>, retrieved on 2022-04-27.</ref></blockquote>In other words, as the court held in ''Ayele v. Canada'', "one can never rule on the credibility of evidence that has not yet been heard. The presiding member violated this principle when he stated that even if the witnesses corroborated Mr. Ayele’s testimony that subsequent testimony would not be credible."<ref>''Ayele v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'' (2007), 2007 FC 126, 60 Imm. L. R. (3d) 197 at para. 11.</ref> As the court stated in ''Kamtasingh v. Canada'':<blockquote>I agree with counsel for the Respondent that the IAD has the right to limit repetitive testimony, but not by effectively excluding witnesses who could offer evidence going to the central issues of the case. The place to control excessive or repetitive evidence on issues of controversy which are central or determinative is generally not at the entrance to the witness box, but once the witness is testifying – and even then the member must grant some latitude to ensure that all important matters are covered.<ref>''Kamtasingh v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 FC 45 (CanLII), at para 13, <https://canlii.ca/t/27mdg#par13>, retrieved on 2022-04-27.</ref></blockquote>See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#A panel can establish principled rules regarding the manner in which a witness testifies]]. === The standard order of questioning is that any witness will be questioned first by the Division and this is a fair process === It used to be the case that hearings began with an introductory "examination in chief" by a claimant's counsel. This aspect of the refugee process was sharply criticized. The Law Reform Commission of Canada noted that while the process before the Division is supposed to be non-adversarial, "all of the details of the adversarial system are present in the examination-in-chief, cross-examination, and re-examination format".<ref>Law Reform Commission of Canada, ''The Determination of Refugee Status in Canada: A Review of the Procedure (Draft Final Report)'', 16-17 (1992).</ref> The Board commissioned the noted refugee law academic James C. Hathaway to write a report on its processes in which he recommended "the present practice of an introductory 'examination in chief' by counsel should be dispensed with".<ref>Hathaway, James C., ''Rebuilding trust: A Report of the Review of Fundamental Justice in Information Gathering and Dissemination at the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada'', Refugee Studies Centre, Publisher: Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, December 1993, page 74.</ref> The Board subsequently acted on this advice when issuing the Chairperson's ''Guideline 7'' ''Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division''.<ref>Canada. Immigration and Refugee Board.'': Guideline 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division: Guidelines Issued by the Chairperson Pursuant to Section 159(1)(h) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act''. Ottawa: IRB, 2003.</ref> In drafting the Guideline, the Board made a deliberate choice to avoid the use of terminology such as “examination‑in‑chief” and “cross‑examination” as inappropriate concepts better suited to an adversarial model requiring judicial formality.<ref>''Benitez v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2006 FC 461 (CanLII), [2007] 1 FCR 107, par. 28, <https://canlii.ca/t/1n3nx#par28>, retrieved on 2021-07-14.</ref> ''Thamotharem v Canada'' was a case which concluded that the resultant process is a fair one, especially given that Board Members may vary the order of questioning in exceptional circumstances.<ref>''Thamotharem v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2007 FCA 198 (CanLII), [2008] 1 FCR 385.</ref> === It is expected that counsel will provide oral submissions after the evidence has been heard === Rule 10(7) states that representations must be made orally at the end of a hearing unless the Division orders otherwise. The ''Chairperson’s Guidelines 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division'' ) state that “in general, it is expected that counsel should be ready to give oral representations after the evidence has been heard.”<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Chairperson Guidelines 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division'' <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/GuideDir07.aspx> (Accessed January 30, 2020), section 5.8.</ref> However, the Division has the discretion to order that written representations be provided instead of oral ones.<ref>''Dong v. Canada (Minister of Employment & Immigration),'' [1991] F.C.J. No. 364, 14 Imm. L.R. (2d) 317 (F.C.T.D.).</ref> === A Member rendering an oral decision at the end of the hearing is not, in and of itself, indicative of bias === Rule 10(8) provides that a Division member must render an oral decision and reasons for the decision at the hearing unless it is not practicable to do so. In ''Pajarillo v. Canada'', the claimant argues that the RPD was biased against her because the member made up her mind to reject the Applicant’s claim prior to hearing. The sole basis for making this allegation against the member was that the member returned after a lunch break and proceeded to render a lengthy oral decision. The court rejected this argument, noting that the claimant had failed to establish that the facts or issues in the case were so substantial or complex it was not reasonably practicable to comply with Rule 10(8) of the RPD Rules. The court stated: "The mere fact that the RPD was able to draft a decision and render it orally shortly 50 minutes after the conclusion of the hearing does not prove bias. A review of the transcript of the hearing discloses that the RPD member took into account the Applicant’s testimony and counsel’s arguments in reaching her decision."<ref>''Pajarillo, Donna Parcasio v. M.C.I.'' (F.C., no. IMM-3740-19), Lafreniere, December 20, 2019; 2019 FC 1654.</ref> For more detail, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an unbiased decision-maker#Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker]]. == RPD Rule 11 - Documents Establishing Identity and Other Elements of the Claim== <pre>Documents Establishing Identity and Other Elements of the Claim Documents 11 The claimant must provide acceptable documents establishing their identity and other elements of the claim. A claimant who does not provide acceptable documents must explain why they did not provide the documents and what steps they took to obtain them.</pre> === Rule 11 should be read in conjunction with Section 106 of the Act === Section 106 of the IRPA states:<pre>Claimant Without Identification Credibility 106 The Refugee Protection Division must take into account, with respect to the credibility of a claimant, whether the claimant possesses acceptable documentation establishing identity, and if not, whether they have provided a reasonable explanation for the lack of documentation or have taken reasonable steps to obtain the documentation.</pre> === History of Rule 11 of the RPD Rules === Rule 7 of the previous ''<abbr>RPD</abbr> Rules'' is in nearly (but not) identical language to the current version of the rules:<blockquote>7. The claimant must provide acceptable documents establishing identity and other elements of the claim. A claimant who does not provide acceptable documents must explain why they were not provided and what steps were taken to obtain them.</blockquote>Rule 7 was introduced into the RPD rules with the onset of the IRPA, and it built on a previous commentary and Practice Notice that had been issued by the IRB in 1997. This ''Commentary on Undocumented and Improperly Documented Claimants'' was issued to provide guidance to <abbr>CRDD</abbr> members as to how to deal with claimants who lacked proper documentation.<ref name=":2" /> The Federal Court held that Rule 7 was a codification of the common law that existed under the then ''Immigration Act:'' "Before Rule 7 existed, the law required that claimants provide sufficient proof of their identity or explain the failure to do so".<ref>''Uppal v.  Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2006 FC 1142 (CanLII), par. 17, <https://canlii.ca/t/1pnxv#par17>, retrieved on 2021-07-14.</ref> === "Identity" as the term is used in the Act and the Rules refers to personal/national identity === The term "identity" can take on various meanings in the context of the IRPA and these rules. For example, the Board produced a public commentary to the previous version of the RPD Rules, which commented on the meaning of identity as follows: <blockquote>"Identity" most commonly refers to the name or names that a claimant uses or has used to identify himself or herself. "Identity" also includes indications of personal status such as country of nationality or former habitual residence, citizenship, race, ethnicity, linguistic background, and political, religious or social affiliation.<ref name=":2">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Assessment of Credibility in Claims for Refugee Protection'', January 31, 2004, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/legal-concepts/Pages/Credib.aspx#n2452> (Accessed January 27, 2020), section 2.4.5.2.</ref></blockquote>That commentary is no longer in effect today. Thus, while it remains common to refer to an individual's “ethnic identity” or their “identity as Roma”, the Federal Court has held that these are not aspects of “identity” as that term is used in section 106 of the Act:<blockquote>While ethnicity, like religion, sexuality, or other fundamental personal characteristics, may be considered part of one’s identity, I do not consider these characteristics to fall within the scope of “identity” in section 106. Rather, section 106 appears to refer to identity in the sense of personal/national identity<ref>''Pazmandi v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 1094 (CanLII), par. 23, <http://canlii.ca/t/jbv6m#par23>, retrieved on 2020-12-17.</ref></blockquote>It should be presumed that the way that the term "identity" is used in the Rules conforms to the way that the term is used in the Act. === A claimant is obliged to provide any relevant documents in their possession at the time that they provide their BOC form === As per Rule 7(3), the claimant must attach to the original and to the copy of the completed Basis of Claim Form a copy of their identity and travel documents, genuine or not, and a copy of any other relevant documents in their possession. This obligation is reproduced in the Basis of Claim form which instructs: "Attach two copies of any documents you have to support your claim, such as travel documents (including your passport) and identity, medical, psychological or police documents."<ref name=":4" /> The Appendix to the BOC form discusses this in more detail: "Attach two copies of all documents (identity, travel or other documents) that you have with you now to support your claim for refugee protection, including documents that are not genuine, documents that you got in an irregular or illegal way or by giving information that is not true, and documents you used that do not really belong to you."<ref name=":5">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf</nowiki>>, Appendix - page 1.</ref> The requirement to provide copies of non-genuine identity documents is a reflection of the reality that roughly 60 percent of refugee claimants arrive either with false documents or without proper documentation.<ref>Department of Justice, ''Immigration and Refugee Legal Aid Cost Drivers'', 2002, <https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/other-autre/ir/rr03_la17-rr03_aj17/p37.html#a310> (Accessed August 23, 2020), at 3.10.</ref> The Board's commentary to the previous version of the rules may provide some guidance about the scope of this obligation: "These documents include not only those that were used but also those intended to be used for travelling or supporting the claim."<ref name=":3" /> Rule 7(4) further provides that if the claimant obtains an identity or travel document after the Division has received the completed Basis of Claim Form, they must provide two copies of the document to the Division without delay. === A claimant has an obligation to make reasonable efforts to establish their identity and to corroborate their claim === Rule 11 provides that a claimant must provide acceptable documents establishing their identity and other elements of the claim. In the words of the Federal Court, "this search for confirmatory evidence is a matter of common sense."<ref>''Uppal v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2006 FC 1142 (CanLII), par. 18, <https://canlii.ca/t/1pnxv#par18>, retrieved on 2021-07-14.</ref> Subsection 100(4) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'' requires the claimant to produce all documents and information as required by the rules of the Board. This obligation tracks the following statement from the UNHCR Handbook: "The applicant should...make an effort to support his statements by any available evidence and give a satisfactory explanation for any lack of evidence. If necessary he must make an effort to procure additional evidence."<ref name=":1" /> The Basis of Claim form emphasizes a claimant's obligation to make efforts to obtain such documents as follows:<blockquote>If you do not have [identification] documents like this with you, you need to do everything you can to get them immediately. If you still cannot get these documents, you will need to explain the reason for this at your hearing and show that you did everything you could to get them.<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>As explained in the Board's commentary to the previous version of these rules, "the claimant should keep a record of the steps taken, such as copies of letters sent, to obtain identity and other necessary documents."<ref name=":6">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Date Modified: 2009-05-22 <<nowiki>https://web.archive.org/web/20100704062357/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/eng/brdcom/references/aclo/pages/rpdcomment.aspx</nowiki>> (Accessed January 28, 2020).</ref> In this way, as explained in the Board's commentary to the previous version of the RPD Rules, a claimant who is unsuccessful in obtaining documents to establish his or her identity and other elements of the claim should not only be prepared to provide a reasonable explanation for the lack of documents and describe the diligent efforts they made to obtain such documents, but they should also be able to present proof of the steps that were taken.<ref name=":6" /> === The types of documents a claimant should submit to establish their identity === As stated in the Board's commentary to the previous version of the RPD Rules, "Section 106 of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'' imposes a duty on the claimant to provide acceptable documents establishing the claimant's identity, including documents the claimant does not possess but can reasonably obtain."<ref name=":3" /> The commentary went on to state that "In assessing the claimant's credibility, the Division must consider the lack of such documents and any reasonable explanation given for not providing them, as well as the steps taken to obtain them. Documents that are not genuine, that have been altered, or that are otherwise improper are generally not acceptable proof of identity."<ref name=":3" /> The Claimant's Kit from the Board highlights the claimant's responsibility to provide relevant documents and clarifies what types of documents might be considered acceptable:<blockquote>You must show the <abbr>RPD</abbr> evidence of who you are by giving the <abbr>RPD</abbr> high-quality copies of official documents with your name and date of birth on them (“identity documents”). For example, you can give a passport, national identity card, birth certificate, school certificate, driver’s licence, military document, and professional or religious membership card. ... If you do not provide identity documents or other documents in support of your claim, you will have to explain at your hearing why you do not have them and show that you did everything to try to get them.<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>In the words of the Federal Court, the requirements of this rule impose "a burden that any claimant can meet."<ref>''Uppal v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2006 FC 1142 (CanLII), par. 14, <https://canlii.ca/t/1pnxv#par14>, retrieved on 2021-07-14.</ref> As noted in ''Arewel v. Canada'', documents establishing identity need not necessarily be government-issued identity documents.<ref>''Arewel v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 334 (CanLII), at para 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/jn2p9#par24>, retrieved on 2022-03-31.</ref> The Board's commentary to the previous version of the rules had the following commentary on the subject of "other independent evidence to establish identity", which appears to be of continued relevance:<blockquote>The claimant who lacks documents or whose documents are not found acceptable should be prepared to present other independent evidence to establish his or her identity or other elements of the claim, if such evidence is available. Such evidence may include: * testimony of friends, relatives, community elders or other witnesses; and * affidavits of individuals who have personal knowledge of the claimant's identity or other elements of the claim.<ref name=":2" /> </blockquote> === The types of documents a claimant should submit to establish "other elements of their claim" === The scope of Rule 11 is not limited to documents establishing identity and also applies to "other elements of the claim".<ref>''Kitenga Lunda, Zico c. M.C.I.'' (C.F., no. IMM-3727-19), Gascon, 18 juin 2020, 2020 CF 704.</ref> The Board has a document on its website entitled ''Important instructions for refugee claimants'' which states "You should obtain and submit whatever documents you can to support your claim, such as police reports, medical records, newspaper articles etc."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Important instructions for refugee claimants (Print version)'', Date modified on website: 2018-12-11 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/refugee-claims/Pages/ClaDemGuideInstruct.aspx> (Accessed January 27, 2020).</ref> The Claimant's Kit highlights the claimant's responsibility to provide relevant documents and clarifies what type of documents might be considered acceptable:<blockquote>Along with identity documents, you can submit other high-quality copies of original documents that you feel are relevant to your claim, including proof of membership in political organizations, medical or psychological reports, police documents, business records, news clippings, visas and travel documents (airplane, train or bus tickets). ... If you do not provide identity documents or other documents in support of your claim, you will have to explain at your hearing why you do not have them and show that you did everything to try to get them.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Similarly, the instructions on the BOC form state: "Attach two copies of any documents you have to support your claim, such as travel documents (including your passport) and identity, medical, psychological or police documents.<ref name=":4">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf>, page 2.</ref> Additionally, the caselaw has indicated that Roma claimants may be expected to have approached NGO and governmental sources for identity documents relating to their ethnicity.<ref>''Somyk v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2016 FC 1338 (CanLII), <http://canlii.ca/t/gvx8d>.</ref> === Inferences about credibility that may be made where a claimant does not supply documents === The starting-point when assessing credibility in the Canadian refugee determination system is the principle in the oft-cited case of ''Maldonado'' that “[w]hen an applicant swears to the truth of certain allegations, this creates a presumption that those allegations are true unless there be reason to doubt their truthfulness”.<ref>''Maldonado v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)'', [1980] 2 FC 302 (CA).</ref> Drawing on the ''Maldonado'' presumption, a line of cases flowing from the decision of Justice Teitelbaum in ''Ahortor'' has concluded that the absence of corroborative evidence is not, in and of itself, a basis to disbelieve a claimant’s allegations.<ref>''Ahortor v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)'', [1993] FCJ No 705 at paras 35–37, 45, 50.</ref> These principles, however, exist alongside section 106 of the ''IRPA'' and Rule 11 of the ''Refugee Protection Division Rules'', SOR/2012-256 [''RPD Rules''], which were introduced subsequent to the decisions in ''Maldonado'' and ''Ahortor.''<ref>''Ismaili v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2014 FC 84 at paras 31–35.</ref> As such, Canadian refugee law provides that it would be an error to make a credibility finding based on the absence of corroborative evidence alone where there is no independent reason to require corroboration. A decision-maker can only require corroborative evidence if:<blockquote>1. The decision-maker clearly sets out an independent reason for requiring corroboration, such as doubts regarding the applicant’s credibility, implausibility of the applicant’s testimony or the fact that a large portion of the claim is based on hearsay; and 2. The evidence could reasonably be expected to be available and, after being given an opportunity to do so, the applicant failed to provide a reasonable explanation for not obtaining it.<ref>''Senadheerage v.  Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 968 (CanLII), par. 36, <https://canlii.ca/t/jb381#par36>, retrieved on 2021-06-26.</ref></blockquote> === The Division may instruct a claimant to provide specific documents === The Board's public comment to the previous version of the RPD Rules noted that "the Division may instruct the claimant to provide specific documents that have been identified by the Division in the claim-screening process as being necessary for considering the claim."<ref name=":6" /> The Board retains the power to issue such instructions under its power to control its own process. Further, the Board's powers under the Inquiries Act authorize members to compel testimony and the production of evidence: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Powers of a Member]]. === A claimant must provide original documents at the hearing, or beforehand, on the request of the Division === As per Rule 42, a claimant is to present the originals of his or her documents at the beginning of the hearing of the claim. The Division may require the claimant to provide the originals earlier by notice in writing. See [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 42 - Original documents]] for further details, including the way that the Board has waived part of this rule during the Covid-19 period. == Rule 12 - Supplying contact information after an Application to Vacate or to Cease Refugee Protection == <pre>Application to Vacate or to Cease Refugee Protection Contact information 12 If an application to vacate or to cease refugee protection is made, the protected person must without delay notify the Division and the Minister in writing of (a) any change in their contact information; and (b) their counsel’s contact information and any limitations on the counsel’s retainer, if represented by counsel, and any changes to that information.</pre> === Commentary === For a discussion of the principles applicable to this provision, see the commentary on Rule 4(3), the equivalent provision for refugee claimants: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Rule 4 - Claimant's contact information]]. == RPD Rule 13 - Declaration where counsel not representing or advising for consideration == <pre>Declaration — counsel not representing or advising for consideration 13 If a protected person retains counsel who is not a person referred to in any of paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) of the Act, both the protected person and their counsel must without delay provide the information and declarations set out in Schedule 3 to the Division in writing.</pre> === Commentary === In effect, Rule 13 requires that a protected person who is being represented by someone who is not a lawyer, paralegal, or registered immigration consultant to complete a form certifying that their counsel is not being paid. What is a protected person? Section 95(2) of the IRPA provides that "a protected person is a person on whom refugee protection is conferred [under subsection 95(1) of the Act], and whose claim or application has not subsequently been deemed to be rejected under subsection 108(3), 109(3) or 114(4)." In this way, Rule 13 is the analogue to RPD Rule 5 which imposes the same obligation on refugee claimants: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Rule 5 - Declaration where counsel is not acting for consideration]]. == References == <references responsive="" /> {{BookCat}} njdplxr2iqv7yfi6g2qte460rwh77yk 0 412650 4095498 4095405 2022-08-23T18:28:06Z Refcanimm 3267488 wikitext text/x-wiki Rules 31-43 are in a section of the rules entitled "documents" and they concern how to provide documents, the language(s) that documents may be in, the process that the Division should follow when it itself wants to provide documents, the criteria that the Division shall use to determine whether to accept documents, how the Division should decide whether or not to accept documents that have been submitted late, how documents may be provided both to the Division and to other parties, the requirement to provide original documents at the hearing, and the process for providing additional documents as evidence after a hearing. In short, these rules 31-43 concern the ''process'' by which a claimant is to submit a document to the Board. For a discussion of what documents a claimant is obliged to submit to the Board, see Rules 3-12 and the summary of those obligations at [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?]] == RPD Rule 31 - How to provide documents == The text of the relevant rules reads: <pre>Documents Form and Language of Documents Documents prepared by party 31 (1) A document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding must be typewritten, in a type not smaller than 12 point, on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 1⁄2 inches x 11 inches) paper. Photocopies (2) Any photocopy provided by a party must be a clear copy of the document photocopied and be on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 1⁄2 inches x 11 inches) paper. List of documents (3) If more than one document is provided, the party must provide a list identifying each of the documents. Consecutively numbered pages (4) A party must consecutively number each page of all the documents provided as if they were one document.</pre> === What is a "document" as the term is used in these rules? === The term "document" is not explicitly defined in these rules. No definition, for instance, is provided in the definitions section of the rules at Rule 1 ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions]]). As with any exercise of statutory interpretation in Canada, the proper scope and meaning of the term "document" in these rules will thus emerge by applying Driedger’s modern approach to statutory interpretation, namely that "the words of an Act are to be read in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of Parliament".<ref>''Bell ExpressVu Limited Partnership v. Rex,'' 2002 SCC 42 (CanLII), [2002] 2 SCR 559, par. 26, <http://canlii.ca/t/51s6#26>, retrieved on 2020-02-02</ref> Doing so, the following principles emerge: * <u>The term "documents" is defined broadly and is not confined to paper documents:</u> When the current version of the RPD Rules were drafted in 2012, they were drafted against the background of the wording of the prior Rule 27 under the 2002 Refugee Protection Division Rules and the caselaw that had interpreted that version of the rules. One such case was ''Cortes v. Canada'', which, when interpreting the previous version of this rule in the 2002 RPD Rules,<ref>''Refugee Protection Division Rules,'' SOR/2002-228, Rule 27.</ref> had endorsed the following broad conception of what a document is within the meaning of the RPD Rules: "The ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' provide that “document” includes “any correspondence, memorandum, book, plan, map, drawing, diagram, picture or graphic work, photograph, film, microform, sound recording, videotape, machine‑readable record, and any other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics, and any copy of those documents”".<ref name=":1">''Hernandez Cortes v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2009 FC 583 (CanLII), para. 26.</ref> This interpretation continues to be persuasive, notwithstanding that the ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' are no longer made available by the Board. The caselaw applying to the previous rule would therefore appear to continue to be applicable to the updated one, as there was no indication that the 2012 amendments to the rules intended to depart from the previous interpretations and practices. Indeed, decisions under the new rules continue to construe the term "document" broadly, as with the following 2017 Refugee Appeal Division decision which concludes that "documents" include “electronic documents”, as that term is defined in section 31.8 of the ''Canada Evidence Act'' ("''electronic document'' means data that is recorded or stored on any medium in or by a computer system or other similar device and that can be read or perceived by a person or a computer system or other similar device. It includes a display, printout or other output of that data.").<ref>''X (Re),'' 2017 CanLII 56261 (CA IRB), par. 49, <http://canlii.ca/t/h5p78#par49>, retrieved on 2020-08-19.</ref> The ''Interpretation Act'' includes the following definition: "<dfn>writing</dfn>, or any term of like import, includes words printed, typewritten, painted, engraved, lithographed, photographed or represented or reproduced by any mode of representing or reproducing words in visible form. (écrit)".<ref>''Interpretation Act,'' RSC 1985, c I-21, s 35, <<nowiki>https://canlii.ca/t/7vhg#sec35</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2022-08-23.</ref> Furthermore, the Federal Court has held that non-paper sources of evidence, such as DVDs, are admissible before administrative tribunals in other circumstances: ''Grenier v Canada''.<ref>''Grenier v Canada (Attorney General)'', 2013 FC 208 (CanLII) at paras 31, 34-39.</ref> * <u>The term "document" as used in these rules is not limited to documents provided for evidentiary purposes, but also includes other types of documents:</u> Where the term "document" is used in these rules without any qualification, it should apply to all documents, whether or not those documents are evidentiary ones or other types of documents such as written submissions. The term "documents" as used in these rules includes documents ''prepared by a party'' as per Rule 31(1), which sets out the format required for any "document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding". RPD Rule 37 specifies that a "document", as the term is used in these rules, includes "a notice or request in writing". Some of the RPD rules apply only to documents used as evidence (for example Rule 43 applies only where "a party wants to provide a document ''as evidence''", which the courts have held excludes situations where documents are provided for non-evidentiary purposes, such as written submissions (<em>Yared Belay v. Canada</em>, paras. 41-42<ref name=":0" />) and caselaw (''Petrovic v. Canada'', para. 11<ref name=":5" />)). By necessary implication, the fact that other rules do not include this type of limitation on the term "documents" means that those rules apply to all documents submitted (notices, requests, submissions, caselaw, etc.), not simply evidentiary ones. === What is a "proceeding" as the term is used in these rules? === Many of these rules relate to documents used in "a proceeding", for example Rule 31(1) specifies that "a document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding" must meet the specifications set out therein. Are all documents submitted to the Refugee Board by a claimant or protected person (where there is an application to vacate or cease their protection, say) ones that are being used in a proceeding? Generally speaking, that is the case, as discussed in the following commentary below: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Meaning of "proceeding" in this rule]]. === The evidence to be replied upon should be submitted so that it is part of the tribunal's record === Rule 31(4) provides that a party must consecutively number each page of all of the documents provided as if they were one document. One of the policy implications of this is that documents and evidence relied upon should generally be submitted and placed on the record so that they are available for any appeal or review of the Division's decision. In this way, the Division should not generally accept hyperlinks to evidence given that the content at the hyperlink may change. The Federal Court holds that "citations are not evidence before the Court"<ref>''Sani v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2021 FC 1337 (CanLII), at para 14, <https://canlii.ca/t/jl2k3#par14>, retrieved on 2021-12-17.</ref> and the Division should conclude likewise. The following analysis from ''Iribhogbe v. Canada'' may be considered persuasive: <blockquote>With respect to the website links and excerpts from these webpages, the RAD noted that the Applicant did not provide any documentation as new evidence in his Rule 29 application, as required by the RAD Rules. Instead, he included references to forty (40) Internet web links and select excerpts from webpages. The RAD indicated that any submission of new evidence must be in printed form, not a simple reference to an Internet link. The RAD further indicated that, in the absence of the actual documents containing the excerpts, it was unable to ascertain the publication date of the information to determine if the documents could have been provided with the Applicant’s appeal record.<ref>''Iribhogbe v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 501 (CanLII), at para 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/jnm47#par24>, retrieved on 2022-05-12.</ref> </blockquote>Similarly, in ''Urbieta v. Canada'' the RAD noted the RPD could not reasonably be expected to take a claimant's cellphone into evidence and proferring one's cellphone at the hearing is not a substitute for having submitted the documents prior to the hearing as required by the RPD Rules, so that the evidence may be accepted and placed on the record.<ref>''Urbieta v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 815 (CanLII), at para 28, <https://canlii.ca/t/jpl5g#par28>, retrieved on 2022-06-27.</ref> == RPD Rule 32 - Language of Documents == <pre>Language of documents — claimant or protected person 32 (1) All documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator. Language of Minister’s documents (2) All documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator. Translator’s declaration (3) A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate.</pre> == Commentary == The following commentary applies to Rules 32(1)-(3) collectively. It is then followed by more specific commentary pertaining to each of the specific subsections of Rule 32. === Where evidence has not been translated in accordance with the rules, the Board may decline to accept it or may assign it low weight === ==== Declining to accept untranslated documents ==== The proper procedure to follow where a claimant attempts to admit documents that are untranslated is ordinarily that followed by RAD Member Normand Leduc when he wrote as follows: "Exhibit P-3 is not translated into English or French and, consequently, I cannot accept it as evidence."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 15012 (CA IRB), para. 16.</ref> This is so as the language of this rule is described as "mandatory", including through its use of the word "must",<ref>''Londono v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2011 CanLII 95605 (CA IRB), para. 17 (interpreting its analogous and identically-worded rule).</ref> and that countervailing considerations such as cost<ref>''Glibchenko v Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness),'' 2014 CanLII 95427 (CA IRB), para. 6.</ref> and time constraints<ref>''X (Re),'' 2013 CanLII 99305 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> are not generally valid reasons for non-compliance with the rule that documents be translated. Furthermore, the Federal Court has stated that it is not the tribunal's role to ask an interpreter present in the hearing room to translate a claimant's narrative: <blockquote>The burden of being ready to proceed at a hearing is on the applicant, not the tribunal. Placing an obligation on the tribunal to ensure that the applicant's PIF is complete is similar to transferring the applicant's burden to the tribunal. The Court feels that the tribunal did not have an obligation to ask the interpreter present in the courtroom to translate the applicant's PIF to correct his deficiencies, as the applicant had suggested. It is the applicant's responsibility to prepare his claim file, and it is not up to the tribunal to fix his deficiencies.<ref>''Singh v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 818 (CanLII), at para 27, <https://canlii.ca/t/g0jvf#par27>, retrieved on 2022-03-28.</ref> </blockquote>See Rule 6(3) on the requirement for the Basis of Claim form to have an interpreter's declaration: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#RPD Rule 6 - Basis of Claim Form]]. ==== Declining to accept a document that has only been translated in part ==== The above logic applies equally where only a portion of the document has been translated. Member Edward Bosveld of the Refugee Appeal Division concluded that generally, a translation of a document should be complete, not only a selective translation of isolated words in a document on which a party wishes to rely:<blockquote>Here, the Minister has not provided a translation of the Albanian-language wording on the Facebook pages, and yet seeks to rely upon that wording to establish that the Respondent’s father is employed as a XXXX XXXX XXXX, which the Minister argues is not consistent with self-confinement at home. The Respondent disputes this contention, noting that the Minister has only translated selective words, and he disagrees that the words relate to his father’s employment. The Minister has not complied with the requirement to provide a signed translator’s declaration along with the translation of the Albanian words on the Facebook posts. Further, even if such a declaration had been provided, the RAD would still have some difficulty because only a partial translation has been provided. The translation provided does not comply with the Rules, is not complete, and the RAD cannot determine whether it is accurate. The RAD therefore declines to admit the Google translations into evidence.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 95934 (CA IRB), paras. 14-15.</ref></blockquote>But see ''Elias v. Canada'', in which the Federal Court commented on an IAD decision that had discounted evidence on the basis that it was untranslated. The court commented that the fact that the evidence was untranslated was not relevant to its probative value, as follows:<blockquote>The IAD found that there was insufficient evidence that Ms. Elias and Mr. Baiade are in frequent communication. Yet, the record contains about 50 pages of screen shots showing communications by WhatsApp or other phone and messaging applications, apparently in 2015 and 2019. The IAD discounted this evidence because it was in Arabic and not translated. Yet, what is relevant is the frequency of communication, not its contents. ... While these issues may not independently render the IAD’s decision unreasonable, they further erode its reasonableness.<ref>''Elias v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 252 (CanLII), at para 23, <https://canlii.ca/t/jml60#par23>, retrieved on 2022-03-31.</ref></blockquote>When considering this case, it should be noted that the IAD's equivalent rule, IAD Rule 29, is very similar to the above RPD Rule ("All documents used at a proceeding by a person who is the subject of an appeal must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided with an English or French translation and a translator’s declaration").<ref>Immigration Appeal Division Rules, SOR/2002-230, s 29, <https://canlii.ca/t/7xss#sec29>, retrieved on 2022-03-31.</ref> ==== Accepting untranslated evidence into evidence, but weighing it based on the fact that it is untranslated ==== The Board also has the power to admit such evidence into the record, while assigning it little or no weight, through its power to vary the rules per Rule 70 of the RPD Rules. For example, in interpreting its analogous rule, the Immigration Appeal Division commented:<blockquote>The appellant provided approximately 72 pages of documents as evidence. The majority of the documents were in the German language. Minister’s counsel objected to admission of those documents on the basis that they did not comply with ''Immigration Appeal Division Rule'' 29(1). The German language documents were not translated into either official language. The appellant explained that the purpose of the documents was to show the extent of his dental treatment. The documents were allowed into evidence but the appellant was advised little or no weight could be attached to them since they were not translated into one of Canada’s official languages.<ref>''Stellbrink v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 CanLII 98269 (CA IRB), para. 5.</ref></blockquote>The logic and practicality of admitting such untranslated documents was illustrated by the Immigration Appeal Division, when interpreting its analogous rule, as follows:<blockquote>The appellant provided copies of chat messages for a select period. For the most part, those messages are in a foreign language. Counsel for the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration submitted that the messages should not have been admitted as evidence because they do not conform to ''IAD Rule'' 29(1). The age of smartphones, internet communications and social media creates a dilemma. If a couple is regularly communicating by text, chat messages, Facebook or similar instant messaging, disclosure of all their messages would bog down hearings with mountains of paper. The cost of translation would be prohibitive. On the other hand, providing the messages without translation limits their probative value. Providing only a sample may lead to the inference that the remaining messages contain evidence adverse to the appellant’s case. There is no easy solution. The appellant has attempted to overcome the problem by providing a statutory declaration explaining the evidence. That is of some assistance. I give the evidence some weight, but the weight I give is reduced by the fact that the messages are in a foreign language.<ref name=":9">''Zhao v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2017 CanLII 57822 (CA IRB), para. 9.</ref></blockquote> === This translation requirement applies to video and audio evidence submitted to the Board, which must also be transcribed === Claimants regularly submit audio and video evidence to the Board. It must be transcribed and that transcription should then be translated into English or French. The Federal Court confirmed this in ''Cortes v. Canada'' when interpreting the previous version of this rule:<blockquote>Rule 28 provides that “[a]ll documents used at a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided with an English or French translation and a translator’s declaration”. Moreover, the ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' provide that “document” includes “any correspondence, memorandum, book, plan, map, drawing, diagram, picture or graphic work, photograph, film, microform, sound recording, videotape, machine‑readable record, and any other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics, and any copy of those documents”. Here, the DVD is a “document” that was not translated as required by the Rules. The panel was therefore entitled to attach no probative value to it.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>The Refugee Protection Division has confirmed that the same reasoning applies to audiovisual and other evidence submitted under the current version of the RPD Rules.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 93295 (CA IRB), para. 34.</ref> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' under the question "Do videos, websites, or other electronic documents need to be translated?" states that "Yes! All evidence that you obtain must be translated into English or French. Videos must be transcribed." This reflects the best, and usual, practice. == RPD Rule 32(1) - Language of claimant or protected person's documents == <pre>Language of documents — claimant or protected person 32 (1) All documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator.</pre> === This rule applies to documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding, not to all documents provided=== Claimants are obliged to provide all relevant documents in their possession at the time that they provide their BOC Form. These documents need not be translated: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Documents attached to the BOC form need not be translated at the time that they are attached]]. In contrast, documents provided at a later time must be translated since the only reason for their provision is that the claimant intends to rely upon them at the hearing, and hence they are to be "used" within the meaning of Rule 32(1). === Claimants need not provide documents in the language of the proceeding, only in English or French=== Claimants elect a language for their proceeding, either English or French. That said, per Rule 32(1), they are not limited to submitting documents in that language. Unlike the Rule for the Minister at 32(2), claimants are solely required to provide their documents in English or French (or, for documents in another language, with a translation into either English or French), regardless of what the language of the proceeding is. RAD Member Douglas Fortney commented on this issue as follows: <blockquote>In this case where the RPD member could not understand a document provided in French, the correct procedure would have been to have accepted the document into evidence and if necessary obtain an English language translation. Alternatively, it could have been considered to have obtained the services of a French – English interpreter who could have assisted in understanding the contents of the document at the RPD hearing.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 107659 (CA IRB), para. 27.</ref> </blockquote>This is reinforced by the IRB ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', which states that "All persons in the hearing room are free to speak the official language of their choice, including counsel for the subject of the proceeding. At the request of any party to the proceeding, the IRB will make arrangements to provide interpretation from one official language to the other, taking into consideration third language interpretation may also be required for the case."<ref name=":7">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', Date modified: 2018-07-03 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/pnnpollo.aspx> (Accessed January 22, 2020).</ref> This has legislative support in section 14 of the ''Official Languages Act'', which provides:<blockquote>''Official languages of federal courts<br/>'''''14)''' English and French are the official languages of the federal courts, and either of those languages may be used by any person in, or in any pleading in or process issuing from, any federal court.<ref>Official Languages Act, RSC 1985, c 31 (4th Supp), s 14 <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/530sl#sec14</nowiki>> retrieved on 2020-01-25.</ref></blockquote>The Board is considered to be a "federal court" based on the way that term is defined in the Official Languages Act and is thus bound by this provision: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Decisions#In what language or languages must the reasons for decisions be made available where they are publicly released?]] As such, a claimant may provide documents (be they letters, correspondence, submissions, notices, or other evidentiary or non-evidentiary documents - see the broad definition of what is considered to be a "document" above [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 31 - How to provide documents]]) provided that they meet the Rule 32 requirements regarding language. === What should a claimant do if they cannot afford to translate all of their documents? === Claimants are responsible for absorbing the cost of translating all written materials into either French or English.<ref>Jennifer Bond & David Wiseman, ''Imperfect Evidence and Uncertain Justice: An Exploratory Study of Access to Justice Issues in Canada's Asylum System,'' 53 U.B.C. L. Rev. 1 (2020), page 8.</ref> At times, claimants cannot afford to translate all of their documents. This may come up where a claimant is unrepresented (and thus does not have access to a translation budget from Legal Aid), where a claimant has sufficient means to afford private counsel but nonetheless is not able to afford having all of their documents translated because the documents are particularly voluminous, and where a claimant is entitled to legal aid but the translation budget provided by legal aid has been insufficient in the context of the case. In such a situation the claimant should advise the Division of the situation and be able to show that they took all reasonable steps to have the documents translated: *<u>Advise the Division in writing of the existence of the additional documents and the cost issue preventing them from being translated:</u> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' recommends that a claimant "Tell the [RPD] in writing that you have other documents that you could not afford to translate."<ref>Kinbrace Community Society, ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants,'' 2019 Version, <<nowiki>https://refugeeclaim.ca/wp-content/themes/refugeeclaim/library/guide/rhpg-vancouver-en.pdf</nowiki>>, page 17 (accessed January 17, 2020).</ref> *<u>Seek out a friend, volunteer, family member, etc. to translate the documents:</u> The claimant should be prepared to show that they made reasonable efforts to have the documents translated. The rules do not require that the translation be done by a professional: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#The translator need not supply an affidavit, be accredited, be fluent in both languages, or be completely independent]]. *<u>Apply to legal aid (for additional funds for translation):</u> For example, the BC Legal Services Society pre-authorizes translation costs of up to $361 (1,900 words) for each immigration representation contract.<ref>Legal Services Society, ''Disbursements Tariff'', November 2017 <https://legalaid.bc.ca/sites/default/files/2019-03/disbursementsNov2017.pdf> (Accessed February 2, 2020), page 8.</ref> Counsel may apply for authorization to translate additional documents in particular cases. Similarly, in Ontario, lawyers with RPD certificates from Legal Aid can bill Legal Aid online for translation of up to 3500 words. For documents longer than 3500 words, lawyers can submit a request for additional disbursements for translation.<ref>Legal Aid Ontario, News Release, "New Translation Disbursement for Refugee Certificates" (29 May 2015), online: <http://legalaid.on.ca/en/news/newsarchive/1505-29&#x20;translationdisbursement.asp>.</ref> Furthermore, the claimant should consider alternative ways to put the information in question in front of the Member: *<u>Translate the most important documents:</u> Instructions to claimants in public documents such as the guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' are that "Translation can be very expensive. If you can’t afford to translate everything, choose the most important documents."<ref name=":3" /> *<u>Have only portions of the documents translated:</u> As a half-way measure, the claimant may attempt to have the most important or relevant portions of the documents translated. But see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Declining to accept evidence that has only been translated in part]] regarding the Division's discretion to decline to admit such evidence where, for instance, the partial translation properly reduces the weight that can be attached to the document. *<u>Make the untranslated documents available at the hearing, including for spot translation:</u> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' recommends that a claimant "Take [the untranslated documents] to the hearing and explain to the Presiding Member what the documents show."<ref name=":3">Kinbrace Community Society, ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants,'' 2019 Version, <https://refugeeclaim.ca/wp-content/themes/refugeeclaim/library/guide/rhpg-vancouver-en.pdf>, page 29 (accessed January 17, 2020).</ref> The Member would then have the discretion to ask the interpreter to spot-translate portions of the documents: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Interpreters#Can an interpreter be asked to translate documents?]] *<u>Provide a statutory declaration or testimony under oath about the contents of the untranslated documents:</u> The Board has the power to waive the rules and admit the untranslated documents into evidence for the purposes of the record (albeit potentially assigning them less weight because of the lack of a translation). For example, the Immigration Appeal Division did just this when interpreting its analogous rule, commenting as follows: <blockquote>The appellant provided copies of chat messages for a select period. For the most part, those messages are in a foreign language. Counsel for the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration submitted that the messages should not have been admitted as evidence because they do not conform to ''IAD Rule'' 29(1). The age of smartphones, internet communications and social media creates a dilemma. If a couple is regularly communicating by text, chat messages, Facebook or similar instant messaging, disclosure of all their messages would bog down hearings with mountains of paper. The cost of translation would be prohibitive. On the other hand, providing the messages without translation limits their probative value. Providing only a sample may lead to the inference that the remaining messages contain evidence adverse to the appellant’s case. There is no easy solution. The appellant has attempted to overcome the problem by providing a statutory declaration explaining the evidence. That is of some assistance. I give the evidence some weight, but the weight I give is reduced by the fact that the messages are in a foreign language.<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>Finally, the claimant should consider that except for documents that were in their possession at the time that they completed their BOC form, and documents travel and identity documents that they acquire after that time, the rules do not strictly require the claimant to submit all relevant documents in their possession. Instead, the claimant need only submit the documents on which they wish to rely in order to make their case and the claimant must take all reasonable steps to corroborate their claim in the circumstances; see commentary to Rule 34: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?]]. As such, if the rules do not require the evidence in question to be submitted to the tribunal, then the claimant may consider whether they wish to rely on the information and whether the same information may be adduced in another way, such as through witness testimony. === The Board is not obliged to pay for the translation of documents where a claimant cannot afford to do so=== The instructions on the Basis of Claim form are "Include certified translations in English or French for all documents in a language other than English or French. You must pay for these translations yourself."<ref name=":6">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf>, page 2.</ref> The Refugee Appeal Division has held that "the responsibility to provide translations for documents in a foreign language rests with the party using the documents, in this case, the claimant." They went on to note that "the fact that the Board can and sometimes does translate documents that the Board intends to use as evidence is not relevant to the decision of the RPD. The RPD Rules clearly require the “user” (claimant in this case) to provide translations of foreign language documents. The claimant (the Appellant) failed to do so and therefore failed to comply with the rules."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2017 CanLII 144401 (CA IRB), para. 10.</ref> === Procedural fairness considerations where a claimant's untranslated documents are not accepted === The above list of possible actions by a claimant concerns circumstances where the claimant has made reasonable efforts to have documents translated and has been unable to do so because of cost. There are other reasons why a claimant may appear at a hearing with untranslated documents, including where they state that they did not know that the documents needed to be translated. Where a claimant's untranslated documents are not accepted, panels of the Division have attempted to accommodate persons, particularly unrepresented claimants, in a number of ways, including by allowing the party to testify to the matters discussed in the documents as an alternative way of adducing the evidence in question (see ''Huang v Canada'')<ref>''Huang v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 CanLII 98247 (CA IRB), para. 5.</ref> and by allowing the party to submit proper translations of the documents in question post-hearing (though the court has held that the Board need not do so as a matter of procedural fairness, even where a claimant is unrepresented, though this conclusion will likely depend on the probative value of the document in question, see ''Soares v. Canada'').<ref>''Da Costa Soares v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2007 FC 190 (CanLII), paras. 15-25.</ref> == RPD Rule 32(2) - Language of Minister's documents == <pre>Language of Minister’s documents (2) All documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator.</pre> === The Minister must use the language of the proceeding in oral and written pleadings=== As per Rule 32(2), all documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding (or be provided together with a translation). A question may arise about the proper scope of the terms "documents" and "proceeding" in the above rule. For example, if a Minister provides a notice of intervention, is it a "document" being used in a "proceeding"? ==== Meaning of "documents" in this rule ==== One argument that has been advanced is that the term "documents" as used in this rule only includes documents as evidence, not notices from the Minister. This argument is best rejected based on the observations and citations provided in the section on the definition of "document" above: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What is a "document" as the term is used in these rules?]]. ==== Meaning of "proceeding" in this rule ==== As per Rule 32(2), all documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding (or be provided together with a translation). At times, the argument has been advanced that documents such as a notice of intervention are not being used in a proceeding at the time that they are supplied since "proceeding" is defined in Rule 1 as follows: "proceeding includes a conference, an application or a hearing". Instead, rather than being supplied for use in any one of those listed proceedings, the argument is that it is being supplied for notification purposes. Such semantic quibbling is best avoided and this argument should be rejected for the following reasons: * As the Board states in its ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', "language rights must generally be given a broad and liberal interpretation".<ref name=":7" /> * The definition of a proceeding in Rule 1 "includes" the listed procedures, but does not indicate that it is limited to them. The RPD Rules are subordinate to the Act, which in s. 170 contemplates a broad and expansive conception of what a Refugee Protection Division "proceeding" is, including that a file-review decision made without any hearing being held is something that happens within a proceeding (s. 170(f)) and that the Board's provision of notice of the hearing to the Minister is also something that happens in a proceeding (s. 170(c)). If notifying the Minister of the hearing is something that happens "in a[] proceeding", then it is hard to see why the Minister's notifications should not similarly be considered to have been provided for use "in a proceeding".<ref>''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', SC 2001, c 27, s 170 <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec170</nowiki>> retrieved on 2020-02-01.</ref> Furthermore, in ''Duale v. Canada'' the court commented that "proceedings" as used in section 167 of the Act encompass more than the actual hearing before the RPD. Thus, subsection 168(1) allows a division to determine that "a proceeding" before it has been abandoned for such pre-hearing matters as failing to provide required information or failing to communicate with the division as required.<ref name=":02">''Duale v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 150 (CanLII), par. 5, <http://canlii.ca/t/1gcff#5>, retrieved on 2020-01-27</ref> See the discussion of the interpretation of the term "proceeding" in the Act at: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions#Commentary on the definition of "proceeding"]]. * Furthermore, Ministerial intervention notices must include the details required by Rule 29, and where they do not, the proper remedy is that the notice of intervention will not be accepted.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 62221 (CA IRB), <<nowiki>https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/irb/doc/2016/2016canlii62221/2016canlii62221.html</nowiki>>.</ref> It is clear that the Minister provides a notice of intervention so that it can rely on it ''at the hearing'' as proof that it has complied with the rules requiring such notification. * Finally, the purpose of such notices has been described as follows: "[Rule 29(2)(a)] exists to compel the Minister to provide notice to the claimant why they have decided to intervene in his or her claim. It is to provide the claimant with fore-knowledge of the concerns the Minister has with the claim, so as to allow the claimant to prepare a response to these concerns. It is an issue of procedural fairness."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 62221 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> If this notice were not provided in the language of the proceedings, then the purpose of providing this specific advance information to the claimant about the Minister's concerns could be frustrated. ==== Ministerial obligations pursuant to ''Official Languages Act'' ==== Finally, the better view of this question is that the Minister is under a legal obligation to provide all documents, including pleadings and other procedural documents, in the language of the proceeding and that this obligation stems from the ''Official Languages Act'', which is considered a quasi-constitutional statute.<ref>''Canada (Attorney General) v. Viola'', [1991] 1 F.C. 373, at page 386.</ref> The ''Official Languages Act'' provides that where a federal institution is a party to civil proceedings is shall use the language chosen by the other parties in any oral or written pleadings, except in narrow exceptional circumstances:<blockquote><u>Language of civil proceedings where Her Majesty is a party</u> '''18''' Where Her Majesty in right of Canada or a federal institution is a party to civil proceedings before a federal court, (a) Her Majesty or the institution concerned shall use, in any oral or written pleadings in the proceedings, the official language chosen by the other parties unless it is established by Her Majesty or the institution that reasonable notice of the language chosen has not been given; and (b) if the other parties fail to choose or agree on the official language to be used in those pleadings, Her Majesty or the institution concerned shall use such official language as is reasonable, having regard to the circumstances.<ref>Official Languages Act, RSC 1985, c 31 (4th Supp), s 18 <http://canlii.ca/t/530sl#sec18> retrieved on 2020-01-25.</ref></blockquote>While there does not appear to be judicial consideration on point, it is arguable that this provision applies to delegates of the Minister from IRCC and PSEP where they intervene in matters before the Board. Such proceedings are "before a federal court", which is defined in s. 3(2) of the ''Official Languages Act'' as "any court, tribunal or other body that carries out adjudicative functions and is established by or pursuant to an Act of Parliament." The Federal Court of Appeal concluded that the IRB meets this definition in ''Devinat v. Canada''.<ref>''Devinat v. Canada (Immigration and Refugee Board),'' 1999 CanLII 9386 (FCA), [2000] 2 FC 212, par. 57, <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/4ll0#57</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2020-01-25</ref> Furthermore, the participation of the Minister's delegates in Board proceedings would appear to constitute a circumstance in which a "federal institution" has become party to proceedings. A "federal institution" is defined broadly in the ''Official Languages Act,'' it not only includes the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and the Department of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness (based on the definitions of "federal institution" and "department" in s. 3 of the Act), but it also includes "any other body that is specified by an Act of Parliament to be an agent of Her Majesty in right of Canada or to be subject to the direction of the Governor in Council or a minister of the Crown", which would presumably include a Minister's delegate under the IRPA whose powers are derived from s. 6 of the Act which provides, ''inter alia'', that "The Minister may designate any persons or class of persons as officers to carry out any purpose of any provision of this Act, and shall specify the powers and duties of the officers so designated".<ref>''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act,'' SC 2001, c 27, s 6 <http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec6> retrieved on 2020-01-31.</ref> === If the claimant switches languages from French to English, or vice versa, the Minister must provide translations of their documents they intend to use === ==== Practice under the previous version of the RPD rules was that such documents did not need to be translated ==== Under the previous 2002 version of the rules, the wording of the predecessor rule to Rule 32(2) was interpreted as not requiring the Minister to provide translations of documents where the claimant subsequently switched the language of proceedings. For example, if the claimant elected to proceed in French and the Minister gave the claimant a document in French, and the claimant then subsequently decided that they instead preferred to proceed in English, the Minister was not obliged to provide a new translation of the document into English, but could instead rely on the previously disclosed document. The key question was whether the document was provided to the claimant in the language of proceedings at the time that it was sent. This question was dealt with by the Federal Court in ''Blanco v. Canada'', a case that concerned the previous version of the rules at the Immigration Division, which tracked the wording in the RPD Rule. In that case, the person concerned commenced his proceedings in English. The claimant then secured new, French-speaking, counsel. The Board then approved the claimant's application to change the language of the proceedings to French. At the same time, both the panel and the Minister refused to provide French translations of the documents that the Minister had previously sent to the applicant's former counsel in English. The claimant argued at the hearing that the panel could not legally enter into evidence documents that were in English and had not been translated into French prior to the hearing. The Federal Court rejected this argument on the basis that "It is clear that when the documents in question were provided by the respondents, the language of the proceedings was English, precluding the need for a French translation."<ref>''Bolanos Blanco v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 FC 280 (CanLII), paras. 12-20.</ref> This interpretation appears to turn on the then-extant Immigration Division rule which stipulated that "If the Minister <u>provides</u> a document that is not in the language of the proceedings, the Minister must provide a translation and a translator’s declaration. <u>[emphasis added]</u>" On the basis that the rule in question provided that the trigger for translation is the language of proceedings at the time that the document is provided, the court concluded that the documents could properly be entered as evidence in the hearing. ==== Changes to this provision in the 2012 RPD Rules now require that the document be in the language of proceedings at the time of its use ==== The Board's practice that was highlighted in the ''Blanco'' decision (above) was stridently criticized by members of the House of Commons Official Languages Committee.<ref>Official Languages Committee on Dec. 16th, 2010, House of Commons Hansard <https://openparliament.ca/committees/official-languages/40-3/39/sylvia-cox-duquette-1/>.</ref> The Official Languages Commissioner subsequently requested that the Board make changes to the RPD Rules regarding the rules about the language of RPD proceedings. One of the goals for the new RPD Rules, as identified by the Board, was to "address [these] recommendations of the Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages (OCOL)".<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''RPD Rules Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement,'' Date modified: 2018-07-04, Accessed January 3, 2020 <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/act-rules-regulations/Pages/RiasReir.aspx</nowiki>>.</ref> The wording of the new (and current) Rule 32(2) requires that "all documents <u>used by the Minister</u> in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator <u>[emphasis added]</u>". This is a departure from the previous wording of this Rule under the 2002 version of these rules, which read: "If the Minister <u>provides a document</u> that is not in the language of the proceedings, the Minister must provide a translation in that language and a translator’s declaration."<ref>''Refugee Protection Division Rules,'' SOR/2002-228, Rule 28(2).</ref> The fact that the rule focuses on the ''use'' of the documents appears to indicate that under the new rules, the circumstances in ''Blanco v. Canada'' would not recur because the Minister would be obliged to provide translations of any documents that they had previously provided should they want to continue to rely on them''.'' == RPD Rule 32(3) - Language of documents - Requirement for a translator's declaration== <pre>Translator’s declaration (3) A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate.</pre> === What are the requirements for the translator's declaration for documents?=== Translated document should meet the following requirements: * <u>A copy of the original-language document should be provided in addition to the translation:</u> Rules 32(1), 32(2), and 32(3), read conjointly, require that a copy of the original document in the original language be submitted as well as a translation of it. * <u>The translator's declaration must meet each of the requirements enumerated in Rule 32(3):</u> The translator's declaration should be in the following form: "A translator’s declaration must include the translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate." * <u>The translator's declaration should be signed:</u> The instructions in the Basis of Claim form regarding document translation are that a claimant is to "Include certified translations in English or French for all documents in a language other than English or French."<ref name=":6" /> As explained on the Basis of Claim form, this requirement that the translations be "certified" will be met where any documents provided are accompanied by a translator's declaration that meets the requirements of Rule 32(3) ("A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate") plus the statement is signed by the translator.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf</nowiki>>, Appendix - Pages 1-2.</ref> * <u>Translator should have some independence from the claimant:</u> The translator is to have a certain degree of independence from the claimant. **''Counsel should not act as the translator:'' Counsel themselves should not act as the translator because, should any issues arise as to the accuracy of the translation in question, then they could be called as a witness. While that can occur (e.g. cases in other legal contexts have held that "while it is highly undesirable for counsel to wear the cloak of both advocate and witness, the client has the right to have his counsel testify as a witness"<ref>''Insurance Corp. of British Columbia v. Suska,'' 2007 BCSC 1838.</ref>) it raises questions about potential conflicts of interest and logistical hurdles. However, as the court accepted in ''Grandmont v. Canada'', a person working in-house at the law firm the claimant has selected may be considered acceptable to translate documents.<ref name=":4" /> ** ''The claimant themselves, and close family members thereto, should not act as the translator:'' When interpreting its similar rule, the Immigration Appeal Division has rejected documents in on the basis of its concern that, ''inter alia'', the documents were "not fully translated by an independent translator".<ref>''Huang v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 CanLII 46522 (CA IRB), para. 19.</ref> The basis for this independence requirement in the rules appears to be somewhat scant, but arguably arises as a matter of the weight that the Board should attach to the evidence - particularly if any other credibility issues regarding the person doing the translating were to emerge at the hearing. This aspect of independence is also emphasized by public explanations of the refugee claim process, including Kinbrace Community Society's ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' which notes that it is best that the translator not be a relative: "Certified translators are best, but not required. If you cannot pay for a professional translator, you can have someone else you trust (preferably not a relative) translate your documents for you."<ref name=":3" /> === Where the document does not contain a translator's declaration in the appropriate form, it should generally not be admitted=== Where the requirement for a translator's declaration has not been complied with, the proper process is generally that the document should not be admitted. For example, the RAD has commented as follows:<blockquote>Although there is an English translation of these documents, there is no [translator's declaration] attached to them, as is required.... The RAD, therefore, cannot ascertain that these documents have been properly translated from Chinese into English. The RAD therefore cannot accept these documents[.]<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 151861 (CA IRB), para. 10.</ref></blockquote>Parties sometimes attempt to adduce evidence that has been translated through automated systems such as Google Translate. It should generally not be admitted into evidence on the basis that no Rule 32(3) translator's declaration has been provided for such evidence. On the basis that "The Board cannot determine whether it is accurate", the Refugee Appeal Division has declined to admit such Google translations into evidence, including when provided by the Minister.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 95934 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> The Refugee Protection Division specifically has issued a practice notice on this point entitled ''Refugee Protection Division Practice Notice: Compliance with Refugee Protection Division Rules'' which comments on Google translations as follows:<blockquote>The RPD frequently receives documents that have not been translated, or have been translated but are not accompanied by a translator’s declaration. Sometimes these documents have been translated by a web-based tool, such as Google Translate. Such translations do not comply with RPD Rule 32, cause delays to the proceedings and may not be accepted by the presiding member.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division Practice Notice: Compliance with Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Effective date: December 8, 2014 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/AviPraNotRpdSprComRulResReg.aspx> (Accessed January 25, 2020).</ref></blockquote> === The translator need not supply an affidavit, be accredited, be fluent in both languages, or be completely independent === Provided that this is done, a translator's declaration need not comply with other requirements that are not found in the rules: *<u>Statement from translator need not be an affidavit:</u> For example, the translator's statement need not be in the form of an affidavit; the Immigration Appeal Division reached this conclusion when interpreting its similar rule: "The panel does not share the respondent’s concern with the Certificate of Translation that accompanied the disclosure. While not in the form of an affidavit, the Rule does not require one".<ref>''Yeung v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 CanLII 80130 (CA IRB), para. 8.</ref> *<u>Translator need not be "accredited":</u> There are many bodies that accredit translators and interpreters, from the Board itself to professional organizations like the ''Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia''.<ref>For more information see Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia, www.stibc.org.</ref> While using an accredited translator may be a good idea, it is not a requirement of the rules. The Immigration Appeal Division reached this conclusion when interpreting its similar rule: "The Minister’s counsel submitted that the translations ... do not constitute credible evidence because they were not done by accredited translators.... The panel is of the opinion that the documents submitted by the appellant showing the exchanges between the parties ... can be taken into account by the panel, even though they were not written by accredited translators".<ref name=":4">''Grandmont v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 CanLII 97579 (CA IRB), para. 43.</ref> *<u>The translator need not be fluent in both languages:</u> The requirement in the rules is solely that the translator provide a "statement that the translation is accurate," nothing more. The University of Ottawa Refugee Assistance Project has a Hearing Preparation Kit which discusses the level of proficiency the translator must have in the languages in question. That kit includes sample translator's declarations, both where the translator is fully fluent in both languages, and one for where the translator is not. They indicate that an acceptable declaration to be used where the translator is not fully fluent in both languages is as follows: "I, ____(name_______, of the City of ____(location)_____, hereby certify that I have translated this Marriage Certificate from ____(original language)___ to English, and that I am partially competent to render such translation, being partially fluent in the ____(original language)___ and English languages. A fully competent translator was not available."<ref>University of Ottawa Refugee Assistance Project, ''UORAP Hearing Preparation Kit'', ''Guide 3: Preparing Evidence for your Hearing'' <https://www.fcjrefugeecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/hearing_preparation_kit.pdf>, page 14.</ref> *<u>Translator need not be completely independent from the claimant:</u> As discussed above, the translator is to have a certain degree of independence from the claimant, but the degree of independence required is not high. This aspect of independence is also emphasized by public explanations of the process, including Kinbrace Community Society's ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' which notes that it is best that the translator not be a relative: "Certified translators are best, but not required. If you cannot pay for a professional translator, you can have someone else you trust (preferably not a relative) translate your documents for you. This person must sign a translator’s declaration."<ref name=":3" /> As the court accepted in ''Grandmont v. Canada'', a person working in-house at the law firm the claimant has selected may be considered acceptable to perform this task.<ref name=":4" /> == RPD Rule 33 - Disclosure and use of documents by the Division== <pre>Disclosure and Use of Documents Disclosure of documents by Division 33 (1) Subject to subrule (2), if the Division wants to use a document in a hearing, the Division must provide a copy of the document to each party. Disclosure of country documentation by Division (2) The Division may disclose country documentation by providing to the parties a list of those documents or providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board’s website.</pre> === The RPD has an obligation to provide documents and information required by the Rules to the Minister upon request === Subsection 170(''d'') of the Act requires the Division to provide the Minister, on request, with the documents and information referred to in subsection 100(4) of the Act, which are the documents and information required by the rules of the Board:<blockquote>100(4) A person who makes a claim for refugee protection inside Canada at a port of entry and whose claim is referred to the Refugee Protection Division must provide the Division, within the time limits provided for in the regulations, with the documents and information — including in respect of the basis for the claim — required by the rules of the Board, in accordance with those rules.</blockquote> === The Division has the power to provide post-hearing documents prior to rendering a decision === RPD Rule 33 concerns circumstances in which the Division provides a copy of a document that it wants to use in a hearing. What about where the Division wants to provide a document to parties following a hearing? The Division may do so and, while it must invite comment from the parties on any such post-hearing disclosure, it need not resume the hearing afterwards. The Division's power to provide such post-hearing documents was emphasized in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of the RPD Rules, which read "The Division may provide a document to the claimant (and to the Minister if the Minister has intervened) after a hearing if the Division considers its use would assist in ensuring a full and proper determination of a claim for refugee protection. The claimant will be given an opportunity to make submissions on that document."<ref name=":8" /> While that public commentary is no longer published by the IRB, the principle stands. === The panel should consider the most recent National Documentation Package === The Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings,'' which is dated June 2019, commits that "The <abbr>RPD</abbr> and <abbr>RAD</abbr> will consider the most recent <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) in support of assessing forward-looking risk."<ref name=":14">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings,'' Effective date: June 5, 2019, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/national-documentation-packages.aspx> (Accessed August 30, 2020).</ref> A panel of the Board should comply with this policy. This has implications both for which NDPs should be disclosed on a file and for the currency of the NDPs which are disclosed: * <u>Which NDPs are disclosed:</u> A panel should ensure that it considers the relevant NDPs, both those that relate to countries of citizenship, as well as those that relate to countries of former habitual residence, where that concept applies. For example, in ''El Hraich v. Canada'', the court commented that "There is no indication that the Panel considered the National Documentary Package on the UAE before it rendered the decision.", noting that the Court has found that where central elements of a claim, such as the right to return to a CFHR for a stateless person, are at issue, the RPD should examine and refer to the available country documentation.<ref>''El Hraich v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 213 (CanLII), at para 28, <https://canlii.ca/t/jmk07#par28>, retrieved on 2022-03-16.</ref> * <u>Whether the NDPs disclosed are current:</u> In ''Zhao v. Canada'' the court held that "as a matter of procedural fairness, the [Board] had a duty to disclose the most recent NDP and to give the Applicants an opportunity to respond and make submissions on this matter."<ref>''Zhao v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2019 FC 1593 (CanLII), par. 31, <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/j48rf#par31</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2020-04-01.</ref> Similarly, in ''Oymali v. Canada'' the court held that "the latest NDP should be considered in assessing risks".<ref>''Oymali v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2017 FC 889.</ref> The obligation to consider the latest NDP extends to matters where a new NDP is released while a claim is under reserve. However, there are some limits to this principle: * <u>It does not apply to documents other than those in an NDP:</u> In ''Tambwe-Lubemba'' the court considered whether a panel of the Board must consider updated country documents received by the Board post-hearing that are not explicitly placed on the file''.'' The applicants in that case submitted that the panel hearing their claim should have considered information received by the Refugee Division's document centre after the hearing, but before the decision had been rendered. What the Court held was that the panel was under no obligation to consider information that the members had not seen and that was not tendered by the claimants.<ref>''Nagulesan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1382 (CanLII), para. 13.</ref> * <u>It does not apply where the new information would make no difference to the decision:</u> In ''Worku v. Canada'', the Federal Court held that the Board was not bound to consider the newest NDP information when there was no indication that the information was a significant departure from the information which was considered by the RPD.<ref>''Worku v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2019 FC 784.</ref> As such, the Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' is that "The <abbr>RAD</abbr> will disclose to the parties new <abbr>NDP</abbr> documents only when they wish to rely upon them".<ref name=":14" /> The fact that the panel should consider the most recent National Documentation Package does not mean that a panel needs to scour through every document in it for any possible statement that could support or hinder the claimant; for a discussion of this, see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#There is a shared duty of fact-finding in refugee matters]]. === Rule 33(2): The Division may disclose country documentation by providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board's website === RPD Rule 33(2) provides that "the Division may disclose country documentation by providing to the parties a list of those documents or providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board’s website." Certain documents are listed in the lists of documents on the Board website, but the documents themselves are only available via email, in particular samples of identity documents appended to Responses to Information Requests generated by the Board's research directorate. The court has held that the fact that such samples are not reproduced in the NDP published online on the IRB’s website does not breach procedural fairness. In ''Zerihaymanot v. Canada'', the court noted that "this sample document was attached to a Response to Information Request in the NDP, with a note that to obtain a copy of the attachment, one must email a request. Rule 33(2) specifies that disclosure of country documentation may include being provided with the document by the Division or being informed where the information could be found."<ref>''Zerihaymanot, Brhane Ghebrihiwet, v. M.C.I.'' (F.C., no. IMM-3077-21), McHaffie, April 26, 2022; 2022 FC 610.</ref> Further, in that case, during the RPD hearing, counsel was directed to the sample birth certificate and it was clear from counsel’s questions and submissions that counsel had the document. The court noted that there does not appear to be any requirement that the NDP be publicly posted on the internet, and that in the 1990s when this was not done, the Federal Court of Appeal had concluded that the fact that documents were available in IRB documentation centres was sufficient to be fair: ''Mancia v Canada''.<ref>''Mancia v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', [1998] 3 FC 461 at paras 22, 26.</ref> == RPD Rule 34 - Obligation, process, and timeline for a party to disclose documents they want to use in a hearing == <pre>Disclosure of documents by party 34 (1) If a party wants to use a document in a hearing, the party must provide a copy of the document to the other party, if any, and to the Division. Proof that document was provided (2) The copy of the document provided to the Division must be accompanied by a written statement indicating how and when a copy of that document was provided to the other party, if any. Time limit (3) Documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients no later than (a) 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing; or (b) five days before the date fixed for the hearing if the document is provided to respond to another document provided by a party or the Division.</pre> === What documents does a party need to provide when? === Rule 34(1) concerns documents that a party "wants" to use in a hearing. The rule provides that such documents must be received by their recipients no later than 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing (except, per Rule 34(3)(b) where they are provided in response to documents provided by other party, in which case the deadline is five days prior to the hearing). This discretionary rule allows, but does not require, a claimant to submit documents. It can be contrasted with Rule 7(3) which obliges claimants to provide certain types of documents. Specifically, Rule 7(3) provides that a claimant "must" attach all "relevant documents in their possession" to their Basis of Claim form, including identity and travel documents (whether genuine or not). The only exception to this is for documents that were seized by an officer or provided to the Division by an officer. In short, the disclosure deadlines established by the RPD rules appear to be the following: {| class="wikitable" !Stage in Claim !Document Type !Disclosure Obligation !Deadline !Rule |- |When BOC Form Provided |All relevant documents in the claimant's possession |Mandatory Disclosure |Must be attached to BOC Form |Rule 7(3) |- |After BOC Form Provided |Claimant's identity or travel documents |Mandatory Disclosure |Must be provided "without delay" after the claimant obtains |Rule 7(4) |- |After BOC Form Provided |Any other documents "a party wants to use" |Discretionary/optional |10 days before the hearing (or 5, if in response) |Rule 34 |} As such, the rules appear to establish a regime in which a claimant is obliged to provide all relevant documents that are in their possession at the time that they provide their BOC form. For documents that come into a claimant's possession after that point, other than identity or travel documents, the claimant has discretion about whether or not to submit them and need only do so if they want to use them in the proceeding. A qualification to this principle is that: * claimants are obliged to submit identity and travel documents (whether genuine or not) that come into their possession at any point (Rule 7(4) - [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#A claimant is obliged to provide any relevant documents in their possession without delay, whether genuine or not]]); * while the Minister has no obligation to become a party to a proceeding ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Intervention by the Minister#The Minister is permitted to intervene in proceedings, but is not required to do so]]), once it does so its disclosure must be "complete" and cannot be selective. A failure to do so is a violation of natural justice. In the words of the Federal Court, "At a bare minimum, if the Minister chooses to disclose evidence, that disclosure must be complete."<ref>''B135 v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 871 at para. 26.</ref> Where complete disclosure has not been provided by the Minister, procedural fairness may oblige the RPD to require the Minister to make inquiries of relevant Canadian law enforcement agencies to obtain documents, for example.<ref>''Jankovic v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 857 (CanLII), at para 48, <https://canlii.ca/t/jprtv#par48>, retrieved on 2022-08-09.</ref> * claimants have an obligation to take reasonable steps to provide acceptable documents establishing their identity and other elements of the claim ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#A claimant has an obligation to make reasonable efforts to establish their identity and to corroborate their claim]]); and * the Board can compel testimony and the production of evidence should it choose to do so ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#The Division may instruct the claimant to provide specific documents]]). The above timelines for providing documents are reiterated in the Basis of Claim form that all claimants receive: "If you get more identity or travel documents that support your claim after you have provided your BOC Form, give two copies to the IRB without delay. If you get more documents, other than identity or travel documents, that support your claim after you have provided your BOC Form, give one copy to the IRB and a copy to the Minister, if the Minister is a party, at least 10 days before your hearing." The BOC Form also states on its cover page: "you are responsible for obtaining and providing to the IRB any documents that may support your claim." The above documentary disclosure obligations specified in the Rules are also distinct from the separate matter of the Division's ability to draw an adverse inference as to credibility in circumstances in which documents are not provided. Even if it is not mandatory for the claimant to have submitted a particular document above as per the Rules, where a claimant does not do so, the Division may conclude that a claimant's failure to provide a document is indicative of a fear to provide the evidence to the Board, allowing the Board to draw an adverse inference about the credibility of the fact that the document would have otherwise served to establish or corroborate. Of course, this type of adverse inference may only be drawn where the claimant is given a reasonable opportunity to adduce the evidence once the Division identifies its concern, or where the evidence was otherwise mandatory for the claimant to produce, and furthermore the Federal Court has held that "a panel cannot draw a negative inference from the mere fact that a party failed to produce any extrinsic documents corroborating his or her allegations, except when the applicant’s credibility is at issue".<ref>''Ahortor v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)'' (1993), 65 F.T.R. 137 (FCT).</ref> See the discussion of Rule 11 for more detail: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Rule 11 - Documents Establishing Identity and Other Elements of the Claim]]. === The Board must consider its discretion to provide relief where a claimant submits a document later than the time limit in Rule 34(3) === The time limit in Rule 34(3) for providing documents must be read in conjunction with section 170 of the IRPA, and specifically the following subsections of that provision:<pre>Subsections 170 (e), (g) and (h) of the IRPA however indicate that in any proceeding before the RPD it: (e) must give the person . . . a reasonable opportunity to present evidence . . .; (g) is not bound by any legal or technical rules of evidence; (h) may receive and base a decision on evidence that is adduced in the proceedings and considered credible or trustworthy in the circumstances.</pre>In ''Trboljevac v. Canada'', the court commented that "While the Panel Member was aware of the ten-day time period in Rule 34(3) for disclosing documents, the failure of the Member to acknowledge or apparently be aware of the ''IRPA'' provisions allowing them to nonetheless accept the documents had the effect of preventing the Applicant from substantiating his claim. ... the Panel Member should have addressed why they declined to exercise the discretion provided to them in section 170 of the ''IRPA''. Failure to exercise that discretion was a breach of natural justice in this matter."<ref>''Trboljevac v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 26 (CanLII), para. 52.</ref> The Board's discretion to admit late-filed documents is guided by Rule 36, below: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents]]. === Does the 10 day deadline for submitting documents reset when a hearing has multiple sittings? === A question can arise about the interpretation of the phrase "days before the date fixed for the hearing" in Rule 34. As per Rule 34(3), documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients no later than 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing. If a resumption of a hearing is scheduled more than 10 days after the first sitting of the hearing, does this mean that any documents submitted 10 or more days prior to the next sitting are, in the words of RPD Rule 34(3), being submitted at least "10 days before the date fixed for the hearing"? To the mind of this author, this question has not been definitively resolved in the published jurisprudence. This this is likely because panels are permissive about accepting documents submitted prior to a resumption given their obligation to give any person before them a reasonable opportunity to present evidence (s. 170(e) of the Act). == RPD Rule 35 - Documents relevant and not duplicate == <pre>Documents relevant and not duplicate 35 Each document provided by a party for use at a proceeding must (a) be relevant to the particular proceeding; and (b) not duplicate other documents provided by a party or by the Division.</pre> === The use of the National Documentation Package does not preclude the disclosure of additional Country of origin information === The Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' states that:<blockquote>Relevant <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) are disclosed to the parties in every refugee claim before the <abbr>RPD</abbr> as the standard source of <abbr>COI</abbr> evidence in refugee determination. As per <abbr>RPD</abbr> Rule 33(2), the <abbr>RPD</abbr> provides the parties with information as to where the <abbr>NDP</abbr> can be found on the Board's website, and it is the parties' responsibility to check the <abbr>IRB</abbr> website for the newest version of the relevant <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) prior to their hearing. ... The use of <abbr>NDPs</abbr> does not preclude the disclosure of additional <abbr>COI</abbr> not contained in an <abbr>NDP</abbr> by the Division or a party to a proceeding. Such information must be disclosed on a case-by-case basis, subject to the legal and procedural requirements of each Division.</blockquote> === Practice notice on voluminous country conditions evidence === The Board’s ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – voluminous country conditions evidence'' specifies procedures regarding voluminous disclosure of country conditions evidence filed at the Refugee Protection Division. As per the practice notice, parties must make a formal application to submit country conditions evidence that exceeds 100 pages per country of reference.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – voluminous country conditions evidence,'' Date modified: 2018-06''-''26 ''<''https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/voluminous-country-conditions-evidence-preuve-volumineuse-relative-aux-conditions-dans-le-pays.aspx''>.''</ref> Disclosure of country conditions evidence over the specified page limit must be accompanied by an application made in accordance with RPD Rule 50. That said, during the Covid-19 pandemic, this practice notice has been suspended, so it is no longer in effect.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings,'' July 10​, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx#toc34> (Accessed August 14, 2020).</ref> ==== How does one know whether documents are country conditions evidence or not? ==== As the practice notice states, evidence presented before the RPD generally falls into two broad categories: documents personal to the parties (e.g. identity documents, police reports, etc.) and evidence regarding country conditions (e.g. human rights reports, research on the situation in the country, etc.). This Practice Notice applies only to country conditions evidence. Documents which speak to the claimant's personal risk and are specific to their claim, for example those that are by or about the claimant themselves, will be considered personal. In contrast, country conditions documents are evidence relating to human rights conditions in a claimant's country. The question in each case is whether the primary purpose of a particular document is to substantiate the claimant's personal profile or to speak to human rights or other facts and conditions regarding a claimant's country. The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from refugeelcaim.ca provides examples of each type of document. With regards to personal documents, they list: <blockquote> * Are there photographs, letters, videos, emails, or other documents that show the problems you had? Get them! * Did you go to the police or another government agency for help? Get a copy of the police report or other proof of your visit. * Did you get medical help? Get your hospital or doctor’s records. * Are there news articles about people who are connected to your case? Get them! * Are there people who witnessed what happened to you? Ask them to write what happened and send it to you. If possible, ask this person to swear (declare) their statement is true in front of a lawyer or notary. * Are there people who have experienced problems that are similar to yours? Ask them to describe their experiences in writing. If possible, ask this person to swear their statement is true in front of a lawyer or notary. * Is your claim based on your religious identity or membership in a political party or other group? Get documents that show your membership. * Has your mental health suffered because of what happened to you? Get a report from a doctor or psychologist in Canada which documents your health problems. * You will also need identity documents to prove your citizenship.<ref name=":3" /> </blockquote> With regards to country conditions documents, they list: <blockquote> * This type of evidence includes reports from well-respected sources that document human rights abuses, political events, and other news that relate to your claim. * Recent reports from human rights organizations (e.g. Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch), United Nations reports, U.S. State Department Country Reports, news articles, or videos showing human rights abuses in your country. * Articles and reports from newspapers and human rights organizations in your country. </blockquote>Similarly, documents about an organization that the claimant may have been involved with (even in Canada) will fit into this category of evidence that relates to human rights conditions in a claimant's country, so long as they do not mention the claimant by name or otherwise depict or refer to the claimant. Thus, for example, where the Minister seeks to intervene to argue that a claimant is excluded pursuant to Article 1F(a) of the Convention, if the Minister wishes to provide more than 100 pages to demonstrate that an organization in question committed crimes during a specific historical period, pursuant to this practice notice, they must bring an application for permission to file voluminous disclosure. Additional discussion of the difference between these two types of documents is found in the IRB ''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings'' which distinguishes between country-of-origin research—which is generally-available information and does not include “information gathered by the IRB that is specific to a particular claimant”—and claimant-specific research.<ref>''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings,'' Instructions issued by the Chairperson pursuant to section 159(1)(a) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', amended December, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/InstructInfo.aspx>.</ref> Furthermore, the Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' provides the following definition of Country of origin information (COI): "Information about the situation in a country that is relevant to the refugee determination process and obtained from publicly available sources that are viewed as, whenever possible, reliable and objective."<ref name=":14" /> ==== What is the Board's jurisdiction to limit voluminous country conditions disclosure? ==== As is clear from Rule 35, the only conditions imposed by the Rules on which documents may be admitted are that they must be relevant to the proceeding and not duplicate any other documents provided by the claimant or the Division. The RPD Rules themselves contain no restriction on the volume of documents that may be disclosed, and they make no distinctions between different types of documents. The authority cited in the practice notice is that the Chairperson of the IRB has the authority to take any action that may be necessary to ensure that members of the Board are able to carry out their duties efficiently and without undue delay as per paragraph 159(1)(g) of the Act. In addition, Rule 69 of the RPD Rules specifies that in the absence of a provision in the Rules dealing with a matter raised during the proceedings, the Division may do whatever is necessary to deal with the matter. The sufficiency of this legislative provision and Rule as authority for what appears to be an amendment to the Rules via practice notice (that was not authorized by the Governor in Council, as required), does not appear to have received judicial consideration. See [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/About]] for details about how the RPD rules were authorized by the Governor General in Council. However, the Federal Court of Appeal’s reasoning in ''Thamotharem v. Canada'' would appear to provide some support for the Board’s action.<ref>''Thamotharem v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2007 FCA 198 (CanLII), [2008] 1 FCR 385.</ref> As stated in the IRB ''Policy on the Use of Chairperson's Guidelines and Jurisprudential Guides'' notes, "that the subject of a guideline could have been enacted as a rule of procedure issued under paragraph 161(1)(a) of the IRPA will not normally invalidate it."<ref name=":03">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy on the Use of Chairperson's Guidelines and Jurisprudential Guides,'' July 7​, 2022, <https://irb.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/pages/PolJurisGuide.aspx> (Accessed July, 2022).</ref> For further discussion thereon, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Duties of Chairperson#The Chairperson's guideline‑issuing and rule‑making powers overlap]]. === The Board has jurisdiction to refuse to admit documents for reasons that are broader than the Rule 35 criteria === Rule 35 provides two criteria for all documents provided by a party for use at a proceeding: they must be relevant and not duplicative. Does the fact that the Rules only enumerate these two criteria here mean that, by implication, the Board may not refuse to admit documents for other reasons beyond those enumerated in Rule 35? No. The Board retains a broader discretion to control its process, including the documents that it admits in its proceedings. There are numerous examples of this, including: * ''Excluding evidence where doing so is required by the Constitution:'' For example, the Division has the power to exclude evidence pursuant to s. 24(2) of the ''Charter'' where the evidence was collected in violation of ''Charter'' rights, an issue which usually arises regarding port of entry interview notes in situation where the right to counsel was violated; see, as an example, ''Huang v. Canada''.<ref>''Huang v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2002 FCT 149 (CanLII), [2002] 3 FC 266, par. 23, <http://canlii.ca/t/lgk#par23>, retrieved on 2020-02-06.</ref> * ''Excluding evidence where doing so is required by law:'' The Board states in its Legal Services paper on Weighing Evidence that "in some cases it is not appropriate to admit evidence and give it little or no weight, instead the panel should refuse to admit the evidence at all. This may arise, for example, where the evidence is ... protected by privilege or statutory protection of its confidentiality".<ref name=":10">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Weighing Evidence - Chapter 3: Assessing Evidence'', Last Updated December 31, 2003, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/legal-concepts/Pages/EvidPreu03.aspx> (Accessed February 6, 2020).</ref> This would apply, for example, where the use of the evidence is prohibited by the ''Privacy Act.'' The Board frequently considers this issue when determining whether to admit decisions from other panels into evidence where they are provided by the parties, see, for example [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Proceedings must be held in the absence of the public#Should a panel admit copies of decisions from other claims?]]. * ''Excluding evidence as a discretionary decision made by the tribunal:'' The Board states in its Legal Services paper on Weighing Evidence that "in some cases it is not appropriate to admit evidence and give it little or no weight, instead the panel should refuse to admit the evidence at all. This may arise, for example, where the evidence is not relevant to the issues in the case; or where the prejudicial effect of the evidence outweighs its probative value; ... or where the evidence is unduly repetitive."<ref name=":10" /> == RPD Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents == <pre>Use of undisclosed documents 36 A party who does not provide a document in accordance with rule 34 must not use the document at the hearing unless allowed to do so by the Division. In deciding whether to allow its use, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence the document brings to the hearing; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34.</pre> === The Board must weigh the relevant factors === The court has provided guidance on how the RPD should approach the task of weighing the factors listed in Rule 36, noting that considering such factors does not mean merely listing them, but involves actively weighing them to determine whether the documents in question should be admitted.<ref>''Mbirimujo v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 553, at para. 23.</ref> Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, the RPD had a practice notice in effect entitled ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – late disclosure''.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – late disclosure,'' May 7, 2018 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/late-disclosure-communication-tardive.aspx></ref> Nothing in this practice notice relieved the Board of the obligation to exercise its discretion under Rule 36:<blockquote>Rule 36 of the RPD Rules clearly gives the RPD discretion to accept an undisclosed document at the hearing. This discretion exists even if a party’s request does not comply with the ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division - late disclosure'' published by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, although this defect may be a relevant factor in determining the request. When a refugee protection claimant asks the RPD to exercise this discretion, the principles of procedural fairness require that he or she be given the opportunity to make submissions on the matter. The RPD did not give Ms. Alvarez Rivera such an opportunity, which constitutes a breach of procedural fairness.<ref>''Alvarez Rivera c. Canada (Citoyenneté et Immigration),'' 2021 CF 99 (CanLII), par. 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/jczlf#par24>, consulté le 2021-02-22.</ref></blockquote>Furthermore, the list of relevant factors under Rule 36 requires that all of the factors should be considered, not just some of them.<ref>''Alvarez Rivera v. Canada,'' 2021 FC 99, para. 31.</ref> === Past consideration of the Rule 36 factors === Past decisions of the Board have considered the above factors thusly: *'''(a) the document’s relevance and probative value''' **<u>Is the source of the document reliable?</u> For country conditions evidence, probative value can be assessed in part by considering the source of the document. For example, in ''Hasan v. Canada'' the Board refused to admit a series of documents concerning country conditions relevant to the claim: "Within the Disclosure Package are a number of reports from various organizations attesting to the ill-treatment of Palestinian males, the severe measures taken against Palestinians, and the unlawful killings and other abuses directed against Palestinians by Israeli forces." The court held that it could be considered that "These reports come from such traditionally accepted (for purposes of evidence) sources as Amnesty International. In addition, several reports emanated from Israeli sources such as the Israeli Information Centre for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories."<ref>''Hasan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1537 (CanLII), para. 9-10.</ref> **<u>How central are these documents to the core elements of the claim?</u> The RAD has held that, as part of this probative value assessment, there should be an analysis as to the centrality of the documents to the core elements of the claim.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2019 CanLII 140842 (CA IRB), par. 18, <http://canlii.ca/t/j8rc1#par18>, retrieved on 2020-12-18.</ref> *'''(b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings''' *'''(c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34''' **<u>Is the claimant educated?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider a claimant's level of education when making this decision, stating with approval that "The panel clearly took into consideration the fact that the applicant was educated."<ref name=":11">''Mercado v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 311, 2010 FC 289 (F.C.), para. 38.</ref> **<u>Has the claimant been self-represented?</u> The Board's Chairperson Guidelines 7 provide that "Generally speaking, the RPD will make allowances for self-represented claimants who are unfamiliar with the RPD's processes and rules."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Chairperson Guidelines 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division'', Amended December 15, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/GuideDir07.aspx#FailureA4> (Accessed January 26, 2020), section 1.3.</ref> That said, it may be considered that the Claimant's Kit that all claimants receive, and the instructions on the BOC form, emphasize the document disclosure deadlines (see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#The deadline for providing documents to the Board depends on the nature of the document]]). **<u>Is the party's counsel experienced?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider the fact that a claimant was represented by experienced counsel when making this decision. The court stated: "Contrary to the applicant’s argument, the RPD did not impose a heavier burden on him simply because he was represented by this counsel. That was simply a part of the facts relevant to assessing the reasonable efforts that could objectively be expected on the part of a person in the applicant’s position."<ref name=":11" /> **<u>How much time has the party had to try to obtain the document?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider how much time a claimant has had to access the document in question, writing "the RPD also considered that the applicant had more than two years to obtain this documentation and that it should have been easy to access".<ref name=":12">''Mercado v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 311, 2010 FC 289 (F.C.), para. 40.</ref> **<u>Were the documents available to the party earlier?</u> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that a panel of the Board should consider the explanation provided for the late disclosure: "If the documents were available and could have been disclosed earlier than this will weigh against acceptance of the documents."<ref name=":13">Waldman, Lorne, ''Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice'', Markham, Ont.: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2018, ISBN 9780433478928, ISSN [tel:1912-0311 1912-0311], <<nowiki>https://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5022478</nowiki>> (Accessed April 1, 2020) at page 1724 of the PDF.</ref> For example, in ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court commented with approval that the RPD "considered that the applicant had more than two years to obtain this documentation and that it should have been easy to access because the principal applicant seemed to indicate that the tax return was in his father’s possession in Venezuela."<ref name=":12" /> **<u>Was a party's ability to produce this document affected by the Covid-19 pandemic?</u> The RPD should consider the principle set out in the ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'' that it will apply the rules flexibly in light of Covid-19.<ref name=":15" /> Furthermore, the Board is to consider any other relevant factors, which have included: *<u>When were the documents actually disclosed?</u> As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules under the heading ''Other factors the Division may consider where disclosure is late'', "The Division may also consider other relevant factors such as ... when the documents were actually disclosed. Thus the parties should make every effort to disclose their documents as soon as possible."<ref name=":8" /> For example, in one decision on this matter RAD Member Angus Grant noted that it was relevant that the documents had been submitted "a full five days prior to the hearing".<ref>''X (Re),'' 2019 CanLII 140842 (CA IRB), par. 18, <http://canlii.ca/t/j8rc1#par18>, retrieved on 2020-12-17.</ref> *<u>Was the Board aware at an earlier date that a mistake was made in providing the document, and what actions did the Board take?</u> The Federal Court noted in ''Balasundaram v. Canada'' that "Reasonableness underlying fairness is also based on expectations. Norms of conduct develop and persons come to rely upon them. One of those norms that normally applies is that obvious slips and omissions will not be automatically fatal and may be corrected. For example, the failure to include an attachment to an email raises the expectation that the addressee will advise the sender of his or her error."<ref>''Balasundaram v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 38 (CanLII), par. 30, <https://canlii.ca/t/gg2lx#par30>, retrieved on 2021-03-31.</ref> *<u>Will admitting the documents result in delay to the proceedings?</u> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that a panel properly considers "whether or not the admission of the late disclosure will result in a lengthy delay in the proceedings."<ref name=":13" /> Where it would, this would point against admission of the late document. Where it would not, this would support admitting the document. *<u>Would admitting the evidence cause prejudice to the other party in the proceedings?</u> The court considered this factor in ''Hasan v. Canada'' when it concluded that the Board was wrong to refuse late evidence in a case where the Minister was not participating.<ref>''Hasan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1537 (CanLII), para. 12.</ref> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that "In light of the wording of these Rules and given the importance of the procedure to the individual involved, it is certainly arguable that relevant documents should be excluded only if their admission would be highly prejudicial to one of the parties and if this prejudice could not be rectified by a short adjournment."<ref>Waldman, Lorne, ''Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice'', Markham, Ont.: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2018, ISBN 9780433478928, ISSN [tel:1912-0311 1912-0311], <<nowiki>https://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5022478</nowiki>> (Accessed April 1, 2020) at page 1720 of the PDF.</ref> *<u>Are there any relevant personal circumstances of the claimant?</u> As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules under the heading ''Other factors the Division may consider where disclosure is late'', "The Division may also consider other relevant factors such as the personal circumstances of the claimant".<ref name=":8" /> For example, one may consider the statement in the Board's SOGIE guidelines that "A reasonable delay may also arise out of an individual's reluctance to reveal their <abbr>SOGIE</abbr> to a spouse or other family member, or in their realizing or accepting their <abbr>SOGIE</abbr>."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Chairperson's Guideline 9: Proceedings Before the IRB Involving Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Expression,'' <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/GuideDir09.aspx>, at section 8.5.11.</ref> === Rule concerns use of undisclosed documents at a hearing, as opposed to other types of proceedings === Rule 36 provides that a party who does not provide a document in accordance with Rule 34 (which specifies the process and timeline for disclosure of documents by a party) must not use the document at the hearing unless allowed to do so by the Division as per the process specified above. In interpreting this rule, the definitions section in Rule 1 provides a definition of a "proceeding" which is apposite. It defines a proceeding as including "a conference, an application or a hearing". As such, the fact that such documents cannot be used at a "hearing" appears to imply that they may be used in other types of proceedings, subject to other relevant rules. One such rule is Rule 43 concerning additional documents provided after a hearing. If the hearing has occurred, then any documents provided afterwards must meet the requirements of that rule. The fact that this rule does not limit a party's ability to use documents in, say, a pre-hearing application or conference stems from the wording of Rule 34, which establishes the deadline for providing such documents as being "10 days before the date fixed for the hearing". Instead, if a late-filed document being relied upon in a pre-hearing conference or application were to cause prejudice to another party, then general principles of procedural fairness would guide the Board's actions. === The Division may impose conditions on the use of late documents === As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules, "Where the Division allows the use of a document provided outside the time limit in the rules, it may impose conditions on its use that it considers appropriate. For example, the Division may decide that only certain relevant portions of a long document will be referred to."<ref name=":8">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Date Modified: 2009-05-22 <https://web.archive.org/web/20100704062357/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/eng/brdcom/references/aclo/pages/rpdcomment.aspx> (Accessed January 28, 2020).</ref> === If the panel admits late documents pursuant to Rule 36, it should not then assign those documents low weight for the sole reason that they are late === In ''Pineda v. Canada'', the Division had accepted documents that were submitted late. However, in its reasons, the tribunal concluded that it would afford the documents little weight because of the late disclosure. The court concluded that this was in error: "having exercised its discretion to allow the filing of this evidence pursuant to Rule 30 outside of the delay provided for in Rule 29, it appears somewhat counterintuitive considering the criteria to be used in the exercise of such discretion to then assign very little weight to this evidence on the basis that it was filed late and without considering the explanation provided by the applicant as to why it was so."<ref>''Pineda v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 538, 2010 FC 454 (F.C.), para. 35.</ref> === The Rule 36 factors need not be considered where a document is otherwise inadmissible, for example where it has not been translated === The requirement that the tribunal consider whether to accept a late document does not apply where the issue is not the lateness of the document but rather the lack of a proper translation. In ''Soares v. Canada'' the court held that this rule need not be considered in a case where the issue is not that a document had been disclosed late, but rather that it has been disclosed without translation.<ref>''Soares v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2007] F.C.J. No. 254, 2007 FC 190 (F.C.).</ref> In short, the fact that a party is attempting to provide untranslated analysis late does not change the fact that both this rule and Rule 32 properly apply in such circumstances: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Where evidence has not been translated in accordance with the rules, the Board may decline to accept it or may assign it low weight]]. == RPD Rule 37 - Rules apply to any document == <pre>Providing a Document General provision 37 Rules 38 to 41 apply to any document, including a notice or request in writing.</pre> == RPD Rule 38 - How to provide documents to the Division, the Minister, and any other person == <pre>Providing documents to Division 38 (1) A document to be provided to the Division must be provided to the registry office specified by the Division. Providing documents to Minister (2) A document to be provided to the Minister must be provided to the Minister’s counsel. Providing documents to person other than Minister (3) A document to be provided to a person other than the Minister must be provided to the person’s counsel if the person has counsel of record. If the person does not have counsel of record, the document must be provided to the person.</pre> == RPD Rule 39 - Ways that a document may be provided == <pre>How to provide document 39 Unless these Rules provide otherwise, a document may be provided in any of the following ways: (a) by hand; (b) by regular mail or registered mail; (c) by courier; (d) by fax if the recipient has a fax number and the document is no more than 20 pages long, unless the recipient consents to receiving more than 20 pages; and (e) by email or other electronic means if the Division allows.</pre> === This limit has been increased to 50 pages by practice notice === As per the ''Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'' from the RPD dated June 24, 2020, the 20 page limit for faxes has been increased to 50 pages.<ref name=":15">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings,'' June 24, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx> (Accessed June 24, 2020).</ref> === Unless consent to receive more than 20 pages by fax is received prior to sending the document, the document will not be considered to have been received === As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules, "The maximum number of pages that may be faxed to the Division or to another party is 20 pages, including a cover sheet. The recipient's consent must be obtained ''before'' faxing a document or package of documents longer than 20 pages; otherwise, the documents will not be considered to have been received."<ref name=":8" /> This statement would apply, ''mutatis mutandis'', to the new limit of 50 pages. == RPD Rule 40 - Application if unable to provide document == <pre>Application if unable to provide document 40 (1) If a party is unable to provide a document in a way required by rule 39, the party may make an application to the Division to be allowed to provide the document in another way or to be excused from providing the document. Form of application (2) The application must be made in accordance with rule 50. Allowing application (3) The Division must not allow the application unless the party has made reasonable efforts to provide the document to the person to whom the document must be provided.</pre> === Rule 40(3): The party must have made reasonable efforts to provide the document to the person to whom the document must be provided === This is an issue that arises with applications to vacate and cease refugee protection where the protected person cannot be located: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Applications to Vacate or to Cease Refugee Protection#Rule 64(3): The Minister must provide a copy of the application to the protected person]]. Such applications may proceed in the absence of the person concerned unless doing so would amount to a breach of the tribunal's duty of fairness. The Division must not allow an application to proceed without having provided notice to the person concerned unless the Minister can show, to the Division's satisfaction, that reasonable efforts have been made to provide the document as required, as stated in Rule 40(3). In determining applications under rule 40, the RPD has considered such factors as: * the Minister’s efforts to search internet databases, * the Minister's searches in the Canadian Police Information Centre database, * the Minister's personal attendance at the last known address, * the Minister's attempts to reach the protected person at the last known telephone number, and * the relative quality of the Minister’s evidence on the merits of the application to cease.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Legal Resources - Chapter 12 - Applications to Cease Refugee Protection'', <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/legal-concepts/Pages/RefDef12.aspx#n1242> (Accessed December 6, 2020), at s. 12.4.2.</ref> == RPD Rule 41 - When documents are considered received == <pre>When document received by Division 41 (1) A document provided to the Division is considered to be received by the Division on the day on which the document is date-stamped by the Division. When document received by recipient other than Division (2) A document provided by regular mail other than to the Division is considered to be received seven days after the day on which it was mailed. If the seventh day is not a working day, the document is considered to be received on the next working day. Extension of time limit — next working day (3) When the time limit for providing a document ends on a day that is not a working day, the time limit is extended to the next working day.</pre> === The fact that a document is "considered to be received" on a particular day creates a rebuttable presumption of fact === Rule 41(2) states that "a document provided by regular mail...is considered to be received seven days after the day on which it was mailed." The fact that a document is "considered to be received" on that date means that it can be presumed, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that the document was received on the date in question. However, this is a rebuttable presumption of fact. Where, for example, the mail is returned as undeliverable, the presumption would not hold. Similarly, if information came to the attention of the sender that the document in question in reality was received on a later day, for example because the recipient was outside of the country for an extended period, then it would not be proper to simply "consider" the document as having been received after the seven-day period. This interpretation is supported by the Board's public commentary on the previous version of the rules which held that the fact that a document is "considered to be received" in this way "does not relieve a party of ensuring that [it was actually received]": "If a document is sent by regular mail, [this subsection] of the Rules states that the document is considered to be received seven days after the day it was mailed. If the seventh day is not a working day, the document is considered received on the next working day. However, mailing the document does not relieve a party of ensuring that the Division actually receives the document within the specified time limit."<ref name=":8" /> Similarly, while it will be presumed that a notice of hearing mailed to a claimant (or their counsel) provides adequate notice of a hearing, where the evidence establishes that the notice was not in fact received, then any abandonment determination could be set aside, subject to a broader examination of the principles relevant to abandonment proceedings including whether the claimant was diligent in keeping the Board up-to-date with their contact information.<ref>''Anwar v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', [2003] FCJ No 622 (FC), as cited in Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. ''Refugee Law (Second Edition)''. Irwin Law, 2017, page 307.</ref> === Documents sent to another Division of the Board will not automatically be placed on the RPD file === Persons with matters before the RPD may also have matters before another Division of the Board, including the Immigration Division, or the Refugee Appeal Division (as when a matter is appealed and then remitted for reconsideration by the RAD). Documents submitted to those other Divisions will not automatically be placed on the record at the RPD and it is generally up to a party to submit such documents to the RPD if they want the RPD to consider them. == RPD Rule 42 - Original documents == <pre>Original Documents Original documents 42 (1) A party who has provided a copy of a document to the Division must provide the original document to the Division (a) without delay, on the written request of the Division; or (b) if the Division does not make a request, no later than at the beginning of the proceeding at which the document will be used. Documents referred to in paragraph 3(5)(e) or (g) (2) On the written request of the Division, the Minister must without delay provide to the Division the original of any document referred to in paragraph 3(5)(e) or (g) that is in the possession of an officer.</pre> === One of the purposes of original documents being made available to the Division is to allow for the verification of those original documents === Rule 42 provides that a party who has provided a copy of a document to the Division must also provide the original document to the Division. One of the purposes of this relates to the integrity of the process and the ability of the Division to assess the authenticity of the original document. For example, the ''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings'' state that where, after consulting with the responsible member manager, the assigned member forms the opinion that forensic verification is necessary, they may direct the RPD adjudicative support team to send the document to the RCMP Forensic Laboratory Services for verification.<ref>''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings,'' Instructions issued by the Chairperson pursuant to section 159(1)(a) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', amended December, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/InstructInfo.aspx> (Accessed November 28, 2021).</ref> The average turn around time for forensic examination is 120 days. Hence, the assigned member must consider whether forensic verification will unreasonably delay the proceedings beyond the parameters set by legislation. === The Board has suspended the application of Rule 42(1)(b) during the Covid-19 pandemic === In its ''Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'', which applies during the Covid-19 period, the Board has states that "until further notice, the RPD waives the requirement in RPD Rule 42(1)(b) to provide the original documents at the beginning of the hearing, unless directed in advance by the presiding member."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'', June 23, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx#toc25> (Accessed August 1, 2020).</ref> This practice notice states that "original documents must still be retained and provided to the Division upon request." == RPD Rule 43 - Additional documents provided as evidence after a hearing == <pre>Additional Documents Documents after hearing 43 (1) A party who wants to provide a document as evidence after a hearing but before a decision takes effect must make an application to the Division. Application (2) The party must attach a copy of the document to the application that must be made in accordance with rule 50, but the party is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. Factors (3) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34.</pre> === History === The present RPD Rule 43 is similar, but not identical, to the previous Rule 37 in the older, 2002, version of the rules:<ref>''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), at para 23, <https://canlii.ca/t/ftgjl#par23>, retrieved on 2022-07-07.</ref><pre>Additional documents after the hearing has ended 37. (1) A party who wants to provide a document as evidence after a hearing must make an application to the Division. Written application (2) The party must attach a copy of the document to the application. The application must be made under rule 44, but the party is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. Factors (3) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including: (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence it brings to the proceedings; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 29.</pre> === Rule 43 applies to evidence, not submissions, caselaw, or other tribunal decisions === Rule 43 does not apply to submissions made after a hearing. This is because, as stated in <em>Yared Belay v. Canada</em>, this rule sets out a procedure for filing evidence after a hearing, not submissions.<ref name=":0">''Yared Belay v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2016 FC 1387 (CanLII), paras. 41-42 <https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc1387/2016fc1387.html>.</ref> Furthermore, a party cannot make an application to submit another decision of the Refugee Protection Division, or indeed some other tribunal, or a piece of caselaw pursuant to this rule. As the court commented in ''Petrovic v. Canada:''<blockquote>I do not find that a copy of a tribunal decision constitutes “evidence” under subsection 43(1) of the Rules for the following reasons. First, the RPD is not required to analyze each piece of case law, as it would material evidence. Second, with the presentation of new evidence, the opposing party is generally given the opportunity to make submissions on the admissibility of said evidence, including cross‑examination. It is difficult to imagine how anyone could oppose the admissibility of a piece of case law (decision). Lastly, if Parliament wanted previous RPD decisions to constitute evidence under section 43 of the Rules, I believe it would have explicitly indicated so.<ref name=":5">''Petrovic v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2016 FC 637 (CanLII), para. 11.</ref></blockquote>The relevant rule for extending the time to supply non-evidentiary documents is Rule 70 (which see). === The Division has no substantive duty to accept post-hearing evidence or submissions, but it must consider the newly submitted evidence expressly === As held in ''Aguilera v Canada'', the Board "has no duty to accept post-hearing evidence or to allow submissions thereon".<ref>''Aguilera v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2008 FC 507, 167 ACWS (3d) 967.</ref> It does, however, have a duty to "acknowledge the post-hearing evidence submitted by the Applicants and to explain why it should or should not be considered".<ref>''Mannan v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 144 (CanLII), para. 52.</ref> In short, "the Board ha[s] a duty to consider the newly submitted evidence expressly".<ref>''Matingou-Testie v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2012 FC 389, [2012] FCJ No 401 at para 43.</ref> This duty extends until such time as the decision is rendered.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2015 CanLII 108739 (CA IRB), paras. 13-19.</ref> Where a panel fails to acknowledge and review a claimant's post-hearing evidentiary submissions, it will have violated the principles of natural justice and procedural fairness in the adjudication of the claim. However, this obligation does not entitle a claimant to any particular result other than a fair process in which the relevant rules, such as Rule 43, are considered and the evidence is then either accepted or rejected. This obligation to consider newly submitted evidence expressly applies even where the Rule 43 application may be scant, or missing details. For example, in ''Cox v. Canada'', the court considered a situation in which the Minister argued that: <blockquote>the Board had no duty to consider expressly the application to admit the evidence in its reasons because the application did not comply with all of the requirements of Rule 37. Particularly, the Respondent underlines the want of explanation in the application as to why the evidence could not have been submitted in time for the hearing. </blockquote>The court dismissed this argument, concluding that the Board had a duty to consider the newly submitted evidence expressly notwithstanding the lack of such submissions on one of the factors enumerated in the relevant rule.<ref>''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), at para 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/ftgjl#par24>, retrieved on 2022-07-07.</ref> See also the following commentary: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#New evidence submitted post-hearing should be assessed pursuant to Rule 43 even where the party does not explicitly refer to the rule]]. === New evidence submitted post-hearing should be assessed pursuant to Rule 43 even where the party does not explicitly refer to the rule === In ''Shuaib'', the Court addressed the issue of whether the RPD could reject post-hearing documents on the basis that no formal application for their admission was made in accordance with Rule 43. The Court found that providing the documents, accompanied by an explanation as to why they should be considered, met the requirements of the Rules.<ref>''Mannan v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 144 (CanLII), para. 46.</ref> The Court determined that the RPD made a reviewable error in ignoring the post-hearing evidence. Similarly, the RAD has held that the RPD erred in not considering documents where it was "implicit in the correspondence to the RPD that an application was being made to have further evidence considered post-hearing." Member M. Pettinella of the RAD commented on this obligation as follows in one case: <blockquote>The RAD notes that the Minister’s correspondence was received by the Board after the Appellant’s hearing and before a decision was rendered by the RPD. It is implicit in the Minister’s correspondence to the RPD that an application was being made to have further evidence considered post-hearing. The RPD erred when it failed to consider the Minister’s correspondence as an application. The RPD had an obligation to consider the Minister’s application and determine if the evidence was admissible within its rules. RPD rule 43(3) indicates that the RPD must consider any relevant factors, including, the document’s relevance and probative value; any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings; and whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule [43].<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 107435 (CA IRB), para. 17.</ref> </blockquote> === The Board must consider each of the Rule 43(3) factors === Pursuant to Rule 43(3), in deciding this type of application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including: *(a) the document’s relevance and probative value *(b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings *(c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34 As such, the Board is required to consider the relevance, probative value, newness of the documents, as well as whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document on time, i.e. factors that are the same as those enumerated in Rules 36(a), (b), and (c). The text ''Refugee Law'' states that "the criteria for the receipt of post-hearing evidence are similar to the long-established grounds at common law by which an individual may tender new evidence on appeal."<ref>Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. ''Refugee Law (Second Edition)''. Irwin Law, 2017, page 304.</ref> The court has held that "While the list of factors to be considered in [Rule 36] is not exhaustive, the use of the word “including” rather than the words “such as” before the list of factors indicates the intent that each of the factors included in the sub-rule be considered. A failure to do so gives rise to a breach of procedural fairness."<ref name=":2">''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), para. 27.</ref> As such, in a case where the Board's decision weighed only one factor, the court concluded that it had erred. === Rule 43(3) factors are not exhaustive, and as such, the Board may consider additional factors === The fact that, per Rule 43(3), the Division should consider "any relevant factors" means that it is not limited to the factors above, which are enumerated in the rule, and may consider other factors. In the words of Mr. Justice Near, "the list of factors to be considered in Rule 37(3) is not exhaustive".<ref name=":2" /> === The consideration of the Rule 43(3) factors in past decisions === See the discussion of the identical factors in the commentary for Rule 36 above ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents]]). Additional factors particular to post-hearing documents that have been considered have included: *'''Whether a claimant made an earlier application to provide post-hearing documents that did not include this type of document:''' Where a panel has provided a claimant with leave to submit some specified type of document post-hearing, the claimant should not expect that another, unrelated, type of document will be allowed absent an application on point. In ''Farkas v. Canada'', the court noted that "the post-hearing documents actually submitted do not fit within the type for which the RPD had given leave to file, that is to say 'corroborative police and/or medical documents'. As the post-hearing evidence did not fall within the scope of the RPD’s grant of permission, the RPD would have been justified rejecting it."<ref>''Farkas v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2014 FC 542 (CanLII), para. 13.</ref> *'''Whether the document exists at the time of the application:''' At times, parties will apply for a proceeding to be held in abeyance until some document comes into their possession, for example a court decision from a foreign judicial process that has not yet concluded. This rule does not apply to such requests because this rule only applies where the party has and submits a copy of the document that it wants the Board to consider, per Rule 43(2). Instead, requests for leave to provide documents post-hearing, and to refrain from providing a decision until such documents are provided are not strictly assessed under Rule 43, but should instead be considered based on the Board's plenary jurisdiction. === Requests to submit a document post-hearing that the claimant does not have in its possession are not made pursuant to Rule 43 === At times, parties will apply for a proceeding to be held in abeyance until some document comes into their possession, for example a court decision from a foreign judicial process that has not yet concluded. Rule 43 does not apply to such requests because this rule only applies where the party has and submits a copy of the document that it wants the Board to consider, per Rule 43(2). Instead, requests for leave to provide documents post-hearing, and to refrain from providing a decision until such documents are provided are not strictly assessed under Rule 43, but should instead be considered based on the Board's plenary jurisdiction. The general approach is to decline to hold a proceeding in abeyance pending the outcome of a foreign process, but it should be noted that, when considering the overall scheme of the Act, In cases where the person has been charged with an offence in Canada punishable by ten or more years, and the criminal proceedings are still pending, the officer has the discretion to await the outcome of the trial before making a determination as to an individual's admissibility to file a claim.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001, c 27, s 100(2) <http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec100subsec2> retrieved on 2020-04-13.</ref> As such, there is some precedent in the IRPA for putting proceedings into abeyance pending another proceeding's conclusion and documents related thereto becoming available. The court held in ''Gulamsakhi v. Canada'' that the Board should generally have a liberal approach to allowing reasonable requests to submit post-hearing documents given the issues that are usually at stake in refugee claims:<blockquote>In my opinion, in the circumstances of this case, the RPD erred in refusing to grant the Applicant an adjournment or permission to file evidence later. All adjournments require a balancing of the many circumstances of the case. Here, the primary error was that the RPD did not factor into its balancing the consequences of deportation for this Applicant. ... In the present case, particularly given the potentially horrific fate awaiting the Applicant, not only at the hands of her husband but also at the hands of criminal and possibly religious justice authorities, and given little prejudice an adjournment would realistically cause the RPD or Canadian authorities, in my view in the circumstances overall fairness required the RPD to grant the adjournment to enable the Applicant to provide the RPD with the corroborating documents it was requested.<ref>''Gulamsakhi v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2015] F.C.J. No. 271, 2015 FC 105 (F.C.), para. 25.</ref></blockquote> === If credibility concerns emerge from documents submitted by a claimant post-hearing, the panel generally need not resume the hearing === The general rule is that the RPD has no obligation to return to a claimant with concerns arising from their own post-hearing submissions. The court has stated that "To do so would be onerous on the RPD. It must be kept in mind that it was up to the Applicants to submit credible and corroborative evidence to support their claim."<ref>''Behary v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 794 (CanLII), para. 31.</ref> This conclusion may differ where the Minister is involved in a proceeding and their post-hearing submissions raise issues as to the credibility of the claimant, or vice versa. == References == <references responsive="" /> rpg0xe68q956btlxcjg0fdtxvhkw7o6 4095507 4095498 2022-08-23T19:15:20Z Refcanimm 3267488 /* What is a "document" as the term is used in these rules? */ wikitext text/x-wiki Rules 31-43 are in a section of the rules entitled "documents" and they concern how to provide documents, the language(s) that documents may be in, the process that the Division should follow when it itself wants to provide documents, the criteria that the Division shall use to determine whether to accept documents, how the Division should decide whether or not to accept documents that have been submitted late, how documents may be provided both to the Division and to other parties, the requirement to provide original documents at the hearing, and the process for providing additional documents as evidence after a hearing. In short, these rules 31-43 concern the ''process'' by which a claimant is to submit a document to the Board. For a discussion of what documents a claimant is obliged to submit to the Board, see Rules 3-12 and the summary of those obligations at [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?]] == RPD Rule 31 - How to provide documents == The text of the relevant rules reads: <pre>Documents Form and Language of Documents Documents prepared by party 31 (1) A document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding must be typewritten, in a type not smaller than 12 point, on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 1⁄2 inches x 11 inches) paper. Photocopies (2) Any photocopy provided by a party must be a clear copy of the document photocopied and be on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 1⁄2 inches x 11 inches) paper. List of documents (3) If more than one document is provided, the party must provide a list identifying each of the documents. Consecutively numbered pages (4) A party must consecutively number each page of all the documents provided as if they were one document.</pre> === What is a "document" as the term is used in these rules? === The term "document" is not explicitly defined in these rules. No definition, for instance, is provided in the definitions section of the rules at Rule 1 ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions]]). As with any exercise of statutory interpretation in Canada, the proper scope and meaning of the term "document" in these rules will thus emerge by applying Driedger’s modern approach to statutory interpretation, namely that "the words of an Act are to be read in their entire context and in their grammatical and ordinary sense harmoniously with the scheme of the Act, the object of the Act, and the intention of Parliament".<ref>''Bell ExpressVu Limited Partnership v. Rex,'' 2002 SCC 42 (CanLII), [2002] 2 SCR 559, par. 26, <http://canlii.ca/t/51s6#26>, retrieved on 2020-02-02</ref> Doing so, the following principles emerge: * <u>The term "documents" is defined broadly and is not confined to paper documents:</u> When the current version of the RPD Rules were drafted in 2012, they were drafted against the background of the wording of the prior Rule 27 under the 2002 Refugee Protection Division Rules and the caselaw that had interpreted that version of the rules. One such case was ''Cortes v. Canada'', which, when interpreting the previous version of this rule in the 2002 RPD Rules,<ref>''Refugee Protection Division Rules,'' SOR/2002-228, Rule 27.</ref> had endorsed the following broad conception of what a document is within the meaning of the RPD Rules: "The ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' provide that “document” includes “any correspondence, memorandum, book, plan, map, drawing, diagram, picture or graphic work, photograph, film, microform, sound recording, videotape, machine‑readable record, and any other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics, and any copy of those documents”".<ref name=":1">''Hernandez Cortes v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2009 FC 583 (CanLII), para. 26.</ref> This interpretation continues to be persuasive, notwithstanding that the ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' are no longer made available by the Board. The caselaw applying to the previous rule would therefore appear to continue to be applicable to the updated one, as there was no indication that the 2012 amendments to the rules intended to depart from the previous interpretations and practices. Indeed, decisions under the new rules continue to construe the term "document" broadly, as with the following 2017 Refugee Appeal Division decision which concludes that "documents" include “electronic documents”, as that term is defined in section 31.8 of the ''Canada Evidence Act'' ("''electronic document'' means data that is recorded or stored on any medium in or by a computer system or other similar device and that can be read or perceived by a person or a computer system or other similar device. It includes a display, printout or other output of that data.").<ref>''X (Re),'' 2017 CanLII 56261 (CA IRB), par. 49, <http://canlii.ca/t/h5p78#par49>, retrieved on 2020-08-19.</ref> The ''Interpretation Act'' includes the following definition: "<dfn>writing</dfn>, or any term of like import, includes words printed, typewritten, painted, engraved, lithographed, photographed or represented or reproduced by any mode of representing or reproducing words in visible form. (écrit)".<ref>''Interpretation Act,'' RSC 1985, c I-21, s 35, <<nowiki>https://canlii.ca/t/7vhg#sec35</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2022-08-23.</ref> This definition has been considered in other contexts that have concluded that written documents may include those in electronic format.<ref>''Gagné c. R.,'' 2011 QCCA 2157 (CanLII), <https://canlii.ca/t/fw1r4>.</ref> Furthermore, the Federal Court has held that non-paper sources of evidence, such as DVDs, are admissible before administrative tribunals in other circumstances: ''Grenier v Canada''.<ref>''Grenier v Canada (Attorney General)'', 2013 FC 208 (CanLII) at paras 31, 34-39.</ref> * <u>The term "document" as used in these rules is not limited to documents provided for evidentiary purposes, but also includes other types of documents:</u> Where the term "document" is used in these rules without any qualification, it should apply to all documents, whether or not those documents are evidentiary ones or other types of documents such as written submissions. The term "documents" as used in these rules includes documents ''prepared by a party'' as per Rule 31(1), which sets out the format required for any "document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding". RPD Rule 37 specifies that a "document", as the term is used in these rules, includes "a notice or request in writing". Some of the RPD rules apply only to documents used as evidence (for example Rule 43 applies only where "a party wants to provide a document ''as evidence''", which the courts have held excludes situations where documents are provided for non-evidentiary purposes, such as written submissions (<em>Yared Belay v. Canada</em>, paras. 41-42<ref name=":0" />) and caselaw (''Petrovic v. Canada'', para. 11<ref name=":5" />)). By necessary implication, the fact that other rules do not include this type of limitation on the term "documents" means that those rules apply to all documents submitted (notices, requests, submissions, caselaw, etc.), not simply evidentiary ones. === What is a "proceeding" as the term is used in these rules? === Many of these rules relate to documents used in "a proceeding", for example Rule 31(1) specifies that "a document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding" must meet the specifications set out therein. Are all documents submitted to the Refugee Board by a claimant or protected person (where there is an application to vacate or cease their protection, say) ones that are being used in a proceeding? Generally speaking, that is the case, as discussed in the following commentary below: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Meaning of "proceeding" in this rule]]. === The evidence to be replied upon should be submitted so that it is part of the tribunal's record === Rule 31(4) provides that a party must consecutively number each page of all of the documents provided as if they were one document. One of the policy implications of this is that documents and evidence relied upon should generally be submitted and placed on the record so that they are available for any appeal or review of the Division's decision. In this way, the Division should not generally accept hyperlinks to evidence given that the content at the hyperlink may change. The Federal Court holds that "citations are not evidence before the Court"<ref>''Sani v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2021 FC 1337 (CanLII), at para 14, <https://canlii.ca/t/jl2k3#par14>, retrieved on 2021-12-17.</ref> and the Division should conclude likewise. The following analysis from ''Iribhogbe v. Canada'' may be considered persuasive: <blockquote>With respect to the website links and excerpts from these webpages, the RAD noted that the Applicant did not provide any documentation as new evidence in his Rule 29 application, as required by the RAD Rules. Instead, he included references to forty (40) Internet web links and select excerpts from webpages. The RAD indicated that any submission of new evidence must be in printed form, not a simple reference to an Internet link. The RAD further indicated that, in the absence of the actual documents containing the excerpts, it was unable to ascertain the publication date of the information to determine if the documents could have been provided with the Applicant’s appeal record.<ref>''Iribhogbe v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 501 (CanLII), at para 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/jnm47#par24>, retrieved on 2022-05-12.</ref> </blockquote>Similarly, in ''Urbieta v. Canada'' the RAD noted the RPD could not reasonably be expected to take a claimant's cellphone into evidence and proferring one's cellphone at the hearing is not a substitute for having submitted the documents prior to the hearing as required by the RPD Rules, so that the evidence may be accepted and placed on the record.<ref>''Urbieta v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 815 (CanLII), at para 28, <https://canlii.ca/t/jpl5g#par28>, retrieved on 2022-06-27.</ref> == RPD Rule 32 - Language of Documents == <pre>Language of documents — claimant or protected person 32 (1) All documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator. Language of Minister’s documents (2) All documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator. Translator’s declaration (3) A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate.</pre> == Commentary == The following commentary applies to Rules 32(1)-(3) collectively. It is then followed by more specific commentary pertaining to each of the specific subsections of Rule 32. === Where evidence has not been translated in accordance with the rules, the Board may decline to accept it or may assign it low weight === ==== Declining to accept untranslated documents ==== The proper procedure to follow where a claimant attempts to admit documents that are untranslated is ordinarily that followed by RAD Member Normand Leduc when he wrote as follows: "Exhibit P-3 is not translated into English or French and, consequently, I cannot accept it as evidence."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 15012 (CA IRB), para. 16.</ref> This is so as the language of this rule is described as "mandatory", including through its use of the word "must",<ref>''Londono v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2011 CanLII 95605 (CA IRB), para. 17 (interpreting its analogous and identically-worded rule).</ref> and that countervailing considerations such as cost<ref>''Glibchenko v Canada (Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness),'' 2014 CanLII 95427 (CA IRB), para. 6.</ref> and time constraints<ref>''X (Re),'' 2013 CanLII 99305 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> are not generally valid reasons for non-compliance with the rule that documents be translated. Furthermore, the Federal Court has stated that it is not the tribunal's role to ask an interpreter present in the hearing room to translate a claimant's narrative: <blockquote>The burden of being ready to proceed at a hearing is on the applicant, not the tribunal. Placing an obligation on the tribunal to ensure that the applicant's PIF is complete is similar to transferring the applicant's burden to the tribunal. The Court feels that the tribunal did not have an obligation to ask the interpreter present in the courtroom to translate the applicant's PIF to correct his deficiencies, as the applicant had suggested. It is the applicant's responsibility to prepare his claim file, and it is not up to the tribunal to fix his deficiencies.<ref>''Singh v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 818 (CanLII), at para 27, <https://canlii.ca/t/g0jvf#par27>, retrieved on 2022-03-28.</ref> </blockquote>See Rule 6(3) on the requirement for the Basis of Claim form to have an interpreter's declaration: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#RPD Rule 6 - Basis of Claim Form]]. ==== Declining to accept a document that has only been translated in part ==== The above logic applies equally where only a portion of the document has been translated. Member Edward Bosveld of the Refugee Appeal Division concluded that generally, a translation of a document should be complete, not only a selective translation of isolated words in a document on which a party wishes to rely:<blockquote>Here, the Minister has not provided a translation of the Albanian-language wording on the Facebook pages, and yet seeks to rely upon that wording to establish that the Respondent’s father is employed as a XXXX XXXX XXXX, which the Minister argues is not consistent with self-confinement at home. The Respondent disputes this contention, noting that the Minister has only translated selective words, and he disagrees that the words relate to his father’s employment. The Minister has not complied with the requirement to provide a signed translator’s declaration along with the translation of the Albanian words on the Facebook posts. Further, even if such a declaration had been provided, the RAD would still have some difficulty because only a partial translation has been provided. The translation provided does not comply with the Rules, is not complete, and the RAD cannot determine whether it is accurate. The RAD therefore declines to admit the Google translations into evidence.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 95934 (CA IRB), paras. 14-15.</ref></blockquote>But see ''Elias v. Canada'', in which the Federal Court commented on an IAD decision that had discounted evidence on the basis that it was untranslated. The court commented that the fact that the evidence was untranslated was not relevant to its probative value, as follows:<blockquote>The IAD found that there was insufficient evidence that Ms. Elias and Mr. Baiade are in frequent communication. Yet, the record contains about 50 pages of screen shots showing communications by WhatsApp or other phone and messaging applications, apparently in 2015 and 2019. The IAD discounted this evidence because it was in Arabic and not translated. Yet, what is relevant is the frequency of communication, not its contents. ... While these issues may not independently render the IAD’s decision unreasonable, they further erode its reasonableness.<ref>''Elias v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 252 (CanLII), at para 23, <https://canlii.ca/t/jml60#par23>, retrieved on 2022-03-31.</ref></blockquote>When considering this case, it should be noted that the IAD's equivalent rule, IAD Rule 29, is very similar to the above RPD Rule ("All documents used at a proceeding by a person who is the subject of an appeal must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided with an English or French translation and a translator’s declaration").<ref>Immigration Appeal Division Rules, SOR/2002-230, s 29, <https://canlii.ca/t/7xss#sec29>, retrieved on 2022-03-31.</ref> ==== Accepting untranslated evidence into evidence, but weighing it based on the fact that it is untranslated ==== The Board also has the power to admit such evidence into the record, while assigning it little or no weight, through its power to vary the rules per Rule 70 of the RPD Rules. For example, in interpreting its analogous rule, the Immigration Appeal Division commented:<blockquote>The appellant provided approximately 72 pages of documents as evidence. The majority of the documents were in the German language. Minister’s counsel objected to admission of those documents on the basis that they did not comply with ''Immigration Appeal Division Rule'' 29(1). The German language documents were not translated into either official language. The appellant explained that the purpose of the documents was to show the extent of his dental treatment. The documents were allowed into evidence but the appellant was advised little or no weight could be attached to them since they were not translated into one of Canada’s official languages.<ref>''Stellbrink v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 CanLII 98269 (CA IRB), para. 5.</ref></blockquote>The logic and practicality of admitting such untranslated documents was illustrated by the Immigration Appeal Division, when interpreting its analogous rule, as follows:<blockquote>The appellant provided copies of chat messages for a select period. For the most part, those messages are in a foreign language. Counsel for the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration submitted that the messages should not have been admitted as evidence because they do not conform to ''IAD Rule'' 29(1). The age of smartphones, internet communications and social media creates a dilemma. If a couple is regularly communicating by text, chat messages, Facebook or similar instant messaging, disclosure of all their messages would bog down hearings with mountains of paper. The cost of translation would be prohibitive. On the other hand, providing the messages without translation limits their probative value. Providing only a sample may lead to the inference that the remaining messages contain evidence adverse to the appellant’s case. There is no easy solution. The appellant has attempted to overcome the problem by providing a statutory declaration explaining the evidence. That is of some assistance. I give the evidence some weight, but the weight I give is reduced by the fact that the messages are in a foreign language.<ref name=":9">''Zhao v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2017 CanLII 57822 (CA IRB), para. 9.</ref></blockquote> === This translation requirement applies to video and audio evidence submitted to the Board, which must also be transcribed === Claimants regularly submit audio and video evidence to the Board. It must be transcribed and that transcription should then be translated into English or French. The Federal Court confirmed this in ''Cortes v. Canada'' when interpreting the previous version of this rule:<blockquote>Rule 28 provides that “[a]ll documents used at a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided with an English or French translation and a translator’s declaration”. Moreover, the ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'' provide that “document” includes “any correspondence, memorandum, book, plan, map, drawing, diagram, picture or graphic work, photograph, film, microform, sound recording, videotape, machine‑readable record, and any other documentary material, regardless of physical form or characteristics, and any copy of those documents”. Here, the DVD is a “document” that was not translated as required by the Rules. The panel was therefore entitled to attach no probative value to it.<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>The Refugee Protection Division has confirmed that the same reasoning applies to audiovisual and other evidence submitted under the current version of the RPD Rules.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 93295 (CA IRB), para. 34.</ref> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' under the question "Do videos, websites, or other electronic documents need to be translated?" states that "Yes! All evidence that you obtain must be translated into English or French. Videos must be transcribed." This reflects the best, and usual, practice. == RPD Rule 32(1) - Language of claimant or protected person's documents == <pre>Language of documents — claimant or protected person 32 (1) All documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator.</pre> === This rule applies to documents used by a claimant or protected person in a proceeding, not to all documents provided=== Claimants are obliged to provide all relevant documents in their possession at the time that they provide their BOC Form. These documents need not be translated: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Documents attached to the BOC form need not be translated at the time that they are attached]]. In contrast, documents provided at a later time must be translated since the only reason for their provision is that the claimant intends to rely upon them at the hearing, and hence they are to be "used" within the meaning of Rule 32(1). === Claimants need not provide documents in the language of the proceeding, only in English or French=== Claimants elect a language for their proceeding, either English or French. That said, per Rule 32(1), they are not limited to submitting documents in that language. Unlike the Rule for the Minister at 32(2), claimants are solely required to provide their documents in English or French (or, for documents in another language, with a translation into either English or French), regardless of what the language of the proceeding is. RAD Member Douglas Fortney commented on this issue as follows: <blockquote>In this case where the RPD member could not understand a document provided in French, the correct procedure would have been to have accepted the document into evidence and if necessary obtain an English language translation. Alternatively, it could have been considered to have obtained the services of a French – English interpreter who could have assisted in understanding the contents of the document at the RPD hearing.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 107659 (CA IRB), para. 27.</ref> </blockquote>This is reinforced by the IRB ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', which states that "All persons in the hearing room are free to speak the official language of their choice, including counsel for the subject of the proceeding. At the request of any party to the proceeding, the IRB will make arrangements to provide interpretation from one official language to the other, taking into consideration third language interpretation may also be required for the case."<ref name=":7">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', Date modified: 2018-07-03 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/pnnpollo.aspx> (Accessed January 22, 2020).</ref> This has legislative support in section 14 of the ''Official Languages Act'', which provides:<blockquote>''Official languages of federal courts<br/>'''''14)''' English and French are the official languages of the federal courts, and either of those languages may be used by any person in, or in any pleading in or process issuing from, any federal court.<ref>Official Languages Act, RSC 1985, c 31 (4th Supp), s 14 <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/530sl#sec14</nowiki>> retrieved on 2020-01-25.</ref></blockquote>The Board is considered to be a "federal court" based on the way that term is defined in the Official Languages Act and is thus bound by this provision: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Decisions#In what language or languages must the reasons for decisions be made available where they are publicly released?]] As such, a claimant may provide documents (be they letters, correspondence, submissions, notices, or other evidentiary or non-evidentiary documents - see the broad definition of what is considered to be a "document" above [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 31 - How to provide documents]]) provided that they meet the Rule 32 requirements regarding language. === What should a claimant do if they cannot afford to translate all of their documents? === Claimants are responsible for absorbing the cost of translating all written materials into either French or English.<ref>Jennifer Bond & David Wiseman, ''Imperfect Evidence and Uncertain Justice: An Exploratory Study of Access to Justice Issues in Canada's Asylum System,'' 53 U.B.C. L. Rev. 1 (2020), page 8.</ref> At times, claimants cannot afford to translate all of their documents. This may come up where a claimant is unrepresented (and thus does not have access to a translation budget from Legal Aid), where a claimant has sufficient means to afford private counsel but nonetheless is not able to afford having all of their documents translated because the documents are particularly voluminous, and where a claimant is entitled to legal aid but the translation budget provided by legal aid has been insufficient in the context of the case. In such a situation the claimant should advise the Division of the situation and be able to show that they took all reasonable steps to have the documents translated: *<u>Advise the Division in writing of the existence of the additional documents and the cost issue preventing them from being translated:</u> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' recommends that a claimant "Tell the [RPD] in writing that you have other documents that you could not afford to translate."<ref>Kinbrace Community Society, ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants,'' 2019 Version, <<nowiki>https://refugeeclaim.ca/wp-content/themes/refugeeclaim/library/guide/rhpg-vancouver-en.pdf</nowiki>>, page 17 (accessed January 17, 2020).</ref> *<u>Seek out a friend, volunteer, family member, etc. to translate the documents:</u> The claimant should be prepared to show that they made reasonable efforts to have the documents translated. The rules do not require that the translation be done by a professional: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#The translator need not supply an affidavit, be accredited, be fluent in both languages, or be completely independent]]. *<u>Apply to legal aid (for additional funds for translation):</u> For example, the BC Legal Services Society pre-authorizes translation costs of up to $361 (1,900 words) for each immigration representation contract.<ref>Legal Services Society, ''Disbursements Tariff'', November 2017 <https://legalaid.bc.ca/sites/default/files/2019-03/disbursementsNov2017.pdf> (Accessed February 2, 2020), page 8.</ref> Counsel may apply for authorization to translate additional documents in particular cases. Similarly, in Ontario, lawyers with RPD certificates from Legal Aid can bill Legal Aid online for translation of up to 3500 words. For documents longer than 3500 words, lawyers can submit a request for additional disbursements for translation.<ref>Legal Aid Ontario, News Release, "New Translation Disbursement for Refugee Certificates" (29 May 2015), online: <http://legalaid.on.ca/en/news/newsarchive/1505-29&#x20;translationdisbursement.asp>.</ref> Furthermore, the claimant should consider alternative ways to put the information in question in front of the Member: *<u>Translate the most important documents:</u> Instructions to claimants in public documents such as the guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' are that "Translation can be very expensive. If you can’t afford to translate everything, choose the most important documents."<ref name=":3" /> *<u>Have only portions of the documents translated:</u> As a half-way measure, the claimant may attempt to have the most important or relevant portions of the documents translated. But see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Declining to accept evidence that has only been translated in part]] regarding the Division's discretion to decline to admit such evidence where, for instance, the partial translation properly reduces the weight that can be attached to the document. *<u>Make the untranslated documents available at the hearing, including for spot translation:</u> The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from ''refugeeclaim.ca'' recommends that a claimant "Take [the untranslated documents] to the hearing and explain to the Presiding Member what the documents show."<ref name=":3">Kinbrace Community Society, ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants,'' 2019 Version, <https://refugeeclaim.ca/wp-content/themes/refugeeclaim/library/guide/rhpg-vancouver-en.pdf>, page 29 (accessed January 17, 2020).</ref> The Member would then have the discretion to ask the interpreter to spot-translate portions of the documents: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Interpreters#Can an interpreter be asked to translate documents?]] *<u>Provide a statutory declaration or testimony under oath about the contents of the untranslated documents:</u> The Board has the power to waive the rules and admit the untranslated documents into evidence for the purposes of the record (albeit potentially assigning them less weight because of the lack of a translation). For example, the Immigration Appeal Division did just this when interpreting its analogous rule, commenting as follows: <blockquote>The appellant provided copies of chat messages for a select period. For the most part, those messages are in a foreign language. Counsel for the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration submitted that the messages should not have been admitted as evidence because they do not conform to ''IAD Rule'' 29(1). The age of smartphones, internet communications and social media creates a dilemma. If a couple is regularly communicating by text, chat messages, Facebook or similar instant messaging, disclosure of all their messages would bog down hearings with mountains of paper. The cost of translation would be prohibitive. On the other hand, providing the messages without translation limits their probative value. Providing only a sample may lead to the inference that the remaining messages contain evidence adverse to the appellant’s case. There is no easy solution. The appellant has attempted to overcome the problem by providing a statutory declaration explaining the evidence. That is of some assistance. I give the evidence some weight, but the weight I give is reduced by the fact that the messages are in a foreign language.<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>Finally, the claimant should consider that except for documents that were in their possession at the time that they completed their BOC form, and documents travel and identity documents that they acquire after that time, the rules do not strictly require the claimant to submit all relevant documents in their possession. Instead, the claimant need only submit the documents on which they wish to rely in order to make their case and the claimant must take all reasonable steps to corroborate their claim in the circumstances; see commentary to Rule 34: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?]]. As such, if the rules do not require the evidence in question to be submitted to the tribunal, then the claimant may consider whether they wish to rely on the information and whether the same information may be adduced in another way, such as through witness testimony. === The Board is not obliged to pay for the translation of documents where a claimant cannot afford to do so=== The instructions on the Basis of Claim form are "Include certified translations in English or French for all documents in a language other than English or French. You must pay for these translations yourself."<ref name=":6">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf>, page 2.</ref> The Refugee Appeal Division has held that "the responsibility to provide translations for documents in a foreign language rests with the party using the documents, in this case, the claimant." They went on to note that "the fact that the Board can and sometimes does translate documents that the Board intends to use as evidence is not relevant to the decision of the RPD. The RPD Rules clearly require the “user” (claimant in this case) to provide translations of foreign language documents. The claimant (the Appellant) failed to do so and therefore failed to comply with the rules."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2017 CanLII 144401 (CA IRB), para. 10.</ref> === Procedural fairness considerations where a claimant's untranslated documents are not accepted === The above list of possible actions by a claimant concerns circumstances where the claimant has made reasonable efforts to have documents translated and has been unable to do so because of cost. There are other reasons why a claimant may appear at a hearing with untranslated documents, including where they state that they did not know that the documents needed to be translated. Where a claimant's untranslated documents are not accepted, panels of the Division have attempted to accommodate persons, particularly unrepresented claimants, in a number of ways, including by allowing the party to testify to the matters discussed in the documents as an alternative way of adducing the evidence in question (see ''Huang v Canada'')<ref>''Huang v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 CanLII 98247 (CA IRB), para. 5.</ref> and by allowing the party to submit proper translations of the documents in question post-hearing (though the court has held that the Board need not do so as a matter of procedural fairness, even where a claimant is unrepresented, though this conclusion will likely depend on the probative value of the document in question, see ''Soares v. Canada'').<ref>''Da Costa Soares v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2007 FC 190 (CanLII), paras. 15-25.</ref> == RPD Rule 32(2) - Language of Minister's documents == <pre>Language of Minister’s documents (2) All documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator.</pre> === The Minister must use the language of the proceeding in oral and written pleadings=== As per Rule 32(2), all documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding (or be provided together with a translation). A question may arise about the proper scope of the terms "documents" and "proceeding" in the above rule. For example, if a Minister provides a notice of intervention, is it a "document" being used in a "proceeding"? ==== Meaning of "documents" in this rule ==== One argument that has been advanced is that the term "documents" as used in this rule only includes documents as evidence, not notices from the Minister. This argument is best rejected based on the observations and citations provided in the section on the definition of "document" above: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#What is a "document" as the term is used in these rules?]]. ==== Meaning of "proceeding" in this rule ==== As per Rule 32(2), all documents used by the Minister in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding (or be provided together with a translation). At times, the argument has been advanced that documents such as a notice of intervention are not being used in a proceeding at the time that they are supplied since "proceeding" is defined in Rule 1 as follows: "proceeding includes a conference, an application or a hearing". Instead, rather than being supplied for use in any one of those listed proceedings, the argument is that it is being supplied for notification purposes. Such semantic quibbling is best avoided and this argument should be rejected for the following reasons: * As the Board states in its ''Policy Statement on Official Languages and the Principle of the Substantive Equality of English and French'', "language rights must generally be given a broad and liberal interpretation".<ref name=":7" /> * The definition of a proceeding in Rule 1 "includes" the listed procedures, but does not indicate that it is limited to them. The RPD Rules are subordinate to the Act, which in s. 170 contemplates a broad and expansive conception of what a Refugee Protection Division "proceeding" is, including that a file-review decision made without any hearing being held is something that happens within a proceeding (s. 170(f)) and that the Board's provision of notice of the hearing to the Minister is also something that happens in a proceeding (s. 170(c)). If notifying the Minister of the hearing is something that happens "in a[] proceeding", then it is hard to see why the Minister's notifications should not similarly be considered to have been provided for use "in a proceeding".<ref>''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', SC 2001, c 27, s 170 <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec170</nowiki>> retrieved on 2020-02-01.</ref> Furthermore, in ''Duale v. Canada'' the court commented that "proceedings" as used in section 167 of the Act encompass more than the actual hearing before the RPD. Thus, subsection 168(1) allows a division to determine that "a proceeding" before it has been abandoned for such pre-hearing matters as failing to provide required information or failing to communicate with the division as required.<ref name=":02">''Duale v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 150 (CanLII), par. 5, <http://canlii.ca/t/1gcff#5>, retrieved on 2020-01-27</ref> See the discussion of the interpretation of the term "proceeding" in the Act at: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions#Commentary on the definition of "proceeding"]]. * Furthermore, Ministerial intervention notices must include the details required by Rule 29, and where they do not, the proper remedy is that the notice of intervention will not be accepted.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 62221 (CA IRB), <<nowiki>https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/irb/doc/2016/2016canlii62221/2016canlii62221.html</nowiki>>.</ref> It is clear that the Minister provides a notice of intervention so that it can rely on it ''at the hearing'' as proof that it has complied with the rules requiring such notification. * Finally, the purpose of such notices has been described as follows: "[Rule 29(2)(a)] exists to compel the Minister to provide notice to the claimant why they have decided to intervene in his or her claim. It is to provide the claimant with fore-knowledge of the concerns the Minister has with the claim, so as to allow the claimant to prepare a response to these concerns. It is an issue of procedural fairness."<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 62221 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> If this notice were not provided in the language of the proceedings, then the purpose of providing this specific advance information to the claimant about the Minister's concerns could be frustrated. ==== Ministerial obligations pursuant to ''Official Languages Act'' ==== Finally, the better view of this question is that the Minister is under a legal obligation to provide all documents, including pleadings and other procedural documents, in the language of the proceeding and that this obligation stems from the ''Official Languages Act'', which is considered a quasi-constitutional statute.<ref>''Canada (Attorney General) v. Viola'', [1991] 1 F.C. 373, at page 386.</ref> The ''Official Languages Act'' provides that where a federal institution is a party to civil proceedings is shall use the language chosen by the other parties in any oral or written pleadings, except in narrow exceptional circumstances:<blockquote><u>Language of civil proceedings where Her Majesty is a party</u> '''18''' Where Her Majesty in right of Canada or a federal institution is a party to civil proceedings before a federal court, (a) Her Majesty or the institution concerned shall use, in any oral or written pleadings in the proceedings, the official language chosen by the other parties unless it is established by Her Majesty or the institution that reasonable notice of the language chosen has not been given; and (b) if the other parties fail to choose or agree on the official language to be used in those pleadings, Her Majesty or the institution concerned shall use such official language as is reasonable, having regard to the circumstances.<ref>Official Languages Act, RSC 1985, c 31 (4th Supp), s 18 <http://canlii.ca/t/530sl#sec18> retrieved on 2020-01-25.</ref></blockquote>While there does not appear to be judicial consideration on point, it is arguable that this provision applies to delegates of the Minister from IRCC and PSEP where they intervene in matters before the Board. Such proceedings are "before a federal court", which is defined in s. 3(2) of the ''Official Languages Act'' as "any court, tribunal or other body that carries out adjudicative functions and is established by or pursuant to an Act of Parliament." The Federal Court of Appeal concluded that the IRB meets this definition in ''Devinat v. Canada''.<ref>''Devinat v. Canada (Immigration and Refugee Board),'' 1999 CanLII 9386 (FCA), [2000] 2 FC 212, par. 57, <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/4ll0#57</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2020-01-25</ref> Furthermore, the participation of the Minister's delegates in Board proceedings would appear to constitute a circumstance in which a "federal institution" has become party to proceedings. A "federal institution" is defined broadly in the ''Official Languages Act,'' it not only includes the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and the Department of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness (based on the definitions of "federal institution" and "department" in s. 3 of the Act), but it also includes "any other body that is specified by an Act of Parliament to be an agent of Her Majesty in right of Canada or to be subject to the direction of the Governor in Council or a minister of the Crown", which would presumably include a Minister's delegate under the IRPA whose powers are derived from s. 6 of the Act which provides, ''inter alia'', that "The Minister may designate any persons or class of persons as officers to carry out any purpose of any provision of this Act, and shall specify the powers and duties of the officers so designated".<ref>''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act,'' SC 2001, c 27, s 6 <http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec6> retrieved on 2020-01-31.</ref> === If the claimant switches languages from French to English, or vice versa, the Minister must provide translations of their documents they intend to use === ==== Practice under the previous version of the RPD rules was that such documents did not need to be translated ==== Under the previous 2002 version of the rules, the wording of the predecessor rule to Rule 32(2) was interpreted as not requiring the Minister to provide translations of documents where the claimant subsequently switched the language of proceedings. For example, if the claimant elected to proceed in French and the Minister gave the claimant a document in French, and the claimant then subsequently decided that they instead preferred to proceed in English, the Minister was not obliged to provide a new translation of the document into English, but could instead rely on the previously disclosed document. The key question was whether the document was provided to the claimant in the language of proceedings at the time that it was sent. This question was dealt with by the Federal Court in ''Blanco v. Canada'', a case that concerned the previous version of the rules at the Immigration Division, which tracked the wording in the RPD Rule. In that case, the person concerned commenced his proceedings in English. The claimant then secured new, French-speaking, counsel. The Board then approved the claimant's application to change the language of the proceedings to French. At the same time, both the panel and the Minister refused to provide French translations of the documents that the Minister had previously sent to the applicant's former counsel in English. The claimant argued at the hearing that the panel could not legally enter into evidence documents that were in English and had not been translated into French prior to the hearing. The Federal Court rejected this argument on the basis that "It is clear that when the documents in question were provided by the respondents, the language of the proceedings was English, precluding the need for a French translation."<ref>''Bolanos Blanco v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 FC 280 (CanLII), paras. 12-20.</ref> This interpretation appears to turn on the then-extant Immigration Division rule which stipulated that "If the Minister <u>provides</u> a document that is not in the language of the proceedings, the Minister must provide a translation and a translator’s declaration. <u>[emphasis added]</u>" On the basis that the rule in question provided that the trigger for translation is the language of proceedings at the time that the document is provided, the court concluded that the documents could properly be entered as evidence in the hearing. ==== Changes to this provision in the 2012 RPD Rules now require that the document be in the language of proceedings at the time of its use ==== The Board's practice that was highlighted in the ''Blanco'' decision (above) was stridently criticized by members of the House of Commons Official Languages Committee.<ref>Official Languages Committee on Dec. 16th, 2010, House of Commons Hansard <https://openparliament.ca/committees/official-languages/40-3/39/sylvia-cox-duquette-1/>.</ref> The Official Languages Commissioner subsequently requested that the Board make changes to the RPD Rules regarding the rules about the language of RPD proceedings. One of the goals for the new RPD Rules, as identified by the Board, was to "address [these] recommendations of the Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages (OCOL)".<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''RPD Rules Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement,'' Date modified: 2018-07-04, Accessed January 3, 2020 <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/act-rules-regulations/Pages/RiasReir.aspx</nowiki>>.</ref> The wording of the new (and current) Rule 32(2) requires that "all documents <u>used by the Minister</u> in a proceeding must be in the language of the proceeding or be provided together with a translation in the language of the proceeding and a declaration signed by the translator <u>[emphasis added]</u>". This is a departure from the previous wording of this Rule under the 2002 version of these rules, which read: "If the Minister <u>provides a document</u> that is not in the language of the proceedings, the Minister must provide a translation in that language and a translator’s declaration."<ref>''Refugee Protection Division Rules,'' SOR/2002-228, Rule 28(2).</ref> The fact that the rule focuses on the ''use'' of the documents appears to indicate that under the new rules, the circumstances in ''Blanco v. Canada'' would not recur because the Minister would be obliged to provide translations of any documents that they had previously provided should they want to continue to rely on them''.'' == RPD Rule 32(3) - Language of documents - Requirement for a translator's declaration== <pre>Translator’s declaration (3) A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate.</pre> === What are the requirements for the translator's declaration for documents?=== Translated document should meet the following requirements: * <u>A copy of the original-language document should be provided in addition to the translation:</u> Rules 32(1), 32(2), and 32(3), read conjointly, require that a copy of the original document in the original language be submitted as well as a translation of it. * <u>The translator's declaration must meet each of the requirements enumerated in Rule 32(3):</u> The translator's declaration should be in the following form: "A translator’s declaration must include the translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate." * <u>The translator's declaration should be signed:</u> The instructions in the Basis of Claim form regarding document translation are that a claimant is to "Include certified translations in English or French for all documents in a language other than English or French."<ref name=":6" /> As explained on the Basis of Claim form, this requirement that the translations be "certified" will be met where any documents provided are accompanied by a translator's declaration that meets the requirements of Rule 32(3) ("A translator’s declaration must include translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate") plus the statement is signed by the translator.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Basis of Claim Form'', November 2012 Version <<nowiki>https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/forms/Documents/RpdSpr0201_e.pdf</nowiki>>, Appendix - Pages 1-2.</ref> * <u>Translator should have some independence from the claimant:</u> The translator is to have a certain degree of independence from the claimant. **''Counsel should not act as the translator:'' Counsel themselves should not act as the translator because, should any issues arise as to the accuracy of the translation in question, then they could be called as a witness. While that can occur (e.g. cases in other legal contexts have held that "while it is highly undesirable for counsel to wear the cloak of both advocate and witness, the client has the right to have his counsel testify as a witness"<ref>''Insurance Corp. of British Columbia v. Suska,'' 2007 BCSC 1838.</ref>) it raises questions about potential conflicts of interest and logistical hurdles. However, as the court accepted in ''Grandmont v. Canada'', a person working in-house at the law firm the claimant has selected may be considered acceptable to translate documents.<ref name=":4" /> ** ''The claimant themselves, and close family members thereto, should not act as the translator:'' When interpreting its similar rule, the Immigration Appeal Division has rejected documents in on the basis of its concern that, ''inter alia'', the documents were "not fully translated by an independent translator".<ref>''Huang v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 CanLII 46522 (CA IRB), para. 19.</ref> The basis for this independence requirement in the rules appears to be somewhat scant, but arguably arises as a matter of the weight that the Board should attach to the evidence - particularly if any other credibility issues regarding the person doing the translating were to emerge at the hearing. This aspect of independence is also emphasized by public explanations of the refugee claim process, including Kinbrace Community Society's ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' which notes that it is best that the translator not be a relative: "Certified translators are best, but not required. If you cannot pay for a professional translator, you can have someone else you trust (preferably not a relative) translate your documents for you."<ref name=":3" /> === Where the document does not contain a translator's declaration in the appropriate form, it should generally not be admitted=== Where the requirement for a translator's declaration has not been complied with, the proper process is generally that the document should not be admitted. For example, the RAD has commented as follows:<blockquote>Although there is an English translation of these documents, there is no [translator's declaration] attached to them, as is required.... The RAD, therefore, cannot ascertain that these documents have been properly translated from Chinese into English. The RAD therefore cannot accept these documents[.]<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 151861 (CA IRB), para. 10.</ref></blockquote>Parties sometimes attempt to adduce evidence that has been translated through automated systems such as Google Translate. It should generally not be admitted into evidence on the basis that no Rule 32(3) translator's declaration has been provided for such evidence. On the basis that "The Board cannot determine whether it is accurate", the Refugee Appeal Division has declined to admit such Google translations into evidence, including when provided by the Minister.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2014 CanLII 95934 (CA IRB), para. 15.</ref> The Refugee Protection Division specifically has issued a practice notice on this point entitled ''Refugee Protection Division Practice Notice: Compliance with Refugee Protection Division Rules'' which comments on Google translations as follows:<blockquote>The RPD frequently receives documents that have not been translated, or have been translated but are not accompanied by a translator’s declaration. Sometimes these documents have been translated by a web-based tool, such as Google Translate. Such translations do not comply with RPD Rule 32, cause delays to the proceedings and may not be accepted by the presiding member.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division Practice Notice: Compliance with Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Effective date: December 8, 2014 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/AviPraNotRpdSprComRulResReg.aspx> (Accessed January 25, 2020).</ref></blockquote> === The translator need not supply an affidavit, be accredited, be fluent in both languages, or be completely independent === Provided that this is done, a translator's declaration need not comply with other requirements that are not found in the rules: *<u>Statement from translator need not be an affidavit:</u> For example, the translator's statement need not be in the form of an affidavit; the Immigration Appeal Division reached this conclusion when interpreting its similar rule: "The panel does not share the respondent’s concern with the Certificate of Translation that accompanied the disclosure. While not in the form of an affidavit, the Rule does not require one".<ref>''Yeung v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 CanLII 80130 (CA IRB), para. 8.</ref> *<u>Translator need not be "accredited":</u> There are many bodies that accredit translators and interpreters, from the Board itself to professional organizations like the ''Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia''.<ref>For more information see Society of Translators and Interpreters of British Columbia, www.stibc.org.</ref> While using an accredited translator may be a good idea, it is not a requirement of the rules. The Immigration Appeal Division reached this conclusion when interpreting its similar rule: "The Minister’s counsel submitted that the translations ... do not constitute credible evidence because they were not done by accredited translators.... The panel is of the opinion that the documents submitted by the appellant showing the exchanges between the parties ... can be taken into account by the panel, even though they were not written by accredited translators".<ref name=":4">''Grandmont v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2010 CanLII 97579 (CA IRB), para. 43.</ref> *<u>The translator need not be fluent in both languages:</u> The requirement in the rules is solely that the translator provide a "statement that the translation is accurate," nothing more. The University of Ottawa Refugee Assistance Project has a Hearing Preparation Kit which discusses the level of proficiency the translator must have in the languages in question. That kit includes sample translator's declarations, both where the translator is fully fluent in both languages, and one for where the translator is not. They indicate that an acceptable declaration to be used where the translator is not fully fluent in both languages is as follows: "I, ____(name_______, of the City of ____(location)_____, hereby certify that I have translated this Marriage Certificate from ____(original language)___ to English, and that I am partially competent to render such translation, being partially fluent in the ____(original language)___ and English languages. A fully competent translator was not available."<ref>University of Ottawa Refugee Assistance Project, ''UORAP Hearing Preparation Kit'', ''Guide 3: Preparing Evidence for your Hearing'' <https://www.fcjrefugeecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/hearing_preparation_kit.pdf>, page 14.</ref> *<u>Translator need not be completely independent from the claimant:</u> As discussed above, the translator is to have a certain degree of independence from the claimant, but the degree of independence required is not high. This aspect of independence is also emphasized by public explanations of the process, including Kinbrace Community Society's ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' which notes that it is best that the translator not be a relative: "Certified translators are best, but not required. If you cannot pay for a professional translator, you can have someone else you trust (preferably not a relative) translate your documents for you. This person must sign a translator’s declaration."<ref name=":3" /> As the court accepted in ''Grandmont v. Canada'', a person working in-house at the law firm the claimant has selected may be considered acceptable to perform this task.<ref name=":4" /> == RPD Rule 33 - Disclosure and use of documents by the Division== <pre>Disclosure and Use of Documents Disclosure of documents by Division 33 (1) Subject to subrule (2), if the Division wants to use a document in a hearing, the Division must provide a copy of the document to each party. Disclosure of country documentation by Division (2) The Division may disclose country documentation by providing to the parties a list of those documents or providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board’s website.</pre> === The RPD has an obligation to provide documents and information required by the Rules to the Minister upon request === Subsection 170(''d'') of the Act requires the Division to provide the Minister, on request, with the documents and information referred to in subsection 100(4) of the Act, which are the documents and information required by the rules of the Board:<blockquote>100(4) A person who makes a claim for refugee protection inside Canada at a port of entry and whose claim is referred to the Refugee Protection Division must provide the Division, within the time limits provided for in the regulations, with the documents and information — including in respect of the basis for the claim — required by the rules of the Board, in accordance with those rules.</blockquote> === The Division has the power to provide post-hearing documents prior to rendering a decision === RPD Rule 33 concerns circumstances in which the Division provides a copy of a document that it wants to use in a hearing. What about where the Division wants to provide a document to parties following a hearing? The Division may do so and, while it must invite comment from the parties on any such post-hearing disclosure, it need not resume the hearing afterwards. The Division's power to provide such post-hearing documents was emphasized in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of the RPD Rules, which read "The Division may provide a document to the claimant (and to the Minister if the Minister has intervened) after a hearing if the Division considers its use would assist in ensuring a full and proper determination of a claim for refugee protection. The claimant will be given an opportunity to make submissions on that document."<ref name=":8" /> While that public commentary is no longer published by the IRB, the principle stands. === The panel should consider the most recent National Documentation Package === The Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings,'' which is dated June 2019, commits that "The <abbr>RPD</abbr> and <abbr>RAD</abbr> will consider the most recent <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) in support of assessing forward-looking risk."<ref name=":14">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings,'' Effective date: June 5, 2019, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/national-documentation-packages.aspx> (Accessed August 30, 2020).</ref> A panel of the Board should comply with this policy. This has implications both for which NDPs should be disclosed on a file and for the currency of the NDPs which are disclosed: * <u>Which NDPs are disclosed:</u> A panel should ensure that it considers the relevant NDPs, both those that relate to countries of citizenship, as well as those that relate to countries of former habitual residence, where that concept applies. For example, in ''El Hraich v. Canada'', the court commented that "There is no indication that the Panel considered the National Documentary Package on the UAE before it rendered the decision.", noting that the Court has found that where central elements of a claim, such as the right to return to a CFHR for a stateless person, are at issue, the RPD should examine and refer to the available country documentation.<ref>''El Hraich v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 213 (CanLII), at para 28, <https://canlii.ca/t/jmk07#par28>, retrieved on 2022-03-16.</ref> * <u>Whether the NDPs disclosed are current:</u> In ''Zhao v. Canada'' the court held that "as a matter of procedural fairness, the [Board] had a duty to disclose the most recent NDP and to give the Applicants an opportunity to respond and make submissions on this matter."<ref>''Zhao v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2019 FC 1593 (CanLII), par. 31, <<nowiki>http://canlii.ca/t/j48rf#par31</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2020-04-01.</ref> Similarly, in ''Oymali v. Canada'' the court held that "the latest NDP should be considered in assessing risks".<ref>''Oymali v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2017 FC 889.</ref> The obligation to consider the latest NDP extends to matters where a new NDP is released while a claim is under reserve. However, there are some limits to this principle: * <u>It does not apply to documents other than those in an NDP:</u> In ''Tambwe-Lubemba'' the court considered whether a panel of the Board must consider updated country documents received by the Board post-hearing that are not explicitly placed on the file''.'' The applicants in that case submitted that the panel hearing their claim should have considered information received by the Refugee Division's document centre after the hearing, but before the decision had been rendered. What the Court held was that the panel was under no obligation to consider information that the members had not seen and that was not tendered by the claimants.<ref>''Nagulesan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1382 (CanLII), para. 13.</ref> * <u>It does not apply where the new information would make no difference to the decision:</u> In ''Worku v. Canada'', the Federal Court held that the Board was not bound to consider the newest NDP information when there was no indication that the information was a significant departure from the information which was considered by the RPD.<ref>''Worku v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2019 FC 784.</ref> As such, the Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' is that "The <abbr>RAD</abbr> will disclose to the parties new <abbr>NDP</abbr> documents only when they wish to rely upon them".<ref name=":14" /> The fact that the panel should consider the most recent National Documentation Package does not mean that a panel needs to scour through every document in it for any possible statement that could support or hinder the claimant; for a discussion of this, see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#There is a shared duty of fact-finding in refugee matters]]. === Rule 33(2): The Division may disclose country documentation by providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board's website === RPD Rule 33(2) provides that "the Division may disclose country documentation by providing to the parties a list of those documents or providing information as to where a list of those documents can be found on the Board’s website." Certain documents are listed in the lists of documents on the Board website, but the documents themselves are only available via email, in particular samples of identity documents appended to Responses to Information Requests generated by the Board's research directorate. The court has held that the fact that such samples are not reproduced in the NDP published online on the IRB’s website does not breach procedural fairness. In ''Zerihaymanot v. Canada'', the court noted that "this sample document was attached to a Response to Information Request in the NDP, with a note that to obtain a copy of the attachment, one must email a request. Rule 33(2) specifies that disclosure of country documentation may include being provided with the document by the Division or being informed where the information could be found."<ref>''Zerihaymanot, Brhane Ghebrihiwet, v. M.C.I.'' (F.C., no. IMM-3077-21), McHaffie, April 26, 2022; 2022 FC 610.</ref> Further, in that case, during the RPD hearing, counsel was directed to the sample birth certificate and it was clear from counsel’s questions and submissions that counsel had the document. The court noted that there does not appear to be any requirement that the NDP be publicly posted on the internet, and that in the 1990s when this was not done, the Federal Court of Appeal had concluded that the fact that documents were available in IRB documentation centres was sufficient to be fair: ''Mancia v Canada''.<ref>''Mancia v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', [1998] 3 FC 461 at paras 22, 26.</ref> == RPD Rule 34 - Obligation, process, and timeline for a party to disclose documents they want to use in a hearing == <pre>Disclosure of documents by party 34 (1) If a party wants to use a document in a hearing, the party must provide a copy of the document to the other party, if any, and to the Division. Proof that document was provided (2) The copy of the document provided to the Division must be accompanied by a written statement indicating how and when a copy of that document was provided to the other party, if any. Time limit (3) Documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients no later than (a) 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing; or (b) five days before the date fixed for the hearing if the document is provided to respond to another document provided by a party or the Division.</pre> === What documents does a party need to provide when? === Rule 34(1) concerns documents that a party "wants" to use in a hearing. The rule provides that such documents must be received by their recipients no later than 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing (except, per Rule 34(3)(b) where they are provided in response to documents provided by other party, in which case the deadline is five days prior to the hearing). This discretionary rule allows, but does not require, a claimant to submit documents. It can be contrasted with Rule 7(3) which obliges claimants to provide certain types of documents. Specifically, Rule 7(3) provides that a claimant "must" attach all "relevant documents in their possession" to their Basis of Claim form, including identity and travel documents (whether genuine or not). The only exception to this is for documents that were seized by an officer or provided to the Division by an officer. In short, the disclosure deadlines established by the RPD rules appear to be the following: {| class="wikitable" !Stage in Claim !Document Type !Disclosure Obligation !Deadline !Rule |- |When BOC Form Provided |All relevant documents in the claimant's possession |Mandatory Disclosure |Must be attached to BOC Form |Rule 7(3) |- |After BOC Form Provided |Claimant's identity or travel documents |Mandatory Disclosure |Must be provided "without delay" after the claimant obtains |Rule 7(4) |- |After BOC Form Provided |Any other documents "a party wants to use" |Discretionary/optional |10 days before the hearing (or 5, if in response) |Rule 34 |} As such, the rules appear to establish a regime in which a claimant is obliged to provide all relevant documents that are in their possession at the time that they provide their BOC form. For documents that come into a claimant's possession after that point, other than identity or travel documents, the claimant has discretion about whether or not to submit them and need only do so if they want to use them in the proceeding. A qualification to this principle is that: * claimants are obliged to submit identity and travel documents (whether genuine or not) that come into their possession at any point (Rule 7(4) - [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#A claimant is obliged to provide any relevant documents in their possession without delay, whether genuine or not]]); * while the Minister has no obligation to become a party to a proceeding ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Intervention by the Minister#The Minister is permitted to intervene in proceedings, but is not required to do so]]), once it does so its disclosure must be "complete" and cannot be selective. A failure to do so is a violation of natural justice. In the words of the Federal Court, "At a bare minimum, if the Minister chooses to disclose evidence, that disclosure must be complete."<ref>''B135 v Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 871 at para. 26.</ref> Where complete disclosure has not been provided by the Minister, procedural fairness may oblige the RPD to require the Minister to make inquiries of relevant Canadian law enforcement agencies to obtain documents, for example.<ref>''Jankovic v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2022 FC 857 (CanLII), at para 48, <https://canlii.ca/t/jprtv#par48>, retrieved on 2022-08-09.</ref> * claimants have an obligation to take reasonable steps to provide acceptable documents establishing their identity and other elements of the claim ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#A claimant has an obligation to make reasonable efforts to establish their identity and to corroborate their claim]]); and * the Board can compel testimony and the production of evidence should it choose to do so ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#The Division may instruct the claimant to provide specific documents]]). The above timelines for providing documents are reiterated in the Basis of Claim form that all claimants receive: "If you get more identity or travel documents that support your claim after you have provided your BOC Form, give two copies to the IRB without delay. If you get more documents, other than identity or travel documents, that support your claim after you have provided your BOC Form, give one copy to the IRB and a copy to the Minister, if the Minister is a party, at least 10 days before your hearing." The BOC Form also states on its cover page: "you are responsible for obtaining and providing to the IRB any documents that may support your claim." The above documentary disclosure obligations specified in the Rules are also distinct from the separate matter of the Division's ability to draw an adverse inference as to credibility in circumstances in which documents are not provided. Even if it is not mandatory for the claimant to have submitted a particular document above as per the Rules, where a claimant does not do so, the Division may conclude that a claimant's failure to provide a document is indicative of a fear to provide the evidence to the Board, allowing the Board to draw an adverse inference about the credibility of the fact that the document would have otherwise served to establish or corroborate. Of course, this type of adverse inference may only be drawn where the claimant is given a reasonable opportunity to adduce the evidence once the Division identifies its concern, or where the evidence was otherwise mandatory for the claimant to produce, and furthermore the Federal Court has held that "a panel cannot draw a negative inference from the mere fact that a party failed to produce any extrinsic documents corroborating his or her allegations, except when the applicant’s credibility is at issue".<ref>''Ahortor v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)'' (1993), 65 F.T.R. 137 (FCT).</ref> See the discussion of Rule 11 for more detail: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#Rule 11 - Documents Establishing Identity and Other Elements of the Claim]]. === The Board must consider its discretion to provide relief where a claimant submits a document later than the time limit in Rule 34(3) === The time limit in Rule 34(3) for providing documents must be read in conjunction with section 170 of the IRPA, and specifically the following subsections of that provision:<pre>Subsections 170 (e), (g) and (h) of the IRPA however indicate that in any proceeding before the RPD it: (e) must give the person . . . a reasonable opportunity to present evidence . . .; (g) is not bound by any legal or technical rules of evidence; (h) may receive and base a decision on evidence that is adduced in the proceedings and considered credible or trustworthy in the circumstances.</pre>In ''Trboljevac v. Canada'', the court commented that "While the Panel Member was aware of the ten-day time period in Rule 34(3) for disclosing documents, the failure of the Member to acknowledge or apparently be aware of the ''IRPA'' provisions allowing them to nonetheless accept the documents had the effect of preventing the Applicant from substantiating his claim. ... the Panel Member should have addressed why they declined to exercise the discretion provided to them in section 170 of the ''IRPA''. Failure to exercise that discretion was a breach of natural justice in this matter."<ref>''Trboljevac v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2020 FC 26 (CanLII), para. 52.</ref> The Board's discretion to admit late-filed documents is guided by Rule 36, below: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents]]. === Does the 10 day deadline for submitting documents reset when a hearing has multiple sittings? === A question can arise about the interpretation of the phrase "days before the date fixed for the hearing" in Rule 34. As per Rule 34(3), documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients no later than 10 days before the date fixed for the hearing. If a resumption of a hearing is scheduled more than 10 days after the first sitting of the hearing, does this mean that any documents submitted 10 or more days prior to the next sitting are, in the words of RPD Rule 34(3), being submitted at least "10 days before the date fixed for the hearing"? To the mind of this author, this question has not been definitively resolved in the published jurisprudence. This this is likely because panels are permissive about accepting documents submitted prior to a resumption given their obligation to give any person before them a reasonable opportunity to present evidence (s. 170(e) of the Act). == RPD Rule 35 - Documents relevant and not duplicate == <pre>Documents relevant and not duplicate 35 Each document provided by a party for use at a proceeding must (a) be relevant to the particular proceeding; and (b) not duplicate other documents provided by a party or by the Division.</pre> === The use of the National Documentation Package does not preclude the disclosure of additional Country of origin information === The Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' states that:<blockquote>Relevant <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) are disclosed to the parties in every refugee claim before the <abbr>RPD</abbr> as the standard source of <abbr>COI</abbr> evidence in refugee determination. As per <abbr>RPD</abbr> Rule 33(2), the <abbr>RPD</abbr> provides the parties with information as to where the <abbr>NDP</abbr> can be found on the Board's website, and it is the parties' responsibility to check the <abbr>IRB</abbr> website for the newest version of the relevant <abbr>NDP</abbr>(s) prior to their hearing. ... The use of <abbr>NDPs</abbr> does not preclude the disclosure of additional <abbr>COI</abbr> not contained in an <abbr>NDP</abbr> by the Division or a party to a proceeding. Such information must be disclosed on a case-by-case basis, subject to the legal and procedural requirements of each Division.</blockquote> === Practice notice on voluminous country conditions evidence === The Board’s ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – voluminous country conditions evidence'' specifies procedures regarding voluminous disclosure of country conditions evidence filed at the Refugee Protection Division. As per the practice notice, parties must make a formal application to submit country conditions evidence that exceeds 100 pages per country of reference.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – voluminous country conditions evidence,'' Date modified: 2018-06''-''26 ''<''https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/voluminous-country-conditions-evidence-preuve-volumineuse-relative-aux-conditions-dans-le-pays.aspx''>.''</ref> Disclosure of country conditions evidence over the specified page limit must be accompanied by an application made in accordance with RPD Rule 50. That said, during the Covid-19 pandemic, this practice notice has been suspended, so it is no longer in effect.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings,'' July 10​, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx#toc34> (Accessed August 14, 2020).</ref> ==== How does one know whether documents are country conditions evidence or not? ==== As the practice notice states, evidence presented before the RPD generally falls into two broad categories: documents personal to the parties (e.g. identity documents, police reports, etc.) and evidence regarding country conditions (e.g. human rights reports, research on the situation in the country, etc.). This Practice Notice applies only to country conditions evidence. Documents which speak to the claimant's personal risk and are specific to their claim, for example those that are by or about the claimant themselves, will be considered personal. In contrast, country conditions documents are evidence relating to human rights conditions in a claimant's country. The question in each case is whether the primary purpose of a particular document is to substantiate the claimant's personal profile or to speak to human rights or other facts and conditions regarding a claimant's country. The guidebook ''Refugee Hearing Preparation: A Guide for Refugee Claimants'' from refugeelcaim.ca provides examples of each type of document. With regards to personal documents, they list: <blockquote> * Are there photographs, letters, videos, emails, or other documents that show the problems you had? Get them! * Did you go to the police or another government agency for help? Get a copy of the police report or other proof of your visit. * Did you get medical help? Get your hospital or doctor’s records. * Are there news articles about people who are connected to your case? Get them! * Are there people who witnessed what happened to you? Ask them to write what happened and send it to you. If possible, ask this person to swear (declare) their statement is true in front of a lawyer or notary. * Are there people who have experienced problems that are similar to yours? Ask them to describe their experiences in writing. If possible, ask this person to swear their statement is true in front of a lawyer or notary. * Is your claim based on your religious identity or membership in a political party or other group? Get documents that show your membership. * Has your mental health suffered because of what happened to you? Get a report from a doctor or psychologist in Canada which documents your health problems. * You will also need identity documents to prove your citizenship.<ref name=":3" /> </blockquote> With regards to country conditions documents, they list: <blockquote> * This type of evidence includes reports from well-respected sources that document human rights abuses, political events, and other news that relate to your claim. * Recent reports from human rights organizations (e.g. Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch), United Nations reports, U.S. State Department Country Reports, news articles, or videos showing human rights abuses in your country. * Articles and reports from newspapers and human rights organizations in your country. </blockquote>Similarly, documents about an organization that the claimant may have been involved with (even in Canada) will fit into this category of evidence that relates to human rights conditions in a claimant's country, so long as they do not mention the claimant by name or otherwise depict or refer to the claimant. Thus, for example, where the Minister seeks to intervene to argue that a claimant is excluded pursuant to Article 1F(a) of the Convention, if the Minister wishes to provide more than 100 pages to demonstrate that an organization in question committed crimes during a specific historical period, pursuant to this practice notice, they must bring an application for permission to file voluminous disclosure. Additional discussion of the difference between these two types of documents is found in the IRB ''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings'' which distinguishes between country-of-origin research—which is generally-available information and does not include “information gathered by the IRB that is specific to a particular claimant”—and claimant-specific research.<ref>''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings,'' Instructions issued by the Chairperson pursuant to section 159(1)(a) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', amended December, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/InstructInfo.aspx>.</ref> Furthermore, the Board ''Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings'' provides the following definition of Country of origin information (COI): "Information about the situation in a country that is relevant to the refugee determination process and obtained from publicly available sources that are viewed as, whenever possible, reliable and objective."<ref name=":14" /> ==== What is the Board's jurisdiction to limit voluminous country conditions disclosure? ==== As is clear from Rule 35, the only conditions imposed by the Rules on which documents may be admitted are that they must be relevant to the proceeding and not duplicate any other documents provided by the claimant or the Division. The RPD Rules themselves contain no restriction on the volume of documents that may be disclosed, and they make no distinctions between different types of documents. The authority cited in the practice notice is that the Chairperson of the IRB has the authority to take any action that may be necessary to ensure that members of the Board are able to carry out their duties efficiently and without undue delay as per paragraph 159(1)(g) of the Act. In addition, Rule 69 of the RPD Rules specifies that in the absence of a provision in the Rules dealing with a matter raised during the proceedings, the Division may do whatever is necessary to deal with the matter. The sufficiency of this legislative provision and Rule as authority for what appears to be an amendment to the Rules via practice notice (that was not authorized by the Governor in Council, as required), does not appear to have received judicial consideration. See [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/About]] for details about how the RPD rules were authorized by the Governor General in Council. However, the Federal Court of Appeal’s reasoning in ''Thamotharem v. Canada'' would appear to provide some support for the Board’s action.<ref>''Thamotharem v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2007 FCA 198 (CanLII), [2008] 1 FCR 385.</ref> As stated in the IRB ''Policy on the Use of Chairperson's Guidelines and Jurisprudential Guides'' notes, "that the subject of a guideline could have been enacted as a rule of procedure issued under paragraph 161(1)(a) of the IRPA will not normally invalidate it."<ref name=":03">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Policy on the Use of Chairperson's Guidelines and Jurisprudential Guides,'' July 7​, 2022, <https://irb.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/pages/PolJurisGuide.aspx> (Accessed July, 2022).</ref> For further discussion thereon, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Duties of Chairperson#The Chairperson's guideline‑issuing and rule‑making powers overlap]]. === The Board has jurisdiction to refuse to admit documents for reasons that are broader than the Rule 35 criteria === Rule 35 provides two criteria for all documents provided by a party for use at a proceeding: they must be relevant and not duplicative. Does the fact that the Rules only enumerate these two criteria here mean that, by implication, the Board may not refuse to admit documents for other reasons beyond those enumerated in Rule 35? No. The Board retains a broader discretion to control its process, including the documents that it admits in its proceedings. There are numerous examples of this, including: * ''Excluding evidence where doing so is required by the Constitution:'' For example, the Division has the power to exclude evidence pursuant to s. 24(2) of the ''Charter'' where the evidence was collected in violation of ''Charter'' rights, an issue which usually arises regarding port of entry interview notes in situation where the right to counsel was violated; see, as an example, ''Huang v. Canada''.<ref>''Huang v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2002 FCT 149 (CanLII), [2002] 3 FC 266, par. 23, <http://canlii.ca/t/lgk#par23>, retrieved on 2020-02-06.</ref> * ''Excluding evidence where doing so is required by law:'' The Board states in its Legal Services paper on Weighing Evidence that "in some cases it is not appropriate to admit evidence and give it little or no weight, instead the panel should refuse to admit the evidence at all. This may arise, for example, where the evidence is ... protected by privilege or statutory protection of its confidentiality".<ref name=":10">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Weighing Evidence - Chapter 3: Assessing Evidence'', Last Updated December 31, 2003, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/legal-concepts/Pages/EvidPreu03.aspx> (Accessed February 6, 2020).</ref> This would apply, for example, where the use of the evidence is prohibited by the ''Privacy Act.'' The Board frequently considers this issue when determining whether to admit decisions from other panels into evidence where they are provided by the parties, see, for example [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Proceedings must be held in the absence of the public#Should a panel admit copies of decisions from other claims?]]. * ''Excluding evidence as a discretionary decision made by the tribunal:'' The Board states in its Legal Services paper on Weighing Evidence that "in some cases it is not appropriate to admit evidence and give it little or no weight, instead the panel should refuse to admit the evidence at all. This may arise, for example, where the evidence is not relevant to the issues in the case; or where the prejudicial effect of the evidence outweighs its probative value; ... or where the evidence is unduly repetitive."<ref name=":10" /> == RPD Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents == <pre>Use of undisclosed documents 36 A party who does not provide a document in accordance with rule 34 must not use the document at the hearing unless allowed to do so by the Division. In deciding whether to allow its use, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence the document brings to the hearing; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34.</pre> === The Board must weigh the relevant factors === The court has provided guidance on how the RPD should approach the task of weighing the factors listed in Rule 36, noting that considering such factors does not mean merely listing them, but involves actively weighing them to determine whether the documents in question should be admitted.<ref>''Mbirimujo v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2013 FC 553, at para. 23.</ref> Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, the RPD had a practice notice in effect entitled ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – late disclosure''.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division – late disclosure,'' May 7, 2018 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/late-disclosure-communication-tardive.aspx></ref> Nothing in this practice notice relieved the Board of the obligation to exercise its discretion under Rule 36:<blockquote>Rule 36 of the RPD Rules clearly gives the RPD discretion to accept an undisclosed document at the hearing. This discretion exists even if a party’s request does not comply with the ''Notice to parties and counsel appearing before the Refugee Protection Division - late disclosure'' published by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, although this defect may be a relevant factor in determining the request. When a refugee protection claimant asks the RPD to exercise this discretion, the principles of procedural fairness require that he or she be given the opportunity to make submissions on the matter. The RPD did not give Ms. Alvarez Rivera such an opportunity, which constitutes a breach of procedural fairness.<ref>''Alvarez Rivera c. Canada (Citoyenneté et Immigration),'' 2021 CF 99 (CanLII), par. 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/jczlf#par24>, consulté le 2021-02-22.</ref></blockquote>Furthermore, the list of relevant factors under Rule 36 requires that all of the factors should be considered, not just some of them.<ref>''Alvarez Rivera v. Canada,'' 2021 FC 99, para. 31.</ref> === Past consideration of the Rule 36 factors === Past decisions of the Board have considered the above factors thusly: *'''(a) the document’s relevance and probative value''' **<u>Is the source of the document reliable?</u> For country conditions evidence, probative value can be assessed in part by considering the source of the document. For example, in ''Hasan v. Canada'' the Board refused to admit a series of documents concerning country conditions relevant to the claim: "Within the Disclosure Package are a number of reports from various organizations attesting to the ill-treatment of Palestinian males, the severe measures taken against Palestinians, and the unlawful killings and other abuses directed against Palestinians by Israeli forces." The court held that it could be considered that "These reports come from such traditionally accepted (for purposes of evidence) sources as Amnesty International. In addition, several reports emanated from Israeli sources such as the Israeli Information Centre for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories."<ref>''Hasan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1537 (CanLII), para. 9-10.</ref> **<u>How central are these documents to the core elements of the claim?</u> The RAD has held that, as part of this probative value assessment, there should be an analysis as to the centrality of the documents to the core elements of the claim.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2019 CanLII 140842 (CA IRB), par. 18, <http://canlii.ca/t/j8rc1#par18>, retrieved on 2020-12-18.</ref> *'''(b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings''' *'''(c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34''' **<u>Is the claimant educated?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider a claimant's level of education when making this decision, stating with approval that "The panel clearly took into consideration the fact that the applicant was educated."<ref name=":11">''Mercado v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 311, 2010 FC 289 (F.C.), para. 38.</ref> **<u>Has the claimant been self-represented?</u> The Board's Chairperson Guidelines 7 provide that "Generally speaking, the RPD will make allowances for self-represented claimants who are unfamiliar with the RPD's processes and rules."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Chairperson Guidelines 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division'', Amended December 15, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/GuideDir07.aspx#FailureA4> (Accessed January 26, 2020), section 1.3.</ref> That said, it may be considered that the Claimant's Kit that all claimants receive, and the instructions on the BOC form, emphasize the document disclosure deadlines (see [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#The deadline for providing documents to the Board depends on the nature of the document]]). **<u>Is the party's counsel experienced?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider the fact that a claimant was represented by experienced counsel when making this decision. The court stated: "Contrary to the applicant’s argument, the RPD did not impose a heavier burden on him simply because he was represented by this counsel. That was simply a part of the facts relevant to assessing the reasonable efforts that could objectively be expected on the part of a person in the applicant’s position."<ref name=":11" /> **<u>How much time has the party had to try to obtain the document?</u> In ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court affirmed that it is proper to consider how much time a claimant has had to access the document in question, writing "the RPD also considered that the applicant had more than two years to obtain this documentation and that it should have been easy to access".<ref name=":12">''Mercado v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 311, 2010 FC 289 (F.C.), para. 40.</ref> **<u>Were the documents available to the party earlier?</u> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that a panel of the Board should consider the explanation provided for the late disclosure: "If the documents were available and could have been disclosed earlier than this will weigh against acceptance of the documents."<ref name=":13">Waldman, Lorne, ''Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice'', Markham, Ont.: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2018, ISBN 9780433478928, ISSN [tel:1912-0311 1912-0311], <<nowiki>https://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5022478</nowiki>> (Accessed April 1, 2020) at page 1724 of the PDF.</ref> For example, in ''Mercado v. Canada'' the court commented with approval that the RPD "considered that the applicant had more than two years to obtain this documentation and that it should have been easy to access because the principal applicant seemed to indicate that the tax return was in his father’s possession in Venezuela."<ref name=":12" /> **<u>Was a party's ability to produce this document affected by the Covid-19 pandemic?</u> The RPD should consider the principle set out in the ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'' that it will apply the rules flexibly in light of Covid-19.<ref name=":15" /> Furthermore, the Board is to consider any other relevant factors, which have included: *<u>When were the documents actually disclosed?</u> As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules under the heading ''Other factors the Division may consider where disclosure is late'', "The Division may also consider other relevant factors such as ... when the documents were actually disclosed. Thus the parties should make every effort to disclose their documents as soon as possible."<ref name=":8" /> For example, in one decision on this matter RAD Member Angus Grant noted that it was relevant that the documents had been submitted "a full five days prior to the hearing".<ref>''X (Re),'' 2019 CanLII 140842 (CA IRB), par. 18, <http://canlii.ca/t/j8rc1#par18>, retrieved on 2020-12-17.</ref> *<u>Was the Board aware at an earlier date that a mistake was made in providing the document, and what actions did the Board take?</u> The Federal Court noted in ''Balasundaram v. Canada'' that "Reasonableness underlying fairness is also based on expectations. Norms of conduct develop and persons come to rely upon them. One of those norms that normally applies is that obvious slips and omissions will not be automatically fatal and may be corrected. For example, the failure to include an attachment to an email raises the expectation that the addressee will advise the sender of his or her error."<ref>''Balasundaram v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 38 (CanLII), par. 30, <https://canlii.ca/t/gg2lx#par30>, retrieved on 2021-03-31.</ref> *<u>Will admitting the documents result in delay to the proceedings?</u> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that a panel properly considers "whether or not the admission of the late disclosure will result in a lengthy delay in the proceedings."<ref name=":13" /> Where it would, this would point against admission of the late document. Where it would not, this would support admitting the document. *<u>Would admitting the evidence cause prejudice to the other party in the proceedings?</u> The court considered this factor in ''Hasan v. Canada'' when it concluded that the Board was wrong to refuse late evidence in a case where the Minister was not participating.<ref>''Hasan v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2004 FC 1537 (CanLII), para. 12.</ref> Lorne Waldman writes in his text that "In light of the wording of these Rules and given the importance of the procedure to the individual involved, it is certainly arguable that relevant documents should be excluded only if their admission would be highly prejudicial to one of the parties and if this prejudice could not be rectified by a short adjournment."<ref>Waldman, Lorne, ''Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice'', Markham, Ont.: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2018, ISBN 9780433478928, ISSN [tel:1912-0311 1912-0311], <<nowiki>https://search.library.utoronto.ca/details?5022478</nowiki>> (Accessed April 1, 2020) at page 1720 of the PDF.</ref> *<u>Are there any relevant personal circumstances of the claimant?</u> As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules under the heading ''Other factors the Division may consider where disclosure is late'', "The Division may also consider other relevant factors such as the personal circumstances of the claimant".<ref name=":8" /> For example, one may consider the statement in the Board's SOGIE guidelines that "A reasonable delay may also arise out of an individual's reluctance to reveal their <abbr>SOGIE</abbr> to a spouse or other family member, or in their realizing or accepting their <abbr>SOGIE</abbr>."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Chairperson's Guideline 9: Proceedings Before the IRB Involving Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Expression,'' <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/GuideDir09.aspx>, at section 8.5.11.</ref> === Rule concerns use of undisclosed documents at a hearing, as opposed to other types of proceedings === Rule 36 provides that a party who does not provide a document in accordance with Rule 34 (which specifies the process and timeline for disclosure of documents by a party) must not use the document at the hearing unless allowed to do so by the Division as per the process specified above. In interpreting this rule, the definitions section in Rule 1 provides a definition of a "proceeding" which is apposite. It defines a proceeding as including "a conference, an application or a hearing". As such, the fact that such documents cannot be used at a "hearing" appears to imply that they may be used in other types of proceedings, subject to other relevant rules. One such rule is Rule 43 concerning additional documents provided after a hearing. If the hearing has occurred, then any documents provided afterwards must meet the requirements of that rule. The fact that this rule does not limit a party's ability to use documents in, say, a pre-hearing application or conference stems from the wording of Rule 34, which establishes the deadline for providing such documents as being "10 days before the date fixed for the hearing". Instead, if a late-filed document being relied upon in a pre-hearing conference or application were to cause prejudice to another party, then general principles of procedural fairness would guide the Board's actions. === The Division may impose conditions on the use of late documents === As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules, "Where the Division allows the use of a document provided outside the time limit in the rules, it may impose conditions on its use that it considers appropriate. For example, the Division may decide that only certain relevant portions of a long document will be referred to."<ref name=":8">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Commentaries to the Refugee Protection Division Rules'', Date Modified: 2009-05-22 <https://web.archive.org/web/20100704062357/http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/eng/brdcom/references/aclo/pages/rpdcomment.aspx> (Accessed January 28, 2020).</ref> === If the panel admits late documents pursuant to Rule 36, it should not then assign those documents low weight for the sole reason that they are late === In ''Pineda v. Canada'', the Division had accepted documents that were submitted late. However, in its reasons, the tribunal concluded that it would afford the documents little weight because of the late disclosure. The court concluded that this was in error: "having exercised its discretion to allow the filing of this evidence pursuant to Rule 30 outside of the delay provided for in Rule 29, it appears somewhat counterintuitive considering the criteria to be used in the exercise of such discretion to then assign very little weight to this evidence on the basis that it was filed late and without considering the explanation provided by the applicant as to why it was so."<ref>''Pineda v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2010] F.C.J. No. 538, 2010 FC 454 (F.C.), para. 35.</ref> === The Rule 36 factors need not be considered where a document is otherwise inadmissible, for example where it has not been translated === The requirement that the tribunal consider whether to accept a late document does not apply where the issue is not the lateness of the document but rather the lack of a proper translation. In ''Soares v. Canada'' the court held that this rule need not be considered in a case where the issue is not that a document had been disclosed late, but rather that it has been disclosed without translation.<ref>''Soares v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2007] F.C.J. No. 254, 2007 FC 190 (F.C.).</ref> In short, the fact that a party is attempting to provide untranslated analysis late does not change the fact that both this rule and Rule 32 properly apply in such circumstances: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Where evidence has not been translated in accordance with the rules, the Board may decline to accept it or may assign it low weight]]. == RPD Rule 37 - Rules apply to any document == <pre>Providing a Document General provision 37 Rules 38 to 41 apply to any document, including a notice or request in writing.</pre> == RPD Rule 38 - How to provide documents to the Division, the Minister, and any other person == <pre>Providing documents to Division 38 (1) A document to be provided to the Division must be provided to the registry office specified by the Division. Providing documents to Minister (2) A document to be provided to the Minister must be provided to the Minister’s counsel. Providing documents to person other than Minister (3) A document to be provided to a person other than the Minister must be provided to the person’s counsel if the person has counsel of record. If the person does not have counsel of record, the document must be provided to the person.</pre> == RPD Rule 39 - Ways that a document may be provided == <pre>How to provide document 39 Unless these Rules provide otherwise, a document may be provided in any of the following ways: (a) by hand; (b) by regular mail or registered mail; (c) by courier; (d) by fax if the recipient has a fax number and the document is no more than 20 pages long, unless the recipient consents to receiving more than 20 pages; and (e) by email or other electronic means if the Division allows.</pre> === This limit has been increased to 50 pages by practice notice === As per the ''Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'' from the RPD dated June 24, 2020, the 20 page limit for faxes has been increased to 50 pages.<ref name=":15">Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings,'' June 24, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx> (Accessed June 24, 2020).</ref> === Unless consent to receive more than 20 pages by fax is received prior to sending the document, the document will not be considered to have been received === As stated in the Board's public commentary on the previous version of these rules, "The maximum number of pages that may be faxed to the Division or to another party is 20 pages, including a cover sheet. The recipient's consent must be obtained ''before'' faxing a document or package of documents longer than 20 pages; otherwise, the documents will not be considered to have been received."<ref name=":8" /> This statement would apply, ''mutatis mutandis'', to the new limit of 50 pages. == RPD Rule 40 - Application if unable to provide document == <pre>Application if unable to provide document 40 (1) If a party is unable to provide a document in a way required by rule 39, the party may make an application to the Division to be allowed to provide the document in another way or to be excused from providing the document. Form of application (2) The application must be made in accordance with rule 50. Allowing application (3) The Division must not allow the application unless the party has made reasonable efforts to provide the document to the person to whom the document must be provided.</pre> === Rule 40(3): The party must have made reasonable efforts to provide the document to the person to whom the document must be provided === This is an issue that arises with applications to vacate and cease refugee protection where the protected person cannot be located: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Applications to Vacate or to Cease Refugee Protection#Rule 64(3): The Minister must provide a copy of the application to the protected person]]. Such applications may proceed in the absence of the person concerned unless doing so would amount to a breach of the tribunal's duty of fairness. The Division must not allow an application to proceed without having provided notice to the person concerned unless the Minister can show, to the Division's satisfaction, that reasonable efforts have been made to provide the document as required, as stated in Rule 40(3). In determining applications under rule 40, the RPD has considered such factors as: * the Minister’s efforts to search internet databases, * the Minister's searches in the Canadian Police Information Centre database, * the Minister's personal attendance at the last known address, * the Minister's attempts to reach the protected person at the last known telephone number, and * the relative quality of the Minister’s evidence on the merits of the application to cease.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Legal Resources - Chapter 12 - Applications to Cease Refugee Protection'', <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/legal-concepts/Pages/RefDef12.aspx#n1242> (Accessed December 6, 2020), at s. 12.4.2.</ref> == RPD Rule 41 - When documents are considered received == <pre>When document received by Division 41 (1) A document provided to the Division is considered to be received by the Division on the day on which the document is date-stamped by the Division. When document received by recipient other than Division (2) A document provided by regular mail other than to the Division is considered to be received seven days after the day on which it was mailed. If the seventh day is not a working day, the document is considered to be received on the next working day. Extension of time limit — next working day (3) When the time limit for providing a document ends on a day that is not a working day, the time limit is extended to the next working day.</pre> === The fact that a document is "considered to be received" on a particular day creates a rebuttable presumption of fact === Rule 41(2) states that "a document provided by regular mail...is considered to be received seven days after the day on which it was mailed." The fact that a document is "considered to be received" on that date means that it can be presumed, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that the document was received on the date in question. However, this is a rebuttable presumption of fact. Where, for example, the mail is returned as undeliverable, the presumption would not hold. Similarly, if information came to the attention of the sender that the document in question in reality was received on a later day, for example because the recipient was outside of the country for an extended period, then it would not be proper to simply "consider" the document as having been received after the seven-day period. This interpretation is supported by the Board's public commentary on the previous version of the rules which held that the fact that a document is "considered to be received" in this way "does not relieve a party of ensuring that [it was actually received]": "If a document is sent by regular mail, [this subsection] of the Rules states that the document is considered to be received seven days after the day it was mailed. If the seventh day is not a working day, the document is considered received on the next working day. However, mailing the document does not relieve a party of ensuring that the Division actually receives the document within the specified time limit."<ref name=":8" /> Similarly, while it will be presumed that a notice of hearing mailed to a claimant (or their counsel) provides adequate notice of a hearing, where the evidence establishes that the notice was not in fact received, then any abandonment determination could be set aside, subject to a broader examination of the principles relevant to abandonment proceedings including whether the claimant was diligent in keeping the Board up-to-date with their contact information.<ref>''Anwar v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', [2003] FCJ No 622 (FC), as cited in Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. ''Refugee Law (Second Edition)''. Irwin Law, 2017, page 307.</ref> === Documents sent to another Division of the Board will not automatically be placed on the RPD file === Persons with matters before the RPD may also have matters before another Division of the Board, including the Immigration Division, or the Refugee Appeal Division (as when a matter is appealed and then remitted for reconsideration by the RAD). Documents submitted to those other Divisions will not automatically be placed on the record at the RPD and it is generally up to a party to submit such documents to the RPD if they want the RPD to consider them. == RPD Rule 42 - Original documents == <pre>Original Documents Original documents 42 (1) A party who has provided a copy of a document to the Division must provide the original document to the Division (a) without delay, on the written request of the Division; or (b) if the Division does not make a request, no later than at the beginning of the proceeding at which the document will be used. Documents referred to in paragraph 3(5)(e) or (g) (2) On the written request of the Division, the Minister must without delay provide to the Division the original of any document referred to in paragraph 3(5)(e) or (g) that is in the possession of an officer.</pre> === One of the purposes of original documents being made available to the Division is to allow for the verification of those original documents === Rule 42 provides that a party who has provided a copy of a document to the Division must also provide the original document to the Division. One of the purposes of this relates to the integrity of the process and the ability of the Division to assess the authenticity of the original document. For example, the ''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings'' state that where, after consulting with the responsible member manager, the assigned member forms the opinion that forensic verification is necessary, they may direct the RPD adjudicative support team to send the document to the RCMP Forensic Laboratory Services for verification.<ref>''Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings,'' Instructions issued by the Chairperson pursuant to section 159(1)(a) of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', amended December, 2012 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/policies/Pages/InstructInfo.aspx> (Accessed November 28, 2021).</ref> The average turn around time for forensic examination is 120 days. Hence, the assigned member must consider whether forensic verification will unreasonably delay the proceedings beyond the parameters set by legislation. === The Board has suspended the application of Rule 42(1)(b) during the Covid-19 pandemic === In its ''Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'', which applies during the Covid-19 period, the Board has states that "until further notice, the RPD waives the requirement in RPD Rule 42(1)(b) to provide the original documents at the beginning of the hearing, unless directed in advance by the presiding member."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Refugee Protection Division: Practice Notice on the resumption of in-person hearings'', June 23, 2020, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/rpd-pn-hearing-resumption.aspx#toc25> (Accessed August 1, 2020).</ref> This practice notice states that "original documents must still be retained and provided to the Division upon request." == RPD Rule 43 - Additional documents provided as evidence after a hearing == <pre>Additional Documents Documents after hearing 43 (1) A party who wants to provide a document as evidence after a hearing but before a decision takes effect must make an application to the Division. Application (2) The party must attach a copy of the document to the application that must be made in accordance with rule 50, but the party is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. Factors (3) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34.</pre> === History === The present RPD Rule 43 is similar, but not identical, to the previous Rule 37 in the older, 2002, version of the rules:<ref>''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), at para 23, <https://canlii.ca/t/ftgjl#par23>, retrieved on 2022-07-07.</ref><pre>Additional documents after the hearing has ended 37. (1) A party who wants to provide a document as evidence after a hearing must make an application to the Division. Written application (2) The party must attach a copy of the document to the application. The application must be made under rule 44, but the party is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. Factors (3) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including: (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence it brings to the proceedings; and (c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 29.</pre> === Rule 43 applies to evidence, not submissions, caselaw, or other tribunal decisions === Rule 43 does not apply to submissions made after a hearing. This is because, as stated in <em>Yared Belay v. Canada</em>, this rule sets out a procedure for filing evidence after a hearing, not submissions.<ref name=":0">''Yared Belay v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2016 FC 1387 (CanLII), paras. 41-42 <https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc1387/2016fc1387.html>.</ref> Furthermore, a party cannot make an application to submit another decision of the Refugee Protection Division, or indeed some other tribunal, or a piece of caselaw pursuant to this rule. As the court commented in ''Petrovic v. Canada:''<blockquote>I do not find that a copy of a tribunal decision constitutes “evidence” under subsection 43(1) of the Rules for the following reasons. First, the RPD is not required to analyze each piece of case law, as it would material evidence. Second, with the presentation of new evidence, the opposing party is generally given the opportunity to make submissions on the admissibility of said evidence, including cross‑examination. It is difficult to imagine how anyone could oppose the admissibility of a piece of case law (decision). Lastly, if Parliament wanted previous RPD decisions to constitute evidence under section 43 of the Rules, I believe it would have explicitly indicated so.<ref name=":5">''Petrovic v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2016 FC 637 (CanLII), para. 11.</ref></blockquote>The relevant rule for extending the time to supply non-evidentiary documents is Rule 70 (which see). === The Division has no substantive duty to accept post-hearing evidence or submissions, but it must consider the newly submitted evidence expressly === As held in ''Aguilera v Canada'', the Board "has no duty to accept post-hearing evidence or to allow submissions thereon".<ref>''Aguilera v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2008 FC 507, 167 ACWS (3d) 967.</ref> It does, however, have a duty to "acknowledge the post-hearing evidence submitted by the Applicants and to explain why it should or should not be considered".<ref>''Mannan v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 144 (CanLII), para. 52.</ref> In short, "the Board ha[s] a duty to consider the newly submitted evidence expressly".<ref>''Matingou-Testie v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)'', 2012 FC 389, [2012] FCJ No 401 at para 43.</ref> This duty extends until such time as the decision is rendered.<ref>''X (Re),'' 2015 CanLII 108739 (CA IRB), paras. 13-19.</ref> Where a panel fails to acknowledge and review a claimant's post-hearing evidentiary submissions, it will have violated the principles of natural justice and procedural fairness in the adjudication of the claim. However, this obligation does not entitle a claimant to any particular result other than a fair process in which the relevant rules, such as Rule 43, are considered and the evidence is then either accepted or rejected. This obligation to consider newly submitted evidence expressly applies even where the Rule 43 application may be scant, or missing details. For example, in ''Cox v. Canada'', the court considered a situation in which the Minister argued that: <blockquote>the Board had no duty to consider expressly the application to admit the evidence in its reasons because the application did not comply with all of the requirements of Rule 37. Particularly, the Respondent underlines the want of explanation in the application as to why the evidence could not have been submitted in time for the hearing. </blockquote>The court dismissed this argument, concluding that the Board had a duty to consider the newly submitted evidence expressly notwithstanding the lack of such submissions on one of the factors enumerated in the relevant rule.<ref>''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), at para 24, <https://canlii.ca/t/ftgjl#par24>, retrieved on 2022-07-07.</ref> See also the following commentary: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#New evidence submitted post-hearing should be assessed pursuant to Rule 43 even where the party does not explicitly refer to the rule]]. === New evidence submitted post-hearing should be assessed pursuant to Rule 43 even where the party does not explicitly refer to the rule === In ''Shuaib'', the Court addressed the issue of whether the RPD could reject post-hearing documents on the basis that no formal application for their admission was made in accordance with Rule 43. The Court found that providing the documents, accompanied by an explanation as to why they should be considered, met the requirements of the Rules.<ref>''Mannan v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 144 (CanLII), para. 46.</ref> The Court determined that the RPD made a reviewable error in ignoring the post-hearing evidence. Similarly, the RAD has held that the RPD erred in not considering documents where it was "implicit in the correspondence to the RPD that an application was being made to have further evidence considered post-hearing." Member M. Pettinella of the RAD commented on this obligation as follows in one case: <blockquote>The RAD notes that the Minister’s correspondence was received by the Board after the Appellant’s hearing and before a decision was rendered by the RPD. It is implicit in the Minister’s correspondence to the RPD that an application was being made to have further evidence considered post-hearing. The RPD erred when it failed to consider the Minister’s correspondence as an application. The RPD had an obligation to consider the Minister’s application and determine if the evidence was admissible within its rules. RPD rule 43(3) indicates that the RPD must consider any relevant factors, including, the document’s relevance and probative value; any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings; and whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule [43].<ref>''X (Re),'' 2016 CanLII 107435 (CA IRB), para. 17.</ref> </blockquote> === The Board must consider each of the Rule 43(3) factors === Pursuant to Rule 43(3), in deciding this type of application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including: *(a) the document’s relevance and probative value *(b) any new evidence the document brings to the proceedings *(c) whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document as required by rule 34 As such, the Board is required to consider the relevance, probative value, newness of the documents, as well as whether the party, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document on time, i.e. factors that are the same as those enumerated in Rules 36(a), (b), and (c). The text ''Refugee Law'' states that "the criteria for the receipt of post-hearing evidence are similar to the long-established grounds at common law by which an individual may tender new evidence on appeal."<ref>Martin David Jones and Sasha Baglay. ''Refugee Law (Second Edition)''. Irwin Law, 2017, page 304.</ref> The court has held that "While the list of factors to be considered in [Rule 36] is not exhaustive, the use of the word “including” rather than the words “such as” before the list of factors indicates the intent that each of the factors included in the sub-rule be considered. A failure to do so gives rise to a breach of procedural fairness."<ref name=":2">''Cox v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2012 FC 1220 (CanLII), para. 27.</ref> As such, in a case where the Board's decision weighed only one factor, the court concluded that it had erred. === Rule 43(3) factors are not exhaustive, and as such, the Board may consider additional factors === The fact that, per Rule 43(3), the Division should consider "any relevant factors" means that it is not limited to the factors above, which are enumerated in the rule, and may consider other factors. In the words of Mr. Justice Near, "the list of factors to be considered in Rule 37(3) is not exhaustive".<ref name=":2" /> === The consideration of the Rule 43(3) factors in past decisions === See the discussion of the identical factors in the commentary for Rule 36 above ([[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Documents#Rule 36 - Use of undisclosed documents]]). Additional factors particular to post-hearing documents that have been considered have included: *'''Whether a claimant made an earlier application to provide post-hearing documents that did not include this type of document:''' Where a panel has provided a claimant with leave to submit some specified type of document post-hearing, the claimant should not expect that another, unrelated, type of document will be allowed absent an application on point. In ''Farkas v. Canada'', the court noted that "the post-hearing documents actually submitted do not fit within the type for which the RPD had given leave to file, that is to say 'corroborative police and/or medical documents'. As the post-hearing evidence did not fall within the scope of the RPD’s grant of permission, the RPD would have been justified rejecting it."<ref>''Farkas v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2014 FC 542 (CanLII), para. 13.</ref> *'''Whether the document exists at the time of the application:''' At times, parties will apply for a proceeding to be held in abeyance until some document comes into their possession, for example a court decision from a foreign judicial process that has not yet concluded. This rule does not apply to such requests because this rule only applies where the party has and submits a copy of the document that it wants the Board to consider, per Rule 43(2). Instead, requests for leave to provide documents post-hearing, and to refrain from providing a decision until such documents are provided are not strictly assessed under Rule 43, but should instead be considered based on the Board's plenary jurisdiction. === Requests to submit a document post-hearing that the claimant does not have in its possession are not made pursuant to Rule 43 === At times, parties will apply for a proceeding to be held in abeyance until some document comes into their possession, for example a court decision from a foreign judicial process that has not yet concluded. Rule 43 does not apply to such requests because this rule only applies where the party has and submits a copy of the document that it wants the Board to consider, per Rule 43(2). Instead, requests for leave to provide documents post-hearing, and to refrain from providing a decision until such documents are provided are not strictly assessed under Rule 43, but should instead be considered based on the Board's plenary jurisdiction. The general approach is to decline to hold a proceeding in abeyance pending the outcome of a foreign process, but it should be noted that, when considering the overall scheme of the Act, In cases where the person has been charged with an offence in Canada punishable by ten or more years, and the criminal proceedings are still pending, the officer has the discretion to await the outcome of the trial before making a determination as to an individual's admissibility to file a claim.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, SC 2001, c 27, s 100(2) <http://canlii.ca/t/53z6t#sec100subsec2> retrieved on 2020-04-13.</ref> As such, there is some precedent in the IRPA for putting proceedings into abeyance pending another proceeding's conclusion and documents related thereto becoming available. The court held in ''Gulamsakhi v. Canada'' that the Board should generally have a liberal approach to allowing reasonable requests to submit post-hearing documents given the issues that are usually at stake in refugee claims:<blockquote>In my opinion, in the circumstances of this case, the RPD erred in refusing to grant the Applicant an adjournment or permission to file evidence later. All adjournments require a balancing of the many circumstances of the case. Here, the primary error was that the RPD did not factor into its balancing the consequences of deportation for this Applicant. ... In the present case, particularly given the potentially horrific fate awaiting the Applicant, not only at the hands of her husband but also at the hands of criminal and possibly religious justice authorities, and given little prejudice an adjournment would realistically cause the RPD or Canadian authorities, in my view in the circumstances overall fairness required the RPD to grant the adjournment to enable the Applicant to provide the RPD with the corroborating documents it was requested.<ref>''Gulamsakhi v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship & Immigration),'' [2015] F.C.J. No. 271, 2015 FC 105 (F.C.), para. 25.</ref></blockquote> === If credibility concerns emerge from documents submitted by a claimant post-hearing, the panel generally need not resume the hearing === The general rule is that the RPD has no obligation to return to a claimant with concerns arising from their own post-hearing submissions. The court has stated that "To do so would be onerous on the RPD. It must be kept in mind that it was up to the Applicants to submit credible and corroborative evidence to support their claim."<ref>''Behary v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration),'' 2015 FC 794 (CanLII), para. 31.</ref> This conclusion may differ where the Minister is involved in a proceeding and their post-hearing submissions raise issues as to the credibility of the claimant, or vice versa. == References == <references responsive="" /> 8x6wntk62yebtl5x5bd0uj8rdkzii1d 0 413193 4095501 4089918 2022-08-23T18:39:19Z Refcanimm 3267488 wikitext text/x-wiki == Section 165 of the IRPA == The legislative provision reads:<pre>Powers of a commissioner 165 The Refugee Protection Division, the Refugee Appeal Division and the Immigration Division and each member of those Divisions have the powers and authority of a commissioner appointed under Part I of the Inquiries Act and may do any other thing they consider necessary to provide a full and proper hearing.</pre> === History of this provision === Under the previous ''Immigration Act'', the equivalent provision read as follows:<pre>67. (1) The Refugee Division has, in respect of proceedings under sections 69.1 and 69.2, sole and exclusive jurisdiction to hear and determine all questions of law and fact, including questions of jurisdiction. (2) The Refugee Division, and each member thereof, has all the powers and authority of a commissioner appointed under Part I of the Inquiries Act and, without restricting the generality of the foregoing, may, for the purposes of a hearing, (a) issue a summons to any person requiring that person to appear at the time and place mentioned therein to testify with respect to all matters within that person's knowledge relative to the subject-matter of the hearing and to bring and produce any document, book or paper that the person has or controls relative to that subject-matter; (b) administer oaths and examine any person on oath; (c) issue commissions or requests to take evidence in Canada; and (d) do any other thing necessary to provide a full and proper hearing.</pre>With the advent of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'', the above provision was amended to read as follows:<ref>''Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness) v. Kahlon,'' 2005 FC 1000 (CanLII), [2006] 3 FCR 493, at para 21, <https://canlii.ca/t/1ldlc#par21>, retrieved on 2022-08-04.</ref><pre>165. The Refugee Protection Division and the Immigration Division and each member of those Divisions have the powers and authority of a commissioner appointed under Part I of the Inquiries Act and may do any other thing they consider necessary to provide a full and proper hearing.</pre> === See also the ''Interpretation Act'' === Section 31(2) of the ''Interpretation Act'' provides that "where power is given to a person, officer or functionary to do or enforce the doing of any act or thing, all such powers as are necessary to enable the person, officer or functionary to do or enforce the doing of the act or thing are deemed to be also given."<ref>''Interpretation Act,'' RSC 1985, c I-21, s 31, <<nowiki>https://canlii.ca/t/7vhg#sec31</nowiki>>, retrieved on 2022-08-23.</ref> === This legislative provision allows the Board to unilaterally adjust timelines in appropriate cases === An example of this provision being relied upon is that during the Covid-19 epidemic, the Board lengthened the time period that claimants had to provide a Basis of Claim form after making a claim at the Port of Entry. The practice notice doing so cited this provision of the Act ("[The Division]...may do any other thing they consider necessary to provide a full and proper hearing") as authority for that decision, as discussed in this commentary on RPD Rule 8: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Information and Documents to be Provided#This Rule applies to applications for an extension of time, but not decisions on the Board's own motion to extend the deadline]]. === A Division cannot rely upon the above provisions prior to or outside of a formal hearing === The court concluded in ''Canada v. Kahlon'' that the RPD has no power to compel evidence prior to or outside a formal hearing.<ref>''Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness) v. Kahlon,'' 2005 FC 1000 (CanLII), [2006] 3 FCR 493, at para 42, <https://canlii.ca/t/1ldlc#par42>, retrieved on 2022-08-04.</ref> That said, the Board may be obliged to assist an applicant in obtaining information, for example by requiring the Minister to make inquiries of relevant Canadian law enforcement agencies. For more details, see: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#There is a shared duty of fact-finding in refugee matters]]. === This provision may be cited in favour of an argument that the Board can order the Minister to facilitate the return to Canada of a claimant outside of Canada === Section 165 of the IRPA invests members of the Division with the authority of a commissioner under Part 1 of the ''Inquiries Act'' and the authority to “do any other thing they consider necessary to provide a full and proper hearing”. If a matter comes before the Division the claimant is outside of Canada, and which cannot be adjudicated over telecommunications, this provision could arguably be relied upon as authority for the proposition that the Division can order the Minister to facilitate the return of the person concerned to Canada, for example by issuing that individual a travel document. But see IRPA s. 175(2), which provides that the IAD may require an officer to issue a travel document to an individual, a provision for which there is no equivalent applicable to the RPD and RAD, which could imply that those Divisions lack such authority. == Part I of the Inquiries Act == The complete text of Part I of the Inquiries Act reads: <pre>PART I Public Inquiries Inquiry 2 The Governor in Council may, whenever the Governor in Council deems it expedient, cause inquiry to be made into and concerning any matter connected with the good government of Canada or the conduct of any part of the public business thereof. Appointment of commissioners 3 Where an inquiry as described in section 2 is not regulated by any special law, the Governor in Council may, by a commission, appoint persons as commissioners by whom the inquiry shall be conducted. Powers of commissioners concerning evidence 4 The commissioners have the power of summoning before them any witnesses, and of requiring them to (a) give evidence, orally or in writing, and on oath or, if they are persons entitled to affirm in civil matters on solemn affirmation; and (b) produce such documents and things as the commissioners deem requisite to the full investigation of the matters into which they are appointed to examine. Idem, enforcement 5 The commissioners have the same power to enforce the attendance of witnesses and to compel them to give evidence as is vested in any court of record in civil cases.</pre> === These provisions allow a panel to compel testimony and the production of evidence === As stated in the text ''The Conduct of Public Inquiries'', the central procedural feature of the Inquiries Act is to "authorize commissioners to compel testimony and the production of evidence".<ref>Ratushny, Ed, ''The Conduct of Public Inquiries: Law, Policy and Practice'', Released 2009/09/28, Irwin Law: Toronto, online eBook: https://www.deslibris.ca/ID/432671, page 301.</ref> The RPD will exercise its power to summon individuals through the framework of RPD Rules 44-48: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Witnesses]]. For a discussion of the Board's power to summon documents, see ''Canada v. Kahlon''.<ref>''Canada (Minister of Public Safety & Emergency Preparedness) v. Kahlon,'' [2005] F.C.J. No. 1335, [2006] 3 F.C.R. 493 (F.C.).</ref> === These powers must be employed fairly, which will generally require providing notice to the Minister === Division Members have the powers of a commissioner appointed pursuant to the Inquiries Act. This gives them the power to summon witnesses and of requiring them to give the evidence set out above in section 4 of the Act. Where a panel exercises these powers, it must do so in a manner that is fair to the Minister, whether or not it is a party to the proceeding as defined in the rules of the relevant Division. For example, in ''Canada v. Miller'', the Minister had not intervened in proceedings and when the RAD sought further submissions from the Appellants, the Minister was not notified of this. The Federal Court held that this was procedurally unfair and set aside the decision on this basis.<ref>''Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v. Miller,'' 2022 FC 1131 (CanLII), at para 60, <https://canlii.ca/t/jr5nh#par60>, retrieved on 2022-08-03.</ref> See also: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Definitions#Procedural fairness may be owed to the Minister despite them not being a party to a proceeding]]. == Part III of the Inquiries Act == Part III of the Inquiries Act is a general provision that applies to commissioners with powers under Part I, as well as to commissioners appointed under Part II of the Act (which is not relevant to IRB Board Members):<pre>PART III General Employment of counsel, experts and assistants 11 (1) The commissioners, whether appointed under Part I or under Part II, may, if authorized by the commission issued in the case, engage the services of (a) such accountants, engineers, technical advisers or other experts, clerks, reporters and assistants as they deem necessary or advisable; and (b) counsel to aid and assist the commissioners in an inquiry. Experts may take evidence and report (2) The commissioners may authorize and depute any accountants, engineers, technical advisers or other experts, the services of whom are engaged under subsection (1), or any other qualified persons, to inquire into any matter within the scope of the commission as may be directed by the commissioners. Powers (3) The persons deputed under subsection (2), when authorized by order in council, have the same powers as the commissioners have to take evidence, issue subpoenas, enforce the attendance of witnesses, compel them to give evidence, and otherwise conduct the inquiry. Report (4) The persons deputed under subsection (2) shall report the evidence and their findings, if any, thereon to the commissioners. Parties may employ counsel 12 The commissioners may allow any person whose conduct is being investigated under this Act, and shall allow any person against whom any charge is made in the course of an investigation, to be represented by counsel. Notice to persons charged 13 No report shall be made against any person until reasonable notice has been given to the person of the charge of misconduct alleged against him and the person has been allowed full opportunity to be heard in person or by counsel.</pre> == References == <references/> {{BookCat}} 3ml16och3fudifsbvhv1ml27lbfl819 0 413423 4095494 3995695 2022-08-23T18:03:23Z Refcanimm 3267488 wikitext text/x-wiki The IRB has successfully used videoconferencing and teleconferencing at hearings since the early 1990s. This section discusses the provision of the Act that relates most directly to this practice. == IRPA Section 164 == The relevant provision of the ''Immigration and Refugee Protection Act'' reads: <pre>Presence of parties 164 Where a hearing is held by a Division, it may, in the Division’s discretion, be conducted in the presence of, or by a means of live telecommunication with, the person who is the subject of the proceedings.</pre> === Meaning of "telecommunication" === When interpreting the meaning of "live telecommunication", one can have recourse to the definition in the federal ''Interpretation Act'': "<dfn>telecommunications</dfn> means the emission, transmission or reception of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds or intelligence of any nature by any wire, cable, radio, optical or other electromagnetic system, or by any similar technical system; (télécommunication)".<ref>Interpretation Act, RSC 1985, c I-21, s 35, <https://canlii.ca/t/7vhg#sec35>, retrieved on 2022-08-23.</ref> === History of the provision and its content === The repealed ''Immigration Act'', which preceded the IRPA, contained no direct analogue to section 164.<ref>RSC 1985, c 1-2.</ref> Section 164 was introduced, along with the rest of the IRPA, in 2001.<ref>Bill C-11, ''An Act respecting immigration to Canada and the granting of refugee protection to persons who are displaced, persecuted or in danger'', 1st Sess, 37th Parl, 2001 (assented to 1 November 2001), SC 2001, c 27.</ref> The section came into force on June 28, 2002 and has not been amended. An earlier version of the IRPA, which had been introduced as a bill in the previous session of Parliament, but died on the order paper, did not contain a direct analogue to s. 164.<ref>Bill C-31, ''An Act respecting immigration to Canada and the granting of refugee protection to persons who are displaced, persecuted or in danger'', 2nd Sess, 36th Parl, 2000 (first reading 6 April 2000).</ref> Instead, Bill C-31 had stated that, "subject to the other provisions of this section, proceedings must be held in public ''and, as far as possible, in the presence of'' the interested parties [''emphasis added'']".<ref>''Ibid'' at cl 161(1)(a) [emphasis added].</ref> Furthermore, that bill had also stated that in all proceedings the RPD "must conduct a hearing in the presence of the foreign national concerned".<ref>''Ibid'' at cl 165(b).</ref> === This section of the Act is frequently considered in applications to change the location of a proceeding === One of the ways that this section of the Act is frequently considered and relied upon is with applications to change the location of a proceeding where the Board elects to allow a claimant to appear by video from the place that they have moved to, rather than transferring the file to a different office in its entirety. See the commentary to RPD Rule 53(4)(g): [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Changing the Location of a Proceeding]]. === Procedural fairness issues and best practices regarding videoconferencing === ==== The use of videoconferencing is not ''per se'' unfair ==== Videoconferencing is widely used in refugee status determination procedures around the world, including Australia and the United States.<ref>Mark Federman, “On the Media Effects of Immigration and Refugee Board Hearings via Videoconference” (2006) 19(4) J of Refugee Studies 433 at 434.</ref> Section 164 of the Act provides that the Board may conduct a hearing via live telecommunication here in Canada. The Board has a policy entitled ''Use of Videoconferencing in Proceedings before the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada'' which sets out that it is the <abbr>IRB</abbr>'s position that provided that it is carried out in accordance with appropriate technological and procedural standards, videoconferencing does not affect the quality of the hearing or decision-making and respects the principles of natural justice and procedural fairness.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Use of Videoconferencing in Proceedings before the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada,'' Policy dated 15 December 2010, Accessed January 2, 2019, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/legal-policy/procedures/Pages/Videoconf.aspx>.</ref> ==== Board policy specifies that videoconferencing is inappropriate for certain types of claims and claimants ==== It may be noted that many counsel do not like videoconferencing and academic commentators have called on the Board to "limit this practice as much as possible".<ref>Acton, Tess, ''Understanding Refugee Stories: Lawyers, Interpreters, and Refugee Claims in Canada'', 2015, Master of Laws Thesis, <[https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/6213/Acton_Tess_LLM_2015.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/6213/Acton_Tess_LLM_2015.pdf]>, page 130 (Accessed January 25, 2020).</ref> The 2004 RPD ''Policy on the Transfer of Files for Hearings by Videoconference'' states at Section 5.5 that counsel may bring matters to the attention of the RPD that are inappropriate for videoconferencing, by making an application. In what circumstances may issues with videoconferencing arise? * <u>Disability issues:</u> In ''Al-Gumer v. Canada'' the appellant was hearing impaired and required the assistance of sign language interpreter at his hearing and, further, his counsel required a captionist or an ASL interpreter. In the circumstances, it was determined that it was not practical to conduct that hearing remotely given the technology available.<ref>''Nazer Jassim'' ''Al-Gumer'' v. ''Canada (M.C.I''.) TA4-1257, Neron, November 2005.</ref> This decision of the Immigration Appeal Division should be persuasive for the Refugee Protection Division. * <u>Parties should have 'feedback screens':</u> The Board commissioned an external review of the use of videoconferencing at the IRB which recommended the the Board "install feedback screens in all of the claimant's rooms in the system." The report went on to state that "Fairness and effectiveness both require that both the claimants and their counsel be aware at all times of the picture of their room transmitted to the screen in the member's room."<ref>S. Ronald Ellis, Q.C., ''Videoconferencing in Refugee Hearings'', Published by Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Date October 21, 2004 <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/transparency/reviews-audit-evaluations/Pages/Video.aspx> (Accessed January 26, 2020).</ref> IRB management accepted this recommendation, stating that it is their policy that "All offices with videoconferencing equipment currently have feedback screens: either picture-in-picture or a separate television screen. The Board, through the designated employee, will ensure that participants are using this technology correctly."<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''Immigration and Refugee Board Response to the Report on Videoconferencing in Refugee Hearings'', Date modified listed on webpage: 2018-06-26, <https://irb-cisr.gc.ca/en/transparency/reviews-audit-evaluations/Pages/VideoRespRep.aspx> (Accessed January 26, 2020).</ref> * <u>Awareness of effects of video on the assessment of demeanour:</u> Subtle lags inherent in the technology can affect perceptions of credibility according to psychological research.<ref>Mark Federman, “On the Media Effects of Immigration and Refugee Board Hearings via Videoconference” (2006) 19(4) J of Refugee Studies 433 at 442.</ref> Board Members should be aware of this and consider this when thinking about their subjective assessment of witness credibility. *<u>Confidentiality:</u> As per s. 166(c) of the IRPA, the Division, in all of its proceedings, must respect the confidential nature of refugee proceedings. If this would be compromised by proceeding virtually, then the Division should not require it. === A party may waive the right to be present at the hearing === The right to be present at the hearing can be waived if there is an express waiver by the claimant.<ref>''Rodriguez-Moreno v. Canada (Minister of Employment & Immigration),'' [1993] F.C.J. No. 1297, 70 F.T.R. 298 (F.C.T.D.).</ref> == References == <references/> {{BookCat}} tusm13zqsuzm9afaut4cpgkq3t8rlbw 0 417655 4095517 4089077 2022-08-23T19:53:38Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Most Common Mirad Prefixes */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwos</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jwob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || ||'''tyod'''....''people'' |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jwab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jweb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || |} ::: <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but the '''y'''-glide is replaced by a '''w'''-glide for ease of pronunciation.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a stuff suffix for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 2llq77ef2c4trppwyunsm5zpqjijri1 4095519 4095517 2022-08-23T20:01:59Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jwob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || ||'''tyod'''....''people'' |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jwab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jweb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || |} ::: <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but the '''y'''-glide is replaced by a '''w'''-glide for ease of pronunciation.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a stuff suffix for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 1pxompm96y4dahfalgxyxngnrsu5fl0 4095520 4095519 2022-08-23T20:10:56Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || ||'''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || |} ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a stuff suffix for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 9r8jnyvo7xzkpg5suyfdysnexmosz8h 4095521 4095520 2022-08-23T20:14:48Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || ||'''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || |} ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a stuff suffix for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 9yrql9ivlxuq55erlzjqwn2w1c6v0yl 4095524 4095521 2022-08-23T20:25:09Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a stuff suffix for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 8p6gtkt9cfnnx4gx30ezzmwd3yq2y2j 4095526 4095524 2022-08-23T20:27:36Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Words for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "femininized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Feminizing Nouns |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> n20lscz68ea6ao2pcbhnx5sg3bjfudd 4095529 4095526 2022-08-23T20:43:02Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''vyafa'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vyafa'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>tajbwa'''....''re-born'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-, gwa-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwa</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwo-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwo</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''agra-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>agra</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> e3lsyhibqy78qrqa6y0izsiio1eacxq 4095531 4095529 2022-08-23T21:01:01Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Adjectival Prefixes */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>per'''....''return''<br>'''<u>ga</u>aber'''....''<u>re</u>apply'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor'''....''microcosm'' |- | '''gwoog-''' || '''nano-'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules'''....''nanoparticle'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toosifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>sinibar'''....''television set'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> ht05s6zgpcegiqlqyniyif3p924sjl5 4095532 4095531 2022-08-23T21:04:33Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Adjectival Prefixes */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-ide'' || chemical suffix || '''-iz''' || ''sulf<u>ide</u>''....'''somuliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || chemical suffix || '''-is''' || ''sulf<u>ite</u>''....'''somulis''' |- | ''-ate'' || chemical suffix || '''-as''' || ''sulf<u>ate</u>''....'''somulas''' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 77h58x5dqt17sxadl1nobqop1hw999o 4095535 4095532 2022-08-23T21:07:57Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB |- | '''vay'''....''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''....''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''....''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''....''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''....''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''....''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''....''even'' |- | '''go'''....''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''....''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''....''very'' |- | '''glay'''....''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''....''so'' |- | '''glo'''....''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''....''too'' |- | '''gre'''....''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''....''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''....''average'' |- | '''gwo'''....''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''....''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' |- | '''zya'''....''all about'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> i0ki69lze17ex83jy83xiipfgoflhux 4095544 4095535 2022-08-23T21:26:25Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Special Adverbs */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! MIRAD !! ENGLISH |- | '''vay'''||''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''||''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''||''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''||''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''||''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''||''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''||''even'' |- | '''go'''||''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''||''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''||''very'' |- | '''glay'''||''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''||''so'' |- | '''glo'''||''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''||''too'' |- | '''gre'''||''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''||''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''||''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''||''average'' |- | '''gwo'''||''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''||''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''||''across'' |- | '''zoy'''||''back'' |- | '''zye'''||''through'' |- | '''zya'''||''throughout'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye bi ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''Yat buxo ha muyv <u>zye</u>bi ha dref.'''....''We will push the pin <u>through</u> the paper.'' |- | '''zyu'''....''around'' || '''Pu <u>zyu</u>.'''....''Go <u>around</u>.'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''Van yat tyopu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Let's walk <u>together</u>.'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''Ha meri kyapeye <u>yon</u>.'''....''The planets are drifting <u>apart</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> mkpyucaz0qrdq13jkvzwe2fb9bdzbeu 4095545 4095544 2022-08-23T21:27:18Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Special Adverbs */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! MIRAD !! ENGLISH |- | '''vay'''||''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''||''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''||''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''||''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''||''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''||''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''||''even'' |- | '''go'''||''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''||''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''||''very'' |- | '''glay'''||''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''||''so'' |- | '''glo'''||''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''||''too'' |- | '''gre'''||''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''||''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''||''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''||''average'' |- | '''gwo'''||''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''||''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''||''across'' |- | '''zoy'''||''back'' |- | '''zye'''||''through'' |- | '''zya'''||''throughout'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye bi ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''Yat buxo ha muyv <u>zye</u> bi ha dref.'''....''We will push the pin <u>through</u> the paper.'' |- | '''zyu'''....''around'' || '''Pu <u>zyu</u>.'''....''Go <u>around</u>.'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''Van yat tyopu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Let's walk <u>together</u>.'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''Ha meri kyapeye <u>yon</u>.'''....''The planets are drifting <u>apart</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer''''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> ape8jxhsn1r3uvc8by8hdbko4p7yrfv 4095547 4095545 2022-08-23T21:28:35Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Forming Verbs from Nouns */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! MIRAD !! ENGLISH |- | '''vay'''||''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''||''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''||''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''||''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''||''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''||''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''||''even'' |- | '''go'''||''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''||''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''||''very'' |- | '''glay'''||''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''||''so'' |- | '''glo'''||''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''||''too'' |- | '''gre'''||''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''||''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''||''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''||''average'' |- | '''gwo'''||''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''||''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''||''across'' |- | '''zoy'''||''back'' |- | '''zye'''||''through'' |- | '''zya'''||''throughout'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye bi ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''Yat buxo ha muyv <u>zye</u> bi ha dref.'''....''We will push the pin <u>through</u> the paper.'' |- | '''zyu'''....''around'' || '''Pu <u>zyu</u>.'''....''Go <u>around</u>.'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''Van yat tyopu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Let's walk <u>together</u>.'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''Ha meri kyapeye <u>yon</u>.'''....''The planets are drifting <u>apart</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer'''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tajuer'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tejier'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tejuer'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijier'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijuer'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tujier'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tujuer'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> kyo1eyz3kc7sfd5wqrxhhtrmzuib9j4 4095550 4095547 2022-08-23T21:35:51Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Verb Formants */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! MIRAD !! ENGLISH |- | '''vay'''||''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''||''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''||''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''||''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''||''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''||''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''||''even'' |- | '''go'''||''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''||''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''||''very'' |- | '''glay'''||''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''||''so'' |- | '''glo'''||''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''||''too'' |- | '''gre'''||''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''||''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''||''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''||''average'' |- | '''gwo'''||''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''||''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''||''across'' |- | '''zoy'''||''back'' |- | '''zye'''||''through'' |- | '''zya'''||''throughout'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye bi ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''Yat buxo ha muyv <u>zye</u> bi ha dref.'''....''We will push the pin <u>through</u> the paper.'' |- | '''zyu'''....''around'' || '''Pu <u>zyu</u>.'''....''Go <u>around</u>.'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''Van yat tyopu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Let's walk <u>together</u>.'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''Ha meri kyapeye <u>yon</u>.'''....''The planets are drifting <u>apart</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer'''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :: Some of the above formants can be intensified with the liquids '''l''' or '''r''', eg.'''-sler, -xler, -xrer, -bler, '''-prer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)er'''....''to give'' || '''tajber'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tejper'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)er'''....''to give'' || '''tejber'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijper'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijber'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tujber'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank'' || || '''pixler'''....''snag, capture''<br>'''yipixler'''....''abduct'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> rvxgxumcahc8qd4kg2o1hcbe38yc15k 4095554 4095550 2022-08-23T21:46:30Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Vocabulary Formation = : In order to facilitate word-building and to maximize comprehension and decipherability of words, certain meanings and functions have been attached to consonants and vowels. : The vocabulary of Mirad is composed of '''''base words''''' and '''''derived words'''''. === Guiding Principles for Vocabulary Formation === : The vocabulary is built on '''''base words''''', that is, indivisible, building-block words. The choice of the root of these words (formed generally from two or three letters) is determined by: ::* The meaning of each letter of the word. ::* The importance of the group of ideas that this word evokes in its proper sense and in the sense that is directly opposite it, eg.: ''fixed'' vs. ''variable''. ::* How frequently the word and its derivations are used in the language. ::* The geometric system of vocabulary construction (see a later section on what this is all about). ::* The logic of its composition. ::* The mnemonic associations this word suggests. : The words derived from base words in turn follow very simple laws called '''''vocabulary-building rules''''', which are spelled out below. === Base Words === : '''''Base words''''' are elements of vocabulary that cannot be broken down any further and which serve as the basis for many derived words in the language. Base words are divided into two groups: ::* Group 1:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''nouns''''' ::* Group 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;consisting of '''''prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, determiners, and verbs'''''. :: '''''Base words of the Group 1''''' (nouns) are composed of three letters: :::* The first, a consonant called the '''''classifier''''' :::* The second, a vowel¹ called the '''''ordinal''''' :::* The third, a consonant called the '''''generic''''' :: Examples: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Base Word Composition |- ! CLASSIFIER !! ORDINAL !! GENERIC !! MEANING |- | '''t''' || '''o''' || '''b''' || ''man'' |- | '''d''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''society'' |- | '''p''' || '''o''' || '''t''' || ''tree'' |} :<small>Note 1: A bit of a misnomer. The vowel is really one in a range of cardinal numbers from 0 - 9 ('''a''' - '''yu''') See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Cardinal Numbers|Cardinal Numbers]]). For example, in Group 1 base words, the ordinal is often the vowel '''o''', the zeroth number. Many of the ordinal vowels are just cardinal numbers 0-9 ('''o'''-'''yu''').</small> :: '''''Base words of Group 2''''' (everything but nouns) are composed of one or two letters, not including grammatical endings. If one letter, it is a consonant or sometimes a vowel(*). If two letters, they consist of a consonant + vowel combination or a vowel + consonant combination. Here are some examples (the hyphen at the end means that the base word does not stand alone, but is followed in usage by a grammaticatical ending such as '''-er''' (verb infinitive) or '''-a''' (adjective marker): :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Some Examples of Group 2 Base Words | '''b-'''....''put'' || '''p-'''....''go'' |- | '''s-'''....''be'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''d-'''....''say'' || '''t-'''....''know'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''ob'''....''off'' |- |'''bu'''....''to'' || '''bi'''....''from'' |- |'''if-'''....''love'' || '''uf-'''....''hate'' |- |'''fi-'''....''good'' || '''fu-'''....''bad'' |- |'''va'''....''yes'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- |'''vya^*-'''....''true'' || '''vyo-'''....''false'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''o'''....''zero'' |} :: * As mentioned above, "vowel" in this case includes those preceded and/or followed by one of the glides '''y''' or '''w'''. So, for purposes here, '''ya''', '''ye''', '''yi''', '''yo''', '''yu''', '''wa''', and other pre- and post-glided vowels, are considered "vowels". ==== Consonants and Their Meanings ==== :: The classifier (initial letter) and generic (final letter) in group 1 base words (nouns) are consonants. Also, group 2 base words almost always have one consonant. So, you need to be familiar with the general meaning of the consonants in the Mirad alphabet, as shown in the following chart: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Consonants and Their Meanings |- ! CONSONANT !! GROUP 1 CLASSIFIER !! GROUP 1 GENERIC !! GROUP 2 CLASSIFIER !! IN NUMBERS |- | '''b''' || organ, health || organism || gesture, position || |- | '''d''' || society || family || communicating || |- | '''f''' || vegetation || textile, clothing || volition, attributes || |- | '''g''' || -- || measurement || quantity, attributes || |- | '''j''' || time || time || time || |- | '''k''' || -- || health || change, risk, attributes || |- | '''l''' || -- || element, food, liquid || -- || ten |- | '''m''' || nature || place, building, furniture, metal || temperature, light || '''ml''' = million<br>'''mr''' = billion |- | '''n''' || commerce || -- || -- || |- | '''p''' || animal, vehicle || motion || movement || |- | '''r''' || -- || tool, machine || -- || thousand |- | '''s''' || form, image, furniture || thing || being, form, thing || hundred |- | '''t''' || human, body || person, animal || intelligence, knowing || |- | '''v''' || plant, color || linen || truth, attributes || |- | '''x''' || -- || -- || action, doing, making || |- | '''z''' || -- || precious, art || spatial, attributes || |} : The following consonants have semantic functions rather than, or in addition to semantic values: ::* '''l''' and '''r''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Liquids used after vowels to intensify the semantics of a word, eg.: '''baer'''....''to lean'', '''baler'''....''to press'', '''barer'''....''to crush''; ::* '''y''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Glide used 1) before a stem vowel to intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''voa'''....''negative'' -> '''vyoa'''....''false'', or 2) after a vowel to de-intensify the semantics of a word, eg. '''ama'''....''hot'' -> '''ayma'''....''warm''. ::* '''h''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Used functionally only in certain interjections like '''hoy'''....''goodbye'', conjunctions like '''ven'''....''if'', and determiners like '''his'''....''this'', and has no semantic value. ::* '''w''':&nbsp;&nbsp; Has no semantic value of its own, but is used only 1) to form the masculine gender of nouns and pronouns, eg. '''tob'''....''person'' -> '''twob'''....''man'', or 2) to form the passive voice of verbs, eg. '''uber'''....''to send'' -> '''ubwer'''....''to be sent'', or 3) to form a numerical unit marker, eg. '''awa'''....''one'', or 4) sometimes to substitute for '''y''' when this letter would cause ambiguity or difficulty in pronunciation with other consonants eg. '''jwo'''....''late'', instead of '''jyo'''. ::* '''n''':&nbsp;&nbsp; In addition to its semantic values, functions often 1) as a buffer letter, as in '''ana'''....''only'', or 2) as a suffix to derive a nominal abstraction from an adjective, such as '''fian'''....''goodness'' from '''fia'''....''good'', or from a verb, such '''axnen'''....''behaving'' from '''axner'''....''to behave''. ==== Vowels and Their Meanings ==== : Vowels in Mirad have meanings or values of the following types: ::* numeric ::* geo-specific ::* oppositional ::* positional ::* vectorial ::* special ===== Numerical Vowel Values ===== :: The numeric value of vowels is shown in the chart below. The vowels beginning with '''y''' are considered pre-y-glided vowels. These numeric values serve as the "ordinal vowel" in base words. See the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Vowels|Vowels]]. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Numeric Values of Vowels |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! '''o''' !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''u''' !! '''yo''' !! '''ya''' !! '''ye''' !! '''yi''' !! '''yu''' |- | ORDINAL NUMBER || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 |- | ORDINAL NUMERAL || ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ===== Ordinal Vowel Values ===== :: These '''''ordinal vowels''''' can be used as the stem vowel in base words that form a scalar, hierarchical, or taxonomic series, eg.: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Scalar Values |- ! '''0''' !! '''1''' !! '''2''' !! '''3''' !! '''4''' !! '''5''' |- | '''o''' = 0 || '''a''' = 1 || '''e''' = 2|| '''i''' = 3|| '''u''' = 4|| '''5''' = '''ya''' |- | '''tob'''<br>''human'' || '''tab'''<br>''body'' || '''teb'''<br>''head'' || '''tib'''<br>''trunk'' || '''tub'''<br>''arm'' || '''tyob'''<br>''leg'' |- | '''fob'''<br>''vegetation''|| '''fab'''<br>''tree'' ||'''feb'''<br>''fruit''||'''fib'''<br>''trunk''||'''fub'''<br>''branch''||'''fyob'''<br>''root'' |- | '''vob'''<br>''plant''|| '''vab'''<br>''grass'' ||'''veb'''<br>''tuft/ear''||'''vib'''<br>''stem''||'''vub'''<br>''twig''||'''vyob'''<br>''tuber'' |} ===== Geo-specific Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geo-specific Vowel Values |- ! VOWEL !! MEANING !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD !! EXAMPLE BASE WORD |- | align=center | '''o''' || ''outer space, top level'' || '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''outer space''|| '''mol'''....''nature'' |- | align=center | '''a''' || ''air, gas, sky'' || '''m<u>a</u>p'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air'' |- | align=center | '''e''' || ''ground'', ''soil'', ''solid'' || '''m<u>e</u>p'''....''road'' || '''mem'''....''land''|| '''mel'''....''soil'' |- | align=center | '''i''' || ''liquid'', ''water'', ''sea'' || '''m<u>i</u>p'''....''river'' || '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''mil'''....''water'' |- | align=center | '''u''' || ''underground'', ''mineral'', ''substance'' || '''m<u>u</u>p'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' |} ===== Oppositional Vowel Values ===== : In Group 2 words: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Oppositional Vowel Values |- | '''a'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ya''' || intermediate || '''i'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yi''' |- | <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative || '''e'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ye''' || <big>⇑</big> positive<br><big>⇓</big>negative |- | '''o'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yo''' || value || '''u'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<big>⇔</big>&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yu''' |} ::* positive '''a''' constasts with negative '''o''' ::* positive '''ya''' contracts with negative '''yo''' ::* positive '''i''' contracts with negative '''u''' ::* positive '''yi''' contracts with negative '''yu''' ::* '''e''' and '''ye''' are in-between values ===== Directional and Positional Vowel Values ===== :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Positional Vowel Values |- | || '''a''' || |- | '''u''' || '''e''' || '''i''' |- | || '''o''' || |} :::'''a'''....''on, above, north'' :::'''e'''....''center, middle, equator'' :::'''o'''....''off, below, south'' :::'''i'''....''right, east'' :::'''u'''....''left, west'' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''contain''|| '''byeer'''....''contain'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== The Meaning of Group 1 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of the base words of Group 1 comes from the combination of the values of the classifier and the generic consonants. :: The ordinal vowel of those Group 1 base words has a 1) scalar/hierachical, 2) geo-spatial, 3) or mnemonic value. =====Scalar Arrangement===== :: In the following chart the ordinal vowel '''o''', which is also the cardinal number zero, is the zeroth element of a descending hierarchy of terms. Therefore these noun clusters are called '''''scalar''''': :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Zeroth-level Scalar Base Words and Meanings of the Consonants |- ! BASE WORD !! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! GENERIC CONSONANT |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''t''' = ''human'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''fabric'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''society'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''tol'''....''nourishment'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''food'' |- | '''top'''....''soul, spirit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''motion'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''d''' = ''society'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''human'' |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''j''' = ''time'' || '''b'''....''organism'' |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''f''' = ''vegetable'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vob'''....''crop'' || '''v''' = ''plant'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' || " " " || '''z''' = ''art, precious'' |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mos'''....''masonry'' || '''m''' = ''place, nature'' || '''s''' = ''thing'' |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || " " " || '''r''' = ''machine, system'' |- |- '''mom'''....''outer space'' || " " " || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || " " " || '''l''' = ''substance'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''movement'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''p''' = ''movement'' || '''t''' = ''human, animal'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness'' || '''b''' = ''organ'' || '''k''' = ''condition'' |- | '''nom'''....''place'' || '''n''' = ''commercial'' || '''m''' = ''place'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || " " " || '''g''' = ''measurement'' |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || " " " || '''f''' = ''cloth'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || " " " || '''v''' = ''linen'' |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''communication'' |- | '''xob'''....''organization'' || '''x''' = ''action'' || '''b''' = ''organism'' |} : The ordinal vowel of each of these base words is an enumeration beginning with '''o''' for zero or the top level. As the words progress down the hierarchy. branching can occur as in a tree diagram, where a second ordinal vowel is juxtaposed to the first. Let's take '''tob'''....''human'' as an example. The ordinal vowel in this diagram will be replaced with the actual number equivalent. The second-level number or ordinal vowel is underlined. : ::* '''t0b'''....''human''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob''') :::* '''t1b'''....''body''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tab''') ::::* '''t1<u>0</u>b'''....''flesh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>o</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>1</u>b'''....''lymph node''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>2</u>b'''....''muscle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>3</u>b'''....''bone''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>i</u>b''' ::::* '''t1<u>4</u>b'''....''cartilege''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>5</u>b'''....''skin''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>6</u>b'''....''fat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>7</u>b'''....''hair''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>8</u>b'''....''nerve''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>9</u>b'''....''gland''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>10</u>b'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>lo</u>b''') ::::* '''t1<u>11</u>b'''....''joint''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ta<u>la</u>b''') :::* '''t2b'''....''head''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''teb''') ::::* '''t2<u>1</u>b'''....''eye''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>2</u>b'''....''ear''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>3</u>b'''....''nose''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>4</u>b'''....''mouth''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t2<u>5</u>b'''....''neck''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''te<u>yo</u>b''') :::* '''t3b'''....''trunk''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tib''') ::::* '''t3<u>1</u>b'''....''chest''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>2</u>b'''....''lung''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>3</u>b'''....''heart''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>4</u>b'''....''belly''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>5</u>b'''....''kidney''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>6</u>b'''....''bladder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>7</u>b'''....''prostate''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>8</u>b'''....''testicle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t3<u>9</u>b'''....''penis''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* .... ::::* '''t3<u>11</u>b'''....''teat''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ti<u>la</u>b''') ::::* .... :::* '''t4b'''....''arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tub''') ::::* '''t4<u>1</u>b'''....''shoulder''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>2</u>b'''....''upper arm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>3</u>b'''....''elbow''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>4</u>b'''....''forearm''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>5</u>b'''....''wrist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>6</u>b'''....''hand''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>7</u>b'''....''fist''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>8</u>b'''....''knuckle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>9</u>b'''....''finger''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t4<u>10</u>b'''....''fingernail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tu<u>lo</u>b''') :::* '''t5b'''....''leg''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyob''') ::::* '''t5<u>1</u>b'''....''hip''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>a</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>2</u>b'''....''thigh''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>e</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>3</u>b'''....''knee''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>i</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>4</u>b'''....''tibia''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>u</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>5</u>b'''....''sole''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yo</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>6</u>b'''....''foot''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ya</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>7</u>b'''....''heel''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>ye</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>8</u>b'''....''ankle''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yi</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>9</u>b'''....''toe''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>yu</u>b''') ::::* '''t5<u>10</u>b'''....''toenail''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tyo<u>lo</u>b''') =====Geo-spatial Arrangement===== : The Group I base words of this type are arranged in a fashion where the ordinal vowel indicates the geo-space, as the table below illustrates: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! GEO-SPATIAL MEANING |- | '''o''' || ''outer space'' |- | '''a''' || ''sky'' |- | '''e''' || ''land'' |- | '''i''' || ''sea'' |- | '''u''' || ''underground'' |} : Here are base words that are organized in a geo-spatial fashion: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''dom'''....''city'' |- | '''mal'''....''air'' || '''map'''....'wind'' || '''dam'''....''airport'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''dem'''....''park'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''dim'''....''fountain'' |- | '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || '''dum''' ....''well'' |} ===== Mnemonic Arrangment ===== : Other Group 1 nouns, listed in the chart below, have an ordinal vowel which is not so much geo-physical or hierchical per se, but rather mnemonic in some fashion. The consonants, especially the classifier consonant, have meanings like those in the above chart. <small> :{| border=0 |+ Other Group 1 Base Words |- valign=top | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! d = communication |- | '''daz'''....''dance'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' |- | '''duz'''....''music'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' |- | '''din'''....''story'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' |- | '''dyun'''....''name'' |- | '''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! dr = write |- | '''drof'''....''board'' |- | '''draf'''....''card'' |- | '''dref'''....''paper'' |- | '''drov'''....''cardboard'' |- | '''drav'''....''notebook'' |- | '''drev'''....''page'' |- | '''drar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''drir'''....''typewriter'' |- | '''drur'''....''printer'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! m = nature |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' |- | '''mug'''....''metal'' |- | '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''mak'''....''electricity'' |- | '''mek'''....''powder'' |- | '''mav'''....''flame'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maj'''....''daytime'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' |- | '''man'''....''light'' |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! n = commerce |- | '''naz'''....''value'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nax'''....''price'' |- | '''nyaz'''....''wealth'' |- | '''nyan'''....''stack'' |- | '''nox'''....''expense'' |- | '''nyox'''....''waste'' |- | '''nex'''....''saving'' |- | '''nyex'''....''storing'' |- | '''nix'''....''earning'' |- | '''nyix'''....''order'' |- | '''nux'''....''pay'' |- | '''nyux'''....''supply'' |- | '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''nyun'''....''product'' |- | '''nuz'''....''jewel'' |- | '''nem'''....''location'' |- | '''nyem'''....''place'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''box'' |- | '''nab'''....''row'' |- | '''nap'''....''order'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! j = time |- | '''jag'''....''age'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' |- | '''jod'''....''instance'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! s = thing |- | '''sag'''....''number'' |- | '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' |- | '''son'''....''thing (abstract)'' |- | '''sin'''....''image'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' |- | '''sun'''....''thing (concrete)'' |- | '''syan'''....''kind'' |- | '''syen'''....''style'' |- | '''syin'''....''subject'' |- | '''syun'''....''object'' |- | '''sar'''....''instrument'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' |- | '''sor'''....''engine'' |- | '''sur'''....''motor'' |} | {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! t = human / intelligence |- | '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''tez'''....''bust'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''top'''....''spirit'' |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' |- | '''toz'''....''skin color'' |- | '''tez'''....''culture'' |- | '''tin'''....''doctrine'' |- | '''tun'''....''science'' |- | '''tyan'''....''class'' |- | '''tyen'''....''trade'' |- | '''tyun'''....''idea'' |- | '''tyez'''....''magic'' |- | '''tos'''....''sensation'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' |- | '''tot'''....''god'' |} |} </small> ==== The Meaning of Group 2 Base Words ==== :: The meaning of Group 2 base word stems comes from the combination of the values of the classifier consonant and the ordinal (stem) vowel. The stem does not include adjectival ('''-a'''), adverbial ('''-ay'''), and verbal inflections ('''-er''', '''-ser''', '''-xer''', etc.), which are shown in a smaller typeface after the stem. :: The ordinal (stem vowel) holds oppositional values like positive, intermediary, and negative. :: Examples: <small> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stems of Group 2 Base Words |- ! CLASSIFIER CONSONANT !! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! NEGATIVE |- | '''j''' = ''time'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after''||'''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | " " " || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | " " " * || '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tij'''....''awake state'' || '''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | " " " || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''yij'''....''opening'' || '''yuj'''....''closing'' |- | '''g''' = ''measurement'' || '''ga'''....''more'' || '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''go'''....''less''|| '''gi'''ⁿ....''point'' || '''gu'''ⁿ....''angle'' |- | " " " || '''ag'''^a....''big'' || '''eg^a'''....''normal'' || '''og'''^a....''small'' || '''ig'''^a....''fast'' || '''ug'''^a....''slow'' |- | " " " || '''yag'''^a....''long'' || '''yeg'''^a....''normal'' || '''yog'''^a....''short'' || '''yig'''^a....''hard'' || '''yug'''^a....''soft'' |- | " " " || '''gya'''^a....''thick'' || '''gye'''^a....''enough'' || '''gyo-'''....''thin'' || '''gyi'''^a....''solid'' || '''gyu'''^a....''fragile'' |- | '''k''' || '''ka'''^xer....''find'' || '''ke'''^xer....''seek'' || '''ko'''^xer....''hide'' || '''ki'''^a....''oblique''|| '''ku'''^a....''lateral'' |- | " " " || '''ak'''^er....''win'' || '''ek'''^er....''play'' || '''ok'''^er....''lose'' || '''ik'''^a....''full'' || '''uk'''^a....''empty'' |- | " " " || '''yak'''^er....''expect'' || '''yek'''^er....''try'' || '''yok'''^er....''suprise'' || '''yik'''^a....''difficult'' || '''yuk'''^a....''easy'' |- | " " " || '''kya'''^a....''mobile'' || '''kye'''^a....''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''^a....''fixed'' ||'''kyi'''^a....''heavy'' || '''kyu'''^a....''light'' |- | '''m''' = ''nature'' || '''am'''^a....''hot'' || -- || '''om'''^a....''cold'' || '''im'''^a....''wet'' || '''um'''^a....''dry'' |- | '''f'''^er....''want'' || || || || '''fi'''^a....''good'' || '''fu'''^a....''bad'' |- | " " " || '''fya'''^a....''holy'' || '''fye'''^a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''^a....''profane''|| '''fyi'''^a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''^a....''harmful'' |- | " " " || '''yaf'''^er....''be able'' || '''yef'''^er....''must''|| '''yof'''^er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''^er....''dare'' || '''yuf'''^er....''fear'' |- | " " " || '''af'''^er....''may'' || '''ef'''^er....''need'' || '''of'''^er....''be prohibited'' || '''if'''^er....''love'' || '''uf'''^er....''hate'' |- | '''v''' = ''beauty, veracity'' || '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no''|| '''vi'''^a....''beautiful'' || '''vu'''^a....''ugly'' |- | " " " || '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''^a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against''|| '''iv'''^a....''happy'' || '''uv'''^a....''sad'' |- | " " " || '''vya'''^a....''true'' || '''vye'''^a....''relative'' || '''vyo'''^a....''false''|| '''vyi'''^a....''clean'' || '''vyu'''^a....''dirty'' |- | " " " || '''yav'''^a....''innocent'' || '''yev'''^a....''fair'' || '''yov'''^a....''guilty''|| '''yiv'''^a....''free'' || '''yuv'''^a....''captive'' |- | '''z''' = (spatial) || '''za'''....''in front of'' || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' || '''zo'''....''in back of''|| '''zi'''^a....''right'' || '''zu'''^a....''left'' |- | " " " || '''zay'''....''ahead'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back, re-''|| || |- | " " " || '''zya'''^a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''^a....''narrow''||'''zyi'''^a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''^a....''round'' |- | " " " || '''az'''^a....''strong'' || '''ez'''^a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''^a....''weak''|| '''iz'''^a....''straight'' || '''uz'''^a....''curved'' |- | " " " || '''yaz'''^a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''^a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''b-'''^er....''put'' || '''ba'''^xer....''agitate'' || '''be'''^(xer)....''at, (hold)'' || '''bo'''^xer....''calm''|| '''bi^(er/xer)'''....''from, (take/pull)'' || '''bu'''^(er/xer)....''to, (give/push)'' |- | " " " || '''ab'''^(er)....''on,(put on)'' || '''eb'''^(er)....''between,(block)'' || '''ob'''(^er)....''off,(take off)'' || '''ib'''^(er)....''away,(receive)'' || '''ub'''^(er)....''toward,(send)'' |- | " " " || '''bya'''^er/ser....''lean/stand'' || '''bye'''^xer....''tap'' || '''byo'''^ser....''hang''|| '''byi'''^(ser)....''since,(originate)'' || '''byu'''^(ser/xer)....''up to,(contact/touch)'' |- | " " " || '''yab'''^(er)....''up,(raise)'' || '''yeb'''^(er)....''in,(enter)''<br>'''oyeb'''^(er)....''out,(exit)'' || '''yob'''^(er)....''down,(lower)''|| '''yib'''^(er)....''far,(remove)'' || '''yub'''^(er)....''near,(bring)'' |- | '''p'''^er....''go'' || '''pa'''^ser/xer....''move/move'' || '''pe'''^ser/xer....''wait/trap'' || '''po'''^ser/xer....''stop/stop''|| '''pi'''^er/ser/xer....''leave/get stuck/catch'' || '''pu'''^er/ser/xer....''arrive/jump/throw'' |- | " " " || '''pya'''^er/ser/xer....''hover/jump up/launch'' || '''pye'''^ser/xer....''encounter/strike'' || '''pyo'''^ser/xer....''fall/drop''|| '''pyi'''^er....''emanate'' || '''pyu'''^er/xer....''reach/impact'' |- | " " " || '''yap'''^er....''rise'' || '''yep'''^er....''enter'' || '''yop'''^er....''descend''|| '''yip'''^er....''go far'' || '''yup'''^er....''approach'' |- | " " " || '''ap'''^er....''get on'' || '''ep'''^er....''stop'' || '''op'''^er....''get off'' || '''ip'''^er....''go away'' ||'''up'''^er....''come'' |- | '''s'''^er....''be'' || '''sa'''^n/s/xer....''form/evolve/make'' ||'''se'''^xer....''build'' || '''so'''^n/xer....''matter/destroy''|| '''si'''^n/yn....''image/sign'' || '''su'''^n/er/xer....''thing/provide/realize'' |- | " " " || '''as'''^er....''become'' || '''es'''^er....''exist'' || '''os'''^er....''cease to be'' || || |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xa'''^ler....''execute'' || '''xe'''^ler....''celebrate'' || '''xo'''^ler....''fail'' || '''xi'''^ler....''undertake'' || '''xu'''^ler....''provoke'' |- | " " " ||'''ax'''^er....''act'' || '''ex'''^er....''function'' || '''ox'''^er....''abstain'' || '''ix'''^er....''effect'' || '''ux'''^er....''cause'' |- | " " " || '''yax'''^er....''be busy'' || '''yex'''^er....''work'' || '''yox'''^er....''be idle'' || '''yix'''^er....''use'' || '''yux'''^er....''help'' |- | '''t'''^er/rer....''know/recognize'' || '''ta'''^xer....''remember'' || '''te'''^xer....''think'' || '''to'''^xer....''forget'' || '''ti'''^er/xer....''learn/study'' || '''tu'''^er/xer....''inform/teach'' |- | '''d'''^er/rer....''say/write'' || '''da'''^ler....''talk'' || '''de'''^ler....''state''<br>'''dye'''^er....''read'' || '''do'''^ler....''be silent'' || '''di'''^er/ler/rer....''ask/beg/require'' || '''du'''^er/ler/rer....''suggest/insist/prod'' |- | '''h-''' = (deictic) || '''ha'''^(a)....''the'' || '''he'''^a....''some'' || '''ho'''^a....''mo'' || '''hi'''^a....''this'' || '''hu'''^a....''that'' |- | " " " || '''hya'''^(a)....''all'' || '''hye'''^a....''any'' || '''hyo'''^a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''^a....''same'' || '''hyu'''^a....''other'' |- | ||'''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |- | ||'''ya'''ⁿ....''together'' || ||'''yo'''ⁿ....''apart''|| || |- | (numbers) || '''a'''....''one''|| '''e'''....''two''|| '''o'''....''zero''|| '''i'''....''three''|| '''u'''....''four'' |- | " " " || '''ya'''....''six''|| '''ye'''....''seven''|| '''yo'''....''five''|| '''yi'''....''eight''|| '''yu'''....''nine'' |- | (prefix) || || || '''lo-'''....''dis-''<br>'''lyo-'''....''dis-'' || || |} </small> :: <small>* Mixed root. '''taj/tej/toj''' instead of '''yaj/yej/yoj''', because the human letter root '''t''' is more intuitive.</small> :: Note: The opposition '''(y)a'''-'''(y)e'''-'''(y)o''' is a three-way opposition with an intermediary sense, but '''(y)i-(y)u''' is two-way, without any intermediary sense. === Derived Words === : Derived words are formed in accordance with certain simple rules of word-building: : These consist of the following twelve rules: ::# Compounding ::# Affixation ::# Ordinal Vowel Scaling ::# Overlapping ::# Adding Ordinal Vowels ::# Swapping Generic Consonants ::# Coding scientific vocabulary ::# Marking Words for Gender ::# Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ::# Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ::# Deriving Words with a Mnemonic Pattern ::# Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== Rule #1: Compounding ==== : Compound words are obtained through the combination of two or more whole words or stub words. In the combining process, the determining word is placed quite simply in front of the word it determines. Compounds consist mainly of noun + noun, but there can be other part-of-speech combinations. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Compounding |- ! COMPONENT 1 !! COMPONENT 2 !! COMPOUND |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''tun'''....''science'' || '''martun'''....''astronomy'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || '''magmeb'''....''volcano'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''dobmem'''....''territory'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''tuldras'''....''menu'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''dras'''....''something written'' || '''sindras'''....''description'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''kyoxer'''....''to fix (in place)'' || '''tamkyoxer'''....''to settle'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''drer'''....''to write'' || '''taxdrer'''....''to record'' |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''kyoa'''....''fixed'' || '''tepkyoa'''....''stubborn'' |} : Sometimes, the first element can be a stub of a whole word, i.e. the word with the final consonant dropped. The word for ''rain'', for example, is '''ma(m)''' (''sky'') + '''mil''' (''water''), where the final consonant of the first word is dropped, thus, '''mamil'''. ==== Rule #2: Affixation ==== ===== Prefixes ===== : All adverbs and prepositions can be used as prefixes: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs and Prepositions as Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! COMPOUND |- | '''ja'''....''before'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''japer'''....''to precede'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''per'''....''to go'' || '''joper'''....''to follow'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' ||'''der'''....''to say'' || '''vader'''....''to affirm'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' ||'''dras'''....''something written'' || '''jodras'''....''postscript'' |- | '''za'''....''ahead'' ||'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zajub'''....''tomorrow'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' ||'''mel'''....''land'' || '''yonmel'''....''island'' |} : Prepositional prefixes ending in '''b''' with verbs '''per''' and '''ber''' (and their derivations) lose the '''b''' before verbal elements based on '''per''' (''go'') and '''ber''' (''put''), as shown in the following chart: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Assimilation of b and p |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! NEW VERB |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' (NOT: '''yabber''') |- | '''ya<s>b</s>'''....''up'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' (NOT: '''yabper''') |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''aber'''....''put on, apply'' |- | '''a<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''aper'''....''get on, mount'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''yober'''....''take down'' |- | '''yo<s>b</s>'''....''down'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''off'' || '''ber'''....''put'' || '''ober'''....''take off, remove'' |- | '''o<s>b</s>'''....''on'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''oper'''....''get off, dismount'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''bux'''....''a push'' || '''yebux'''....''impulse'' |- | '''ye<s>b</s>'''....''in'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall'' || '''yepyoser'''....''collapse'' |} : The two or three first letters of a word can serve as prefixes. The adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped¹, as is the '''er''' or prefixes taken from verbs. Longish noun prefixes are sometimes clipped. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixes Built on Words and Word Stubs |- ! PREFIX !! BASE VERB !! COMPOUND VERB |- | '''oz<s>a</s>'''....''weak'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ozder'''....''whisper'' |- | '''yag<s>a</s>'''....''long'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yagder'''....''ramble'' |- | '''aj<s>a</s>'''....''past'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''ajder'''....''evoke'' |- | '''yog<s>a</s>'''....''short'' || '''der'''....''say'' || '''yogder'''....''summarize'' |- | '''tyoya<s>b</s>'''....''foot'' || '''per'''....''go'' || '''tyoyaper'''....''walk'' |- | '''dre<s>er</s>'''....''write'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' || '''dresar'''....''pencil'' |- | '''tuyo<s>b</s>'''....''hand'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''tuyodren'''....''manuscript'' |- | '''ma<s>m</s>'''....''sky'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' |} : <small>¹: Sometimes, the adjective ending '''a''' is retained when an adjective is compounded with '''xer''' or '''ser'''. This device may be used to distinguished two differently nuanced verbs. For example, '''aga''' + '''xer''' can produce '''agaxer'''....''to magnify'' or '''agxer'''....''to grow''. Usually, the compound where the adjective suffix has been eclipsed has the more idiomatic meaning.</small> ===== Most Common Mirad Prefixes ===== ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Common Prefixes |- ! PREFIX !! EXAMPLES |- |'''a(n)-'''....''north, uni-, number one, up''||'''amer'''....''north''; '''anzyuspar'''....''unicycle''; '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |- |'''aa-'''....''arch-, first-, prime''||'''adub'''....''prime minister'' |- |'''aag-'''....''arch-, proto-, main''||'''agmep'''....''highway''; '''agdoyab'''....''consitution''; '''aagovekut'''....''archrival'' |- |'''aaj-'''....''paleo-, proto-''||'''aagtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology''; '''ajsiyn'''....''fossil'' |- |'''ab-'''....''ad-, arch-, on, super-, sur-, epi-''||'''abtob'''....''superman''; '''abtim'''....''attic''; '''abzen'''....''epicenter'' |- |'''alo(n)-'''....''deca-, ten-''||'''alojaga'''....''ten years old''; '''alojab'''....''decade''; '''alonsuna'''....''decimal'' |- |'''aloy(n)-'''....''deci-, tenth-''||'''aloynux'''....''tithe''; '''aloyngoler'''....''decimate'' |- |'''am-'''....''thermo-''||'''amzemula'''....''thermonuclear''; '''amvyabxar'''....''thermostat'' |- |'''amlo(n)-'''....''mega-''||'''amloagvunak'''....''megavolt''; '''amlotoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''amloyn-'''....''micro-''||'''amloynjweb'''....''microsecond'' |- |'''anyen-'''....''idio-''||'''anyenboka'''....''idiopathic''; '''anydendyan'''....''idiom''; '''anyentepa'''....''idiotic'' |- |'''ao(b/p)-'''....''north-south, up-down, vertical, vertically, y-axis''||'''aonab'''....''column'', ''x-y-axis''; '''aopuys yuzpar'''....''hop-on-hop-off bus''; '''aonada'''....''vertical'' |- |'''aoye(b/p)-'''....''in-and-out''||'''aoyebar'''....''piston''; '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports''; '''aoyepaper'''....''fly in and out'' |- |'''aro(n)-'''....''kilo-''||'''aronminak'''....''kilometer''; '''arobanak'''....''kilobit'' |- |'''aroyn-'''....''milli-''||'''aroynvunak'''....''millivolt''; '''aoynwunak'''....''milliwatt'' |- |'''(a)so(n)'''....''cent-''||'''asojagat'''....''centenarian''; '''aolinak'''....''hectoliter''; '''sojab'''....''century'' |- |'''asoy(n)-'''....''cent-, centi-''||'''asoygenak'''....''centigram''; '''asoylinak'''....''centiliter'' |- |'''av-'''....''pro-''||'''avyaotina'''....''pro-communist'' |- |'''ayb-'''....''above, hyper-, over-, super-, sur-''||'''aybteaxut'''....''supervisor''; '''aybtyoyaf'''....''overshoe'' |- |'''ayn-'''....''full-, holo-, whole-''||'''aynnuut'''....''wholesaler''; '''aynsin'''....''hologram''; '''aynteptija'''....''fully-conscious'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-''||'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''; '''ebyanmulxer'''....''intermingle''; '''eper'''....''intercede'' |- |'''ejna-'''....''neo-''||'''ejnadun'''....''neologism''; '''ejnaobdabin'''....''neocolonialism'' |- |'''e(n)-'''....''ambi-, bi-, di-, duo-, two-''||'''entyoba'''....''bipedal''; '''enzyuspar'''....''bicycle''; '''envolza'''....''dichromatic'' |- |'''eon-'''....''duo-, double-, twin-''||'''eonin'''....''dualism''; '''eondal'''....''double-speak''; '''eonsum'''....''twin bed'' |- |'''e(b/p)-'''....''inter-, between”||'''ebdooba'''....''international''; '''eper'''....''interven'' |- |'''ey(b/p)-'''....''intra-, among''||'''eybmasa'''....''intramural''; '''eybmimkuma'''....''intracoastal'' |- |'''ey(n)-'''....''demi-, half-, hemi-, mixed-, pen-, quasi-, semi-''||'''eynzyus'''....''semi-circle''; '''eynzyup'''....''half-turn''; '''eyntilsyeb'''....''demitassee''; '''eynyonmel'''....''peninsula'' |- |'''fao-'''....''wood''||'''faomek'''....''pulp''; '''faogos'''....''wood chip''; '''faomog'''....''potash'' |- |'''fee(mul)-'''....''ferro-''||'''feemulalz'''....''rust''; '''feemulnad'''....''rail''; '''feemulyontix'''....''ferrography'' |- |'''fi-'''....''bene-, eu-, good-, nice-, well-''||'''fixut'''....''benefactor''; '''fidrawa'''....''well-written''; '''fitos'''...''euphoria'' |- |'''fu-'''....''dys-, ill-, mal-, mis-, poorly-''||'''futos'''....''dysphoria''; '''futuwa'''....''ill-informed''; '''fuxeyn'''....''malfeasance'' |- |'''fya-'''....''hiero-, holy-, sancti-''||'''fyasdresiyn'''....''hieroglyphic''; '''fyader'''....''sanctify''; '''fyatwed'''....''holy father'' |- |'''fye-'''....''mythical, fantasy''||'''fyetop'''....''phantom''; '''fyetobet'''....''elfin''; '''fyetexer'''...''fantacize''; '''fyedin'''....''fantasy'' |- |'''garale-'''....''tera-''||'''garaleagbanak'''....''terabyte'' |- |'''garalyi-'''....''exa-''||'''garalyibanak'''....''exabit'' |- |'''garalyo-'''....''peta-''||'''galayoagbanak'''....''petabyte'' |- |'''garela-'''....''zetta-''||'''garelaagbanak'''....''zettabyte'' |- |'''garelu-'''....''yotta-''||'''gareluagbanak'''....''yottabyte'' |- |'''ge-'''....''equal to, equi-, even-''||'''geyafwa'''....''equipollent''; '''genaza'''....''equivalent'' |- |'''gel-'''....''homo-, like-, simul-''||'''gelzena'''....''homocentric''; '''gelvolza'''....''homochromatic'' |- |'''geyl-'''....''simul-''||'''geyldyan'''....''simile''; '''geylxer'''....''assimilate'' |- |'''gla-'''....''many-, multi-, poly-''||'''glatyenika'''....''multi-skilled''; '''glatwada'''....''polyandrous''; '''glavolza'''....''many-hued'' |- |'''glo-'''....''mini-, little-, few-''||'''gloduna'''....''succint, of few words''; '''glonixea'''....''low-earning'' |- |'''gorale-'''....''pico''||'''goraleagfenak'''....''picofarad'' |- |'''goralyi-'''....''atto''||'''goralyigenak'''....''picogram'' |- |'''goralyo-'''....''femto''||'''goralyoon'''....''quadrillionth'' |- |'''gorela-'''....''zepto''||'''gorelagenak'''....''zeptogram'' |- |'''gorelu-'''....''yocto''||'''gorelugenak'''....''yoctogram'' |- |'''gra-'''....''extra-, hyper-, over-, ultra-''||'''gratosea'''....''hypersensitive''; '''grazoyaxler'''....''overreact''; '''granoxea'''....''extravagant'' |- |'''gro-'''....''hypo-, under-''||'''groyixlawa'''....''underemployed''; '''groaman'''....''hypothermia'' |- |'''gwa-'''....''hyper-, maxi-, -most, pleisto-, uber-, ultra-, pure''||'''gwayelza'''....''pure pink''; '''gwayafa'''....''supreme''; '''gwauja'''....''ultimate''; '''gwazoa'''....''hindmost'' |- | '''gwaag-'''....''mega-''||'''gwaagtoj'''....''megadeath'' |- |'''gwag-'''....''macro-''||'''gwagmor'''....''macrocosm''; '''gwagneg'''....''macrolevel'' |- |'''gwo-'''....''least-, micro-, mini-''||'''gwosag'''....''minimum''; '''gwoyuzpur'''....''minibus'' |- |'''gwoog-'''....''nano-''||'''gwoogtyentun'''....''nanotechnology''; '''gwooggoyn'''....''nanoparticle'' |- |'''gwog-'''....''micro-''||'''gwogtejsan'''....''microorganism''; '''gwogdiyben'''....''micromanagement''; '''gwogmor'''....''microcosm'' |- |'''hi-'''....''hither, these, this''||'''his'''....''this''; '''hisi'''....''these''; '''him'''....''here'' |- |'''ho-'''....''no-, not''||'''hot'''....''nobody''; '''hos'''....''nothing'' |- |'''hya(s)-'''....''pan(to)-, omni-, all-, every-''||'''hyas'''....''everthing''; '''hyati'''....''all of them''; '''hyastea'''....''omniscient''; '''hyataadifa'''....''pansexual'' |- |'''hu-'''....''that''||'''hus'''....''that''; '''huj'''....''then''; '''huyen'''...that way'' |- |'''huim-'''....''here-and-there, here-and-yon''||'''huimkexer'''....''search high and low''; '''huimpaper'''....''fly here and there''; '''hyuimpoper'''....''travel here-and-there'' |- |'''huu-'''....''so, such''||'''huugla'''....''so, so very''; '''hus'''....''such''; '''huyen'''....''in such a way, so, thus'' |- |'''hyaewa-'''....''ambi-''||'''hyaewati'''....''both of them''; '''hyaewaziza'''....''ambidextrous''; '''hyaewatoobifa'''....''ambi-sexual'' |- |'''hye-'''....''-ever, any, whatever, whichever''||'''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever''; '''hyempea'''....''erratic''; '''hjej'''....''ever, anytime'' |- |'''hyi-'''....''homo-, like-, same''||'''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual''; '''hyis'''....''same thing''; '''hyij'''....''at the same time'' |- |'''hyu(ts)-'''....''alter-, hetero-, other-, xeno-, else''||'''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual''; '''hyua'''....''another, alternate''; '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic''; '''hyus'''....''something else'' |- |'''hyui(t/s)-'''....''cross-, mutual, one thing and another, reciprocal''||'''hyuitvikaxen'''....''mutual admiration''; '''hyuixer'''....''reciprocate''; '''hyuisa'''....''mutual, reciprocal''; '''hyuitif'''....''mutual love'' |- |'''i-'''....''east, oriental, toward the speaker''||'''imera'''....''eastern''; '''ha Imer'''....''the Orient''; '''iber'''....''receive'' |- |'''ik-'''....''fully, thoroughly''||'''iktoxer'''....''forget completely''; '''iktos'''....''satisfaction''; '''ikyebixer'''....''engulf, swallow up completely'' |- |'''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, tripl-, tern-''||'''inzyuspar'''....''tricycle''; '''inaga'''....''three-dimensional''; '''injiba'''....''trimensual''; '''insuna'''....''ternary''; '''intotan'''....''trinity'' |- |'''iyn-'''....''terci-, third''||'''iyna'''....''terciary''; '''iynxer'''....''cut into thirds'' |- |'''iz-'''....''ortho-, recti-, right-, straight-''||'''iznada'''....''rectilinear''; '''izguna'''....''orthogonal''; '''iztin'''....''orthdoxy''; '''izdea'''....''forthright'' |- |'''ja-'''....''ante-, fore-, pre-''||'''jaupya'''....''foregone''; '''jauper'''....''precede''; '''jadropeka'''....''antebellum'' |- |'''jo-'''....''after-, meta-, post-''||'''joexlen'''....''postprocessing''; '''jomir'''....''metasphere''; '''jotej'''....''afterlife'' |- |'''jwa-'''....''early-, eo-, preter-, proto-''||'''jwaber'''....''prepare''; '''jwader'''....''warn, premonish''; '''jwadodin'''....''early history, protohistory''; '''jwamola'''....''preternatural''; '''jwajoeb'''....''eocene'' |- |'''jwo-'''....''ceno-, late-, latter-, tard-''||'''jwonux'''....''late payment''; '''jwoa'''....''tardy''; '''jwoteja'''....''cenozoic'' |- |'''ko-'''....''cover-, hidden, secret-, stealth-''||'''koa'''....''covert''; '''koexut'''....''spy''; '''koyeper'''....''sneak in'' |- |'''kovyo-'''....''pseudo-''||'''kovyotun'''....''pseudoscience'' |- |'''ku-'''....''para-''||'''kuifut'''....''paramour''; '''keteliut'''....''parasite''; '''kuteptun'''....''parapsychology'' |- |'''kya-'''....''alternate, dia-, re-, trans-, vari-, cross-''||'''kyaember'''....''relocate''; '''kyajoba'''....''diachronic''; '''kyatajnad'''....''crossbreed''; '''kyatooba'''....''transgendered''; '''kyavolza'''....''variegated, motley'' |- |'''kyao-'''....''falteringly, unsteadily''||'''kyaoper'''....''stagger''; '''kyaotexer'''....”vacillate'' |- |'''kye-'''....''chance-, hap-, random-''||'''kyea'''....''haphazard''; '''kyebyus'''....''chance encounter''; '''kyeteater'''....''happen to see''; '''kyesauna'''....''of a random type'' |- |'''kyo-'''....''fixed-, still-, stereo-, stat-''||'''kyosaun'''....''stereotype''; '''kyopa'''....”stable, static, stationary''; '''kyoson'''....''status'' |- |'''lo-'''....''dis-, semantic reversing prefix, un-''||'''lozeb'''....''disequilibrium''; '''loyuvlaxer'''....''disengage''; '''loyuzyuber'''....''uncoil''; '''lomulvyusber'''....''decontaminate'' |- |'''ma-'''....''bright-''||'''mateaba'''....''bright-eyed'' |- |'''mial-'''....''hygro-''||'''mialama'''....''hygrothermal'' |- |'''mil-'''....''aqua-, hydro-, water-''||'''milyexun'''....''aquaculture''; '''milmaka'''....''hydroelectric''; '''miltilsyeb'''....''water glass'' |- |'''mul-'''....''hylo-, substance''||'''mulsana'''....''hylomorphic'' |- |'''o(l)-'''....''a-, dis-, non-, south, un-, in-''||'''ovyilxwa'''....''unwashed''; '''omalza'''....''non-white''; '''ototina'''....''atheist''; '''otepzexea'''....''inattentive''; '''omira'''....''southern''; '''olo |- |'''o(b/p)-'''....''de-, hypo-, off-, sub-, vice-''||'''oper'''....''get off''; '''obneg'''....''sublevel''; '''obxeb'''....''sous-chef, sub-officer'' |- |'''ogel-'''....''hetero-''||'''ogelsauna'''....''heterogenous'' |- |'''ov-'''....''contra-, counter-, dis-, non-, the opposite of, un-''||'''ovalxer'''....''countervail''; '''ovper'''....''contravene''; '''ovkyin'''....''counterweight''; '''ovdat'''....''enemy''; '''olovmasbwa'''....''undefended'' |- |'''oy-'''....''-less, a(n)-, without''||'''oytofa'''...''naked''; '''oyxer'''....''deprive''; '''oytosen'''....''apathy''; '''oyteupiba'''....''toothless'' |- |'''oyb-'''....''hypo-, infra-, sub-, under-''||'''oybnadrer'''....''underline''; '''oybtomsan'''....''infrastructure''; '''oybseuxa'''....''subsonic''; '''oybtayoba'''....''hypodermic'' |- |'''oyeb-'''....''ex-, extra-, out-''||'''oyebnad'''....''outline''; '''oyebyujber'''....''exclude''; '''oyebdoabuer'''....''extradite'' |- |'''oyeyb-'''....''extra-''||'''oyeybdovyaba'''....''extralegal''; '''oyeybtadiena'''....''extramarital'' |- |'''oyv-'''....''contra-, opposite, reverse''||'''oyvkuma...opposite''; '''oyvder'''....''contradict”, ‘''oyvduer'''....''contraindicate”, ‘''oyvaxer'''....''reverse” |- |'''tayi(b)-'''....''neuro-, nerve''||'''tayibteptun'''....''neuropsychology''; '''tayibyok'''....''neuralgia'' |- |'''teeb-'''....''auri-, oto-, ear-''||'''teebbekut'''....''aurist''; '''teeteiteyobtut'''....''otorhinolaryngologist''; '''teebyel'''....''earwax'' |- |'''tee(sxt)-'''....''audio-, son-, phono-''||'''teesnagen'''....''audiography''; '''teestaxdras'''....''phonogram''; '''teestun'''....''audiology''; '''teexdras'''....''audiogram''; '''teetyofwa'''....''inaudible'' |- |'''tei-'''....''nasal, nose, rhino-, aroma-, olfact-, osmo-''||'''teibbok'''....''rhinitis''; '''teibyeg'''....''nostril''; '''teiz'''....''perfume''; '''teizuka'''....''aroma-free''; '''teityaf'''....''olfactory sense'' |- |'''tiibil-'''....''blood-, hema-, hemato-, hemo-, sanguin-''||'''tiibililp'''....''hemorrhage''; '''tiibiliut'''....''bloodsucker''; '''tiibloker'''....''exsanguinate''; '''tiibiltun'''....''hematology'' |- |'''tuj-'''....''hypno-, somni-, sopor-''||'''tujbek'''....''hyptotherapy''; '''tujbyea'''....''somniferous, soporific'' |- |'''u-'''....''occidental, west, away from the speaker''||'''umer'''....''west''; ''occident''; '''uber'''....''send'' |- |'''ui-'''....''east-west, horizontal, left-right, x-axis''||'''uinab'''....''row'', x-axis''; '''uimera'''....''east-west''; '''uinada'''....''horizontal'' |- |'''uib-'''....''back-and-forth, toward-and-away, transmit-receive''||'''uibar'''....''transceiver'' |- |'''uig-'''....''fast-and-slow''||'''uigpar'''....''scooter'' |- |'''uij-'''....''begin-and-end, start-and-stop''||'''uijdaler'''....''stutter'' |- |'''uip-'''....''come-and-go''||'''uipen'''....''traffic, coming and going'' |- |'''uiz-'''....''straight-then-crooked''||'''uizbaser'''....''swagger''; '''uizdrer'''....''scribble''; '''uizpaser'''....''swerve'' |- |'''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadri-, tetra-, quater-''||'''ungona'''....''quadripartite''; '''unnednid'''....''tetrahedron''; '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' |- |'''uyn-'''....''fourth-, quarti-''||'''uynxer'''....''quarter''; '''uynjab'''....''quarter (of a year)'' |- |'''ut-'''....''auto-, self-, sui-, ego-''||'''utifon'''....''egoism''; '''utgober'''....''autodecrement, '''utfuyix'''....''self-abuse''; '''uttujben'''....''suicide'' |- |'''va-'''....''yes-''||'''vayovder'''....''convict''; '''vabier'''....''accep'', '''vatexer'''....''believe'' |- |'''vao-'''....''yes-no''||'''vaoder'''....''decide''; '''vaodaler'''....''waffle, '''vaonaza'''....''boolean'' |- |'''vi-'''....''bell-, eu-, fine-, pulchri-''||'''vituzyan'''....''fine arts, beaux arts''; '''vidun'''....''euphemism''; '''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres''; '''visuana'''....''classic'' |- |'''vo-'''....''non-, neg-''||'''voyafxer'''....''veto''; '''voxer'''....''negate''; '''voyovder'''....''acquit, declare not guilty'' |- |'''vya-'''....''justi-, recti-, true-, reg-''||'''vyadin'''....''true story''; '''vyader'''....''avow''; '''vyamol'''....''essence'' |- |'''vyak-'''....''ortho-, correct-''||'''vyakdred'''....''orthography''; '''vyakxer'''....''correct'' |- |'''vyo-'''....''mis-, para-, wrong-''||'''vyoyufa'''....''paranoid''; '''vyoyux'''....''perfidy''; '''vyoyixer'''....''misuse'' |- |'''ya-'''....''more than one, multi-''||'''yaota'''....''communal'' |- |'''yab-'''....''hyper-, supra-, sur-, up-, upper-''||'''yabdom'''....''uptown''; '''yabdoneg'''....''upper class''; '''yabduzneg'''....''high pitch''; '''yabexer'''....''support''; '''yabzyobix'''....''hypertension'' |- |'''yabnan-'''....''height-, hypso-, alti-''||'''yabnanagar'''....''hypsometer, altimeter'' |- |'''yag-'''....''long-''||'''yagyiban'''....''long distance''; '''yagyeker'''....''strive''; '''yagblokea'''....''long-suffering'' |- |'''yan-'''....''co(n)-, fellow-, -mate''||'''yanzena'''....''concentric''; '''yanyeker'''....''compete''; '''yandit'''....''fellow-citizen'' |- |'''yao(b/p)-'''....''up-and-down''||'''yaopuyser'''....''skip''; '''yaopsim'''....''seesaw''; '''yaoblir'''....''elevator''; '''yaobaser'''....''bounce'' |- |'''yaon-'''....''six-, hexa-, sex-''||'''yaonat'''....''sextet''; '''haongun'''....''hexagon''; '''yaona'''....''six-fold, sextuple'' |- |'''yaov-'''....''guilty-or-innocent''||'''yaovder'''....''adjudicate''; '''yaovdutyan'''....''jury''; '''yaovkader'''....''plead''; '''yaovyek'''....''trial'' |- |'''yaoz-'''....''serrated, bumpy, jagged''||'''yaozaxer'''....''serrate''; '''yaozgoblar'''....''saw''; '''yaozper'''....''bump along'' |- |'''yayb-'''....''supra-''||'''yaybdooba'''....''supranational'' |- |'''yayn-'''....''sex-, sixth''||'''yayna'''...''sixth'' |- |'''ye(on)-'''....''hept-, hepta-, septi-, seven-''||'''yejub'''....''week''; '''yeongun'''....''heptagon''; '''yeonat'''....''septuplet'' |- |'''ye(b/p)-'''....''en-, endo-, in-, intra-, intro-''||'''yebuzaser'''....''.inflect''; '''yebzoytiibufa'''....''intravenous''; '''yebyujer'''....''enclode''; '''yebtayoba'''....''endodermal''; '''yeper'''....''enter''; '''yeber'''....''introduce'' |- |'''yeg-'''....''anew, re-''||'''yegxer'''....''redo'' |- |'''yeov-'''....''fair or not ''|| '''yeovdut'''....''umpire'' |- |'''yeyb-'''....''intra-''||'''yeybmepyan'''....''intranet''; '''yeybdoeba'''....''intrastate'' |- |'''yeyn-'''....''seventh''|| '''yeynxer'''....''split into sevenths'' |- |'''yi(on)-'''....''oct-, eight-''||'''yiona...eight-fold''; '''octuple'' |- |'''yib-'''....''far-, tele-, remote''||'''yibsin'''....''televison''; '''yibteata'''....''far-sighted''; '''yibtrawa'''....''famous'' |- |'''yibaj-'''....''archai-, archeo-, ancient''||'''yibaja'''....''archaic''; ''ancient''; '''yibajtun'''....''archeology'' |- |'''yiyn-'''....''eighth''||'''yiynxer'''....''divide into eighths'' |- |'''yiz-'''....''beyond, extra-, meta-, out-, para-, past, super-, supra-, trans-, ultra-''||'''yiztyun'''...''metaphor''; '''yizeza'''....''paranormal''; '''yizmeirat'''....''extraterrestrial''; '''yizseux'''....''utrasound'' |- |'''yo(on)-'''....''five-, penta-, quint-''||'''yoongun'''....''pentagon''; '''yoongol'''...quintile''; '''yoon'''....''group of five''; '''quintet'' |- |'''yo(b/p)-'''....''down-, hypo-, sub-''||'''yobdom'''...''downtown''; '''yoper'''....''go down''; '''yobgoler'''....''subdivide'' |- |'''yon-'''....''apart, dis-, se-''||'''yonzyaber'''....''disperse''; '''yonxer'''....''separate''; '''yonsauna'''....''distinct'' |- |'''yoyn-'''....''fifth-, quinti-''||'''yoynnaga'''....''quintic''; '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' |- |'''yu(o)(n)-'''....''nine-, nona-''||'''yunapa'''....''ninth (in order)''; '''yungunid'''....''nonagon''; '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' |- |'''yub-'''....''near-, proxi-''||'''yuboj'''....''near future''; '''yubna'''....''next''; '''yubteas'''....''closeup (view)''; '''yubge'''....''almost''; '''yubfia'''....''intimate''; '''yubgeser'''....''approximate'' |- |'''yui(b/p)-'''....''near-and-far''||'''yuibjo'''....''sooner or later''; '''yuibteabar'''....''bifocals''; '''yuipoper'''....''travel near and far'' |- |'''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut''||'''yuijar'''....''valve''; '''yuijer'''....''blink'', wink''; '''manyuijer'''....''blink''; '''makyuijar'''....''switch'' |- |'''yuyb-'''....''quasi-, pen-''||'''yuybyonmel'''....''peninsula''; '''yuybeza'''....''quasi-normal'' |- |'''yuyn-'''....''ninth-, novi-''||'''yuonat'''....''nonuplet'' |- |'''yuz-'''....''circ-, circum-, peri-, roto-, round-''||'''yuzper'''....''circulate''; '''yuznad'''....''perimeter''; '''yuzof'''....''wrap-around''; '''yuznadrer'''....''circumscribe |- |'''za-'''....''ante-, fore-, front-, pre-, pro-''||'''zatim'''....''antechamber''; '''zamimuf'''....''foremast''; '''zagab'''....''prefix''; '''zajuber'''....''procrastinate'' |- |'''zao-'''....''back-and-forth, front-and-back''||'''zaopaser'''....''wobble''; '''zaokuper'''....''slalom''; '''zaopyoser'''....''pendulate'' |- |'''zay-'''....''forth-, pro-, forward, ahead''||'''zaypuyser'''....''skip ahead''; '''zaypuxer'''....''propel''; '''zayper'''....''go forward, procede''; '''zayupea'''....''forthcoming'' |- |'''ze-'''....''mid-, central''||'''zetej'''....''midlife''; '''zepoxer'''....''interrupt, stop midway''; '''zetem'''....''central hall'' |- |'''zey-'''....''cross-, meta-, over-, trans-, across''||'''zeyper'''....''transit, get across''; '''zeynod'''....''crosspoint''; '''zeytyun'''....''metaphor'' |- |'''zo-'''....''back-, hind-, retro-''||'''zotib'''....''back''; '''zotiub'''....''hindquarters''; '''zonapa'''....''retrograde'' |- |'''zoy-'''....''back-, retro-, re-''||'''zoyper'''....''recede, go back''; '''zoybeler'''....''carry back''; '''zoyzyublen'''....''backspin'' |- |'''zu-'''....''left-''||'''zutinut'''....''leftist''; '''zukum'''....''left side'' |- |'''zui-'''....''left-and-right, zig-zag''||'''zuibyoser'''....''dangle, hang left-and-right''; '''zuiper'''....''zigzag''; '''zuituyaba'''....''ambidextrous'' |- |'''zya-'''....''-wide, wide-, broad-, all about''||'''zyauber'''....''broadcast''; '''zyateaba'''....''wide-eyed''; '''zyasauna'''....''general''; '''zyapoper'''....''cruise, wander''; '''zyamira'''....''global, worldwide'' |- |'''zye-'''....''per-, thorough-, thru-, trans-''||'''zyetejer'''....''live through, experience''; '''zyeteaxer'''....''peruse''; '''zyeteatyafwa'''....''transparent''; '''zyemep'''....''thoroughfare''; '''zyeper'''....''permeate, transit'' |- |'''zyu-'''....''cyclo-, roto-, round-''||'''zyutim'''....''rotunda''; '''zyusem'''....''roundtable''; '''zyuper'''....''cycle, gyrate, rotate'' |} =====Comparison of Prefixes in English and Mirad===== : Here is a chart of the most productive prefixes in English of Latin, Greek, and Germanic origin and their most common counterparts in Mirad: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparison of Prefixes Used in English and Mirad |- ! ENGLISH PREFIX !! MEANING !! ORIGIN !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EXAMPLE |- | '''''a-, an-''''' || ''without, un-, -less'' || GREEK || ''<u>a</u>tonal'' || '''<u>o</u>seuza''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''away'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>sence'' || '''<u>ib</u>sen''' |- | '''''ab-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN|| ''<u>ab</u>normal'' || '''<u>ol</u>ega''', '''<u>o</u>zeta''' |- | '''''ad-''''' || ''to, toward'' || LATIN || ''<u>ad</u>vent'' || '''<u>u</u>pen''' < '''ub-''' |- | '''''after-''''' || ''after'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>after</u>math'' || '''<u>jo</u>xwas''' |- | '''''anti-''''' || ''against'' || GREEK || ''<u>anti</u>dote'' || '''<u>ov</u>bokil''' |- | '''''arch-''''' || ''chief, first'' || GREEK || ''<u>arch</u>angel'' || '''<u>aa</u>tat''' |- | '''''auto-''''' || ''self'' || GREEK || ''<u>auto</u>cracy'' || '''<u>ut</u>dab''' |- | '''''back-''''' || ''back'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>back</u>stairs'' || '''<u>zo</u>mus''' |- | '''''bene-''''' || ''well'' || LATIN || ''<u>bene</u>factor'' || '''<u>fi</u>xut''' |- | '''''bi-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>bi</u>cameral'' || '''<u>en</u>tima''' |- | '''''by-''''' || ''beyond'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>by</u>pass'' || '''<u>yiz</u>per''' |- | '''''cent(i)-''''' || ''hundred'' || LATIN || ''<u>cent</u>ury'' || '''<u>so</u>jab''' |- | '''''circ(um)-''''' || ''around'' || LATIN || ''<u>circ</u>ulate'' || '''<u>yuz</u>per''' |- | '''''co(n/m)-''''' || ''together'' || LATIN || ''<u>co</u>operate'' || '''<u>yan</u>exer''' |- | '''''con-, com-, cor-, col-''''' || ''with'' || LATIN || ''<u>con</u>vene'' || '''<u>yan</u>uper''' |- | '''''counter-, contra-''''' || ''against'' || LATIN || ''<u>contra</u>dict'' || '''<u>ov</u>der''' |- | '''''cross-''''' || ''across'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>cross</u>wind'' || '''<u>zey</u>mep''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''un-'', reverse || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>salinate'' || '''<u>lo</u>mimolxer''' |- | '''''de-''''' || ''down'' || LATIN || ''<u>de</u>scend'' || '''<u>yo(<s>b</s>)</u>per''' < '''yob''' + '''per''' |- | '''''deca-''''' || ''ten'' || GREEK || ''<u>deca</u>de'' || '''<u>alo</u>jab''' |- | '''''deci-''''' || ''tenth'' || LATIN || ''<u>deci</u>meter'' || '''<u>aloy</u>monak''' |- | '''''di-''''' || ''two'' || GREEK || ''<u>di</u>ode'' || '''<u>en</u>mep''' |- | '''''dia-''''' || ''throughout'' || GREEK || ''<u>dia</u>chronic'' || '''<u>zya</u>joba''' |- | '''''dicho-''''' || ''double'' || GREEK || ''<u>dicho</u>tomy'' || '''<u>en</u>gorbun''' |- | '''''di(s)-''''' || ''un-, de-, apart'' || LATIN || ''<u>dis</u>appear''<br>''<u>dis</u>assemble''<br>'''<u>yon</u>tos''' || '''<u>o</u>teaser'''<br>'''<u>lo</u>yanber'''<br>'''<u>dis</u>sent''' |- | '''''dys-''''' || ''bad'' || GREEK || ''<u>dys</u>function'' || '''<u>fu</u>exen''' |- | '''''ec(to)-''''' || ''out'' || GREEK || ''<u>ecto</u>morph'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>san''' |- | '''''en-, em-''''' || ''in'' || GREEK || ''<u>en</u>demic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>dita''' |- | '''''endo-''''' || ''within'' || GREEK || ''<u>endo</u>morphic'' || '''<u>yeb</u>sana''' |- | '''''equi-''''' || ''equal'' || LATIN || ''<u>equi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>ge</u>kuma''' |- | '''''eu-''''' || ''good, nice'' || GREEK|| ''<u>eu</u>phemism'' || '''<u>vi</u>dun''' |- | '''''ex-, e-''''' || ''out'' || LATIN || ''<u>ex</u>tract'' || '''<u>oye</u>bixer''' |- | '''''extra/o-''''' || ''outside'' || LATIN || ''<u>extra</u>ordinary'' || '''<u>oyeyb</u>ega''' |- | '''''fellow-''''' || ''fellow'' || LATIN || ''<u>fellow-</u>traveler'' || '''<u>yan</u>poput''', '''dat-''' |- | '''''fore-''''' || ''front'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>fore</u>skin'' || '''<u>za</u>tayob''' |- | '''''gyro-''''' || ''round, wheel'' || LATIN || ''<u>gyro</u>scope'' || '''<u>zyun</u>zebar''' |- | '''''half-''''' || ''half'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>half</u>-dead'' || '''<u>eyn</u>toja''' |- | '''''hemi-''''' || ''half'' || GREEK || ''<u>hemi</u>sphere'' || '''<u>eyn</u>zyunid''' |- | '''''hect(o)-''''' || ''hundred'' || GREEK || ''<u>hecto</u>meter'' || '''<u>aso</u>monak''' |- | '''''hept(o)-''''' || ''seven'' || GREEK || ''<u>hepto</u>gonal'' || '''<u>ye</u>guna''' |- | '''''hetero-''''' || ''different'' || GREEK || ''<u>hetero</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyu</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hexa-''''' || ''six'' || GREEK || ''<u>hexa</u>gongal'' || '''<u>yaon</u>guna''' |- | '''''high-''''' || ''high'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>high</u>-flying'' || '''<u>yab</u>papea''' |- | '''''homo-''''' || ''same'' || GREEK || ''<u>homo</u>geneous'' || '''<u>hyi</u>sauna''' |- | '''''hyper-''''' || ''over, too much'' || GREEK || ''<u>hyper</u>active'' || '''<u>gra</u>axeya''' |- | '''''hypo-''''' || ''under, too little'' || GREEK || ''<u>hypo</u>thermia'' || '''<u>gro</u>aman''' |- | '''''idio-''''' || ''peculiar'' || GREEK || ''<u>idio</u>path'' || '''<u>anyen</u>bak''' |- | '''''ill-''''' || ''poorly'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>ill-</u>mannered'' || '''<u>fu</u>byena''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''in'' || LATIN/GERMANIC || ''<u>in</u>coming'' || '''<u>yeb</u>upea''' |- | '''''in-''''' || ''not, un-'' || LATIN || ''<u>in</u>adequate'' || '''<u>o</u>grea''' |- | '''''infra-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>infra</u>red'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza''' |- | '''''inter-''''' || ''between'' || LATIN || ''<u>inter</u>national'' || '''<u>eb</u>dooba''' |- | '''''intra-''''' || ''amid'' || LATIN || ''<u>intra</u>mural'' || '''<u>eyb</u>masa''' |- | '''''intro-''''' || ''into'' || LATIN || ''<u>intro</u>duce'' || '''<u>yeb</u>ber''' |- | '''''iso-''''' || ''equal'' || GREEK || ''<u>iso</u>metric'' || '''<u>ge</u>naga''' |- | '''''kilo-''''' || ''thousand'' || GREEK || ''<u>kilo</u>gram'' || '''<u>aro</u>kyik''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwas</u>mor''' |- | '''''magn(i)-''''' || ''big'' || LATIN || ''<u>magni</u>fy'' || '''<u>aga</u>xer''' |- | '''''mal-''''' || ''badly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mal</u>formed'' || '''<u>fu</u>sana''' |- | '''''many-''''' || ''many'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>many-</u>hued'' || '''<u>gla</u>voza''' |- | '''''macro-''''' || ''huge'' || GREEK || '''<u>macro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mor''' |- | '''''maxi(m)-''''' || ''biggest'' || LATIN || ''<u>maxim</u>ize'' || '''<u>gwa</u>xer''' |- | '''''mega(lo)-''''' || ''big'' || GREEK || ''<u>mega</u>cephalic'' || '''<u>ag</u>teba''' |- | '''''meso-''''' || ''middle'' || GREEK || ''<u>meso</u>morph'' || '''<u>ze</u>sanat''' |- | '''''meta-''''' || ''beyond'' || GREEK || ''<u>meta</u>physical'' || '''<u>yiz</u>mula''' |- | '''''micro-''''' || ''little'' || GREEK || ''<u>micro</u>cosm'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mor''' |- | '''''mid-''''' || ''middle'' || LATIN || ''<u>mid</u>day'' || '''<u>ze</u>jub''' |- | '''''milli-''''' || ''thousand'' || LATIN || ''<u>milli</u>gram'' || '''<u>aroy</u>monak''' |- | '''''mini(m)-''''' || ''tiny'' || LATIN || ''<u>mini</u>skirt'' || '''<u>gwo</u>tyoyf''' |- | '''''mis-''''' || ''wrongly'' || LATIN || ''<u>mis</u>understand'' || '''<u>vyo</u>tider''' |- | '''''multi-''''' || ''many'' || LATIN || ''<u>multi</u>lateral'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma''' |- | '''''nano-''''' || ''tiny'' || GREEK || ''<u>nano</u>particle'' || '''<u>gwoog</u>mules''' |- | '''''neo-''''' || ''new'' || GREEK || ''<u>neo</u>phyte'' || '''<u>ejna</u>agsat''' |- | '''''non-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>non</u>entity'' || '''<u>o</u>seas''' |- | '''''nona-''''' || ''nine'' || GREEK || ''<u>nona</u>gon'' || '''<u>yuon</u>gun''' |- | '''''oct(a)-''''' || ''eight'' || GREEK || ''<u>octa</u>gon'' || '''<u>yion</u>gun''' |- | '''''omni-''''' || ''all'' || LATIN || ''<u>omni</u>scient'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea''' |- | '''''ortho-''''' || ''correct'' || GREEK || ''<u>ortho</u>dontist'' || '''<u>iz</u>teupibtut''' |- | '''''out-''''' || ''better'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>out</u>play'' || '''<u>gafi</u>eker''' |- | '''''over-''''' || ''too much'' || GERMANIC || ''<u>over</u>eat'' || '''<u>gra</u>teler''' |- | '''''pan-''''' || ''all'' || GREEK || ''<u>pan</u>theon'' || '''<u>hyas</u>totyan''' |- | '''''para-''''' || ''alongside'' || GREEK || ''<u>para</u>phrase'' || '''<u>ku</u>tesder''' |- | '''''penta-''''' || ''five'' || GREEK || ''<u>penta</u>gon'' || '''<u>yoon</u>gun''' |- | '''''per-''''' || ''through'' || LATIN/GREEK || ''<u>per</u>pendicular'' || '''<u>zye</u>pyonada''' |- | '''''poly-''''' || ''many'' || GREEK || ''<u>poly</u>andry'' || '''<u>gla</u>tadan''' |- | '''''post-''''' || ''after'' || LATIN || ''<u>post</u>script'' || '''<u>jo</u>dren''' |- | '''''pre-''''' || ''before'' || LATIN || ''<u>pre</u>view'' || '''<u>ja</u>teaxer''', '''za-''' |- | '''''pro''''' || ''for'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro-</u>life'' || '''<u>av</u>tejina''' |- | '''''pro-''''' || ''forward'' || LATIN || ''<u>pro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zay</u>nogper''' |- | '''''pseudo-''''' || ''falsely'' || GREEK || ''<u>pseudo</u>nym'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>dyun''' |- | '''''quadri-''''' || ''four'' || LATIN || ''<u>quadri</u>lateral'' || '''<u>un</u>kuma''' |- | '''''quasi-''''' || ''resembling, nearly'' || LATIN || ''<u>quasi-</u>scientific'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>tuna''' |- | '''''quint-''''' || ''five'' || LATIN || ''<u>quint</u>et'' || '''<u>youn</u>atyan''' |- | '''''re-''''' || ''again'' || LATIN || ''<u>re</u>do'' || '''<u>eg</u>xer''' |- | '''''rect(i)-''''' || ''straight'' || LATIN || ''<u>recti</u>linear'' || '''<u>iz</u>nada''' |- | '''''retro-''''' || ''backwards'' || LATIN || ''<u>retro</u>gress'' || '''<u>zoy</u>nogser''' |- | '''''semi-''''' || ''half'' || LATIN || ''<u>semi-</u>sweet'' || '''<u>eyn</u>levelaya''' |- | '''''sept-''''' || ''seven'' || LATIN || ''<u>septem</u>partite'' || '''<u>yeon</u>gona''' |- | '''''sext-''''' || ''six'' || LATIN || ''<u>sext</u>uplicate'' || '''<u>yaon</u>geyxwas''' |- | '''''sub-, sup-, sur-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>sub</u>marine'' || '''<u>oyb</u>mimpar''' |- | '''''super-, supra-''''' || ''above'' || LATIN || ''<u>super</u>script'' || '''<u>ayb</u>dren''' |- | '''''syn-, sym-, syl-''''' || ''with'' || GREEK || ''<u>sym</u>phony'' || '''<u>yan</u>duzutyan''' |- | '''''tele-''''' || ''far'' || GREEK || ''<u>tele</u>phone'' || '''<u>yib</u>dalar''' |- | '''''tetra-''''' || ''four'' || GREEK || ''<u>tetra</u>gon'' || '''<u>un</u>gun''' |- | '''''trans-''''' || ''across'' || LATIN || ''<u>trans</u>fer'' || '''<u>zey</u>ber''' |- | '''''tri-''''' || ''three'' || GREEK/LATIN || ''<u>tri</u>gram'' || '''<u>in</u>dresin''' |- | '''''ultra-''''' || ''beyond, extremely'' || GREEK || ''<u>ultra</u>nationalist'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina''' |- | '''''un-''''' || ''not'' || LATIN || ''<u>un</u>tie, <u>un</u>fair'' || '''<u>lo</u>yanxer''', '''<u>o</u>yeva''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''below'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>arm'' || '''<u>oyb</u>tub''' |- | '''''under-''''' || ''not enough'' || LATIN || ''<u>under</u>active'' || '''<u>gro</u>axeya''' |- | '''''uni-''''' || ''one'' || LATIN || ''<u>uni</u>cycle'' || '''<u>an</u>zyus''' |} ===== Suffixes ===== : Mirad has semantic stub suffixes, derivational suffixes, and normal semantic suffixes. : '''''Semantic Stub Suffixes''''' ::: Semantic stub suffixes are generally formed from the last letters of a base word minus the initial consonant. They serve to put a word into some category, such as liquid, place, person, or material. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Stub Suffixes |- valign=top ! SUFFIX STUB !! SUFFIX FULL FORM !! SUFFIXED EXAMPLE < BASE WORD |- | '''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''teab<u>il</u>'''....''tear''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teub<u>il</u>'''....''saliva''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''tayeb<u>il</u>'''....''sweat''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayeb'''....''skin''<br>'''mam<u>il</u>'''....''rain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mam'''....''sky'' |- | '''-al'''....''gas'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''tieb<u>al</u>'''....''breath''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' |- | '''-(e)l'''....''food'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''yap<u>el</u>'''....''pork''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''<u>yap</u>et'''....''swine''<br>'''tao<u>l</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''taob'''....''flesh''<br>'''f<u>el</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''feb'''....''fruit'' |- | '''-ul'''....''stuff'' || '''mul'''....''substance'' || '''vix<u>ul</u>'''....''cosmetic''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vix-'''....''to beautify''<br>'''bek<u>ul</u>'''....''medecine''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''-yel'''....''oil, gel, wax, pulp'' || '''yel'''....''oil'' || '''kaf<u>yel</u>'''....''olive oil''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kaf-'''....''olive''<br>'''apelat<u>yel</u>'''....''wax''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''mag<u>yel</u>'''....''grease''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''bek<u>yel</u>'''....''salve''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''meg<u>yel</u>'''....''cement''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''yan<u>yel</u>'''....''paste''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yan'''....''together'' |- | '''-am'''....''house'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''apat<u>am</u>'''....''chicken coop''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apat'''....''chicken''<br>'''apelat<u>am</u>'''....''beehive''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''melyex<u>am</u>'''....''farmhouse''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''melyex'''....''agriculture''<br>'''datib<u>am</u>'''....''hostel''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''datib'''....''guest-reception'' |- | '''-(e)m'''....''place'' || '''nem'''....''place'' || '''vobyex<u>em</u>'''....''plantation, farm''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vob'''....''plant'' + '''yex'''....''work''<br>'''vab<u>em</u>'''....''field''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vab'''....''grass''<br>'''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ab'''....''above, upper''<br>'''ze<u>m</u>'''....''middle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ze(a)'''....''middle'' <br> '''tim'''....''room'' |- | '''-im'''....''room'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tul<u>im</u>'''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tul'''....''cuisine''<br>'''tuj<u>im</u>'''....''bedroom''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tuj'''....''sleep'' |- | '''-um'''....''cell, booth'' || '''tum'''....''compartment''|| '''pex<u>um</u>'''....''cage''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pexer'''....''catch''<br>'''ilzyapix<u>um</u>'''....''shower stall''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ilzyapix'''....''shower'' |- | '''-yem'''....''space'' || '''nyem'''....''enclosure'' || '''yom<u>yem</u>'''....''icebox''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''-yeb'''....''container'' || '''nyeb'''....''container'' || '''z<u>yeb</u>'''....''bottle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zye(f)'''....''glass''<br>'''vos<u>yeb</u>'''....''vase''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''-of'''....''material'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''t<u>of</u>'''....''clothes''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''t-'''....''human''<br>'''mis<u>of</u>'''....''curtain''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mis'''....''window''<br>'''fa<u>of</u>'''....''wood''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''fa(b)-'''....''tree''<br>'''tay<u>of</u>'''....''leather''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tayo(b)'''....''skin'' |- | '''-ov'''....''linen'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tey<u>ov</u>'''....''collar''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck'' |- | '''-ar'''....''instrument'' || '''sar'''....''tool'' ||'''p<u>ar</u>'''....''cart''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''p-'''....''motion''<br>'''zyup<u>ar</u>'''....''rotor''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyup'''....''turn''<br>'''gobr<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gobrar'''....''cut''<br>'''jwob<u>ar</u>'''....''watch''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-ir'''....''machine'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''dr<u>ir</u>'''....''typewriter''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dr-'''....''write''<br>'''gwob<u>ir</u>'''....''clock'' |- | '''-ur'''....''large machine'' || '''sur'''....''engine'' || '''p<u>ur</u>r'''....''car''<br>'''jwob<u>ur</u>r'''....''grandfather clock''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''jwob'''....''hour'' |- | '''-(u)n'''....''thing'' || '''sun'''....''thing'' || '''d<u>un</u>'''....''word''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''d-'''....''utter, say''<br>'''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''piece, scrap''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gofrer'''....''rip, shread, tear''<br>'''zyi<u>un</u>'''....''plaque, plate''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyia'''....''flat''<br>'''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''-on'''....''abstract thing'' || '''son'''....''issue'' || '''yov<u>on</u>'''....''tort, wrong''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yov'''....''guilt'' |- | '''yen'''....''manner, kind'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''tex<u>yen</u>'''....''opinion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tex'''....''thought''<br>'''hi<u>yen</u>'''....''this way, thus''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''hi-'''....''this''<br>'''es<u>yen</u>'''....''status''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''es-'''....''exist'' |- | '''-in'''....''-ism'' || '''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''tot<u>in</u>'''....''theism, religion''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tot-'''....''god''<br>'''Krist<u>in</u>'''....''Christianity''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Krist'''....''Christ''<br>'''vyisat<u>in</u>'''....''puritanism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vysiat'''....''puritan, clean person''<br>'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''otofa'''....''nude'' |- | '''-uf'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''man<u>uf</u>'''....''candle''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''man'''....''light''<br>'''tiib<u>uf</u>'''....''artery''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''mil<u>uf</u>'''....''toilet''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''mov<u>uf</u>'''....''cheminee''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''-uv'''....''cylinder object'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''s<u>uv</u>'''....''nail, peg, stud''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''s-'''....''furniture''<br>'''m<u>uv</u>'''....''rod''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''m-'''....''masonry'' |- | '''-ab'''....''government'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''dit<u>ab</u>'''....''democracy''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''-eb'''....''leader'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''x<u>eb</u>'''....''boss''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''x-'''....''do''<br>'''tam<u>eb</u>'''....''master of the house''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tam'''....''house'' |- | '''-ub'''....''branch'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''pat<u>ub</u>'''....''wing''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pat'''....''bird'' |- | '''-ad'''....''language'' || '''-a''' + '''d(alzeyn)'''....''language'' || '''Frans<u>ad</u>'''....''French (language)'' |- | '''-uz'''....''jewelry'' || '''nuz'''....''jewel'' || '''teyob<u>uz</u>'''....''necklace''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teyob'''....''neck''<br>'''teeb<u>uz</u>'''....''earring''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''teeb'''....''ear'' |- | '''-u(er)'''....''give'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>er'''....''exhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-i(er)'''....''take'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''tiebal<u>i</u>er'''....''inhale''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |- | '''-ui(er)'''....''exchange'' || '''buier'''....''exchange'' || '''tiebal<u>u</u>ier'''....''breathe''&nbsp;&nbsp;<&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tieb'''....''lung'' + '''al'''....''air'' |} :'''''Derviational Suffixes''''' ::: Mirad has only a few derivational suffixes, i.e. suffixes that change the part of speech. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Derivational Suffixes |- ! DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX !! FUNCTION || BASE WORD --> SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-er''' || NOUN --> VERBAL INFINITIVE || '''sag'''....''count'' <big>--></big> '''sag<u>er</u>'''....''to count'' |- | '''-n''' || PRESENT TENSE VERB --> VERBAL NOUN (GERUND)<br>ADJECTIVE --> ABSTRACT NOUN || '''yexe'''....''(he/she/...) works'' <big>--></big> '''yexe<u>n</u>'''....''working''<br>'''via'''....''beautiful'' <big>--></big> '''via<u>n</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yuba'''....''near'' <big>--></big> '''yuba<u>n</u>'''....''proximity, nearness'' |- | '''-a''' || NOUN --> ADJECTIVE<br>ACTIVE VERB --> VERBAL ADJECTIVE (PRESENT PARTICIPLE)<br>PAST PASSIVE VERB --> PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE)||'''mor'''....''universe'' <big>--></big> '''mor<u>a</u>'''....''universal''<br>'''ake'''....''wins'' <big>--></big> '''ake<u>a</u>'''....''winning''<br>'''teatwa'''....''was seen'' <big>--></big>'''teatwa<u>a</u>''' (or, shortened to: '''teatw<u>a</u>'''....''seen'') |- | '''-ya''' || INTRANSITIVE VERB STEM --> PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE || '''ip-'''....''go away'' <big>--></big> '''ip<u>ya</u>'''....''gone away'' |- | '''-yea''' || VERB STEM --> HABITUAL PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ADJECTIVE) || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' <big>--></big> '''zaypas<u>yea</u>'''....''progressive'' |- | '''-y''' || ADJECTIVE --> ADVERB || '''iga'''....''quick'' <big>--></big> '''iga<u>y</u>'''....''quickly''<br>'''tea-'''....''knowing''<big>--></big>'''tea<u>y</u>'''....''knowingly'' |- | '''-ut''' || VERB STEM --> ANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''one who Xes, -er'' || '''ak-'''....''win'' <big>--></big> '''ak<u>ut</u>''' ....''winner'' |- | '''-us''' || VERB STEM --> INANIMATE AGENT NOUN ''thing that Xes, -er'' || '''gol-'''....''divide'' <big>--></big> '''gol<u>us</u>''' ....''divisor'' |- |- '''-t''' || ADJECTIVE --> ANIMATE NOUN (human, one who is...) || '''yibtrawa'''....''well-known'' <big>---></big>'''yibtrawa<u>t</u>'''....''celebrity'' |- |- '''-s''' || ADJECTIVE --> INANIMATE NOUN (thing, something X) || '''otwa'''....''unknown'' <big>--></big>'''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery'' |} ::: <small>*Derivational affixes change the part of speech of a base word, whereas inflexional affixes change the status of a word within a grammatical paradigm. Verb tense/mood/voice affixes and the plural marker '''-i''' fall under the latter category.</small> :'''''Normal Semantic Suffixes''''' :::* '''''Augmentative Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Augmentative Suffixes |- ! AUGMENTATIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-ag''' (augmentative) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamag'''....''mansion'' |- | '''-ayg''' (affectionate augmentative) || '''sem'''....''chair'' || '''semayg'''....''big old chair'' |- | '''-yag''' (pejorative augmentative) || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetyag'''....''nag'' |} :::* '''''Diminutive Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Diminutive Suffixes |- ! DIMINUTIVE SUFFIX !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-og''' (diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamog'''....''hut'' |- | '''-oyg''' (affectionate diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamoyg'''....''cottage'' |- | '''-yog''' (pejorative diminutive) || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tamyog'''....''shack'' |- | '''-et''' (a smaller person) || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' |- | '''-es''' (thing of lesser importance) || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nases'''....''change, coin'' |- | '''-ud''' (child of, offspring) || '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tobud'''....''infant'' |} :::* '''''Semantic Adjectival Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Semantic Adjectival Suffixes |- ! ADJECTIVAL SUFFIX !! MEANING !! BASE WORD !! SUFFIXED DERIVATION |- | '''-a''' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || ''related to, -al, -ic'' || '''mora'''....''universal'' |- | '''-aya''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekaya'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-oya''' || '''vyun'''....''spot'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''vyunoya'''....''spotless'' |- | '''-ika''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''full of, -ous, -y'' || '''miekika'''....''dusty'' |- | '''-uka''' || '''miek'''....''dust'' || ''empty of, -less, -free'' || '''miekuka'''....''dust-free'' |- | '''-yea''' || '''vyod'''....''lie'' || ''given to doing X, -ive'' || '''vyodyea'''....''mendacious, given to lying'' |- | '''-yena''' || '''tat'''....''angel'' || ''like, -ly, -ic'' || '''tatyena'''....''angelic'' |} :::* '''''Other Semantic Suffixes''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Other Semantic Suffixes |- ! SUFFIX !! BASE WORD|| DERIVATION |- | '''-tun'''....''science, ...ology'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>tun</u>'''....''biology'' |- | '''-tut'''....''-ologist, expert, -ist'' || '''dar'''....''language'' || '''dar<u>tut</u>'''....''linquist'' |- | '''-tuin'''....''theory'' || '''tob'''....''mar'' || '''mar<u>tuin</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | '''-yan'''....''collection, aggregate'' || '''fab'''....''tree''|| '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest'' |- |'''-tyen'''....''trade, -ics'' || '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''sir<u>tyen</u>'''....''mechanics'' |- | '''-if'''....''pet name'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''twed<u>if</u>'''....''papa'' |- | '''ifa'''....''-philic, -loving'' || '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''dyes<u>ifa</u>'''....''bibliophilic'' |- | '''ifwa'''....''liked by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ifwa</u>'''....''popular'' |- | '''ufa'''....''-phobic, -hating'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>ufa</u>'''....''misogynous'' |- | '''ufwa'''....''hated by'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyod<u>ufwa</u>'''....''unpopular'' |- | '''yafa'''....''able to'' || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyap<u>yafa</u>'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''yafwa'''....''possible to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yafwa</u>'''....''visible'' |- | '''yofa'''....''unable to'' || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teat<u>yofa</u>'''....''blind'' |- | '''yofwa'''....''impossible to'' || '''dye-'''....''read'' || '''dye<u>yofwa</u>'''....''illegible'' |- | '''yika'''....''hard of...ing'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yika</u>'''....''hard of hearing'' |- | '''yikwa'''....''hard to'' || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teet<u>yikwa</u>'''....''hard to hear'' |- | '''yuka'''....''easy at...ing'' || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatex<u>yuka</u>'''....''gullible'' |- | '''yukwa'''....''easily...ed'' || '''test-'''....''understand'' || '''test<u>yukwa</u>'''....''easily understood'' |- | '''yufa'''....''fearful of, -phobic'' || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''tot<u>yufa</u>'''....''god-fearing'' |- | '''yufwa'''....''feared'' || '''hyat'''....''everybody'' || '''hyat<u>yufwa</u>'''....''feared by all'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''efa'''....''needful of'' || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''tel<u>efa</u>'''....''hungry'' |- | '''efwa'''....''necessary to'' || '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>efa</u>'''....''vital'' |- | '''yefa'''....''duty-bound to, -worthy of'' || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dud<u>yefa</u>'''....''responsible'' |- | '''yefwa'''....''due, -worthy of'' || '''fid-'''....''laud'' || '''fid<u>yefwa</u>'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | '''afa'''....''authorized to'' || '''dokebi-'''....''vote'' || '''dokebi<u>afa</u>'''....''franchised'' |- | '''ofwa'''....''prohibited to'' || '''movi-'''....''smoke'' || '''movi<u>ofwa</u>gonem'''....''no-smoking zone'' |- | '''yiva'''....''free to'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yiva</u>'''....''free to choose'' |- | '''yivwa'''....''free to be ...ed'' || '''kebi-'''....''choose'' || '''kebi<u>yivwa</u>'''....''optional'' |- | '''yuva'''....''bound'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tam<u>yuva</u>'''....''house-bound'' |- | '''ova'''....''resistant, anti-'' || '''aagdovyab'''....''constitution'' || '''aagdovyab<u>ova</u>'''....''anti-constitutional'' |- | '''ava'''....''in favor of, pro-'' || '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodab<u>ava</u>'''....''pro-democracy'' |- | '''eva'''....''neutral'' || '''toos'''....''gender'' || '''toos<u>eva</u>'''....''gender-neutral'' |} ==== Rule #3: Ordinal Vowel Scaling ==== : Creating a hierarchy of scalar terms applies only to base words of the Group 1. The hierarchy of scalar terms is built by increasing the numeric value of the ordinal vowel of the base word as the importance or relevance of the word decreases from the topmost, zeroth object. This process is called '''''first-level ordinal scaling'''''. ::* '''First-level Ordinal Scaling''' <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ First-level Ordinal Scaling |- valign=top ! ORDINAL VOWEL !! t...b !! m...r !! j...b !! m...s !! t...m !! d...b || f...b || s...m || d...t || t...d || b...k |- | '''o''' = 0 ||'''tob'''....''man'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''job'''....''time'' || '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''tom'''....''building'' || '''dob'''....''state'' || '''fob'''....''plant'' || '''som'''....''furniture''||'''dot'''....''society''||'''tod'''....''family''|| '''bok'''....''illness'' |- | '''a''' = 1 ||'''tab'''....''body'' || '''mar'''....''sun'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''sam'''....''armoire''||'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''tad'''....''spouse''||'''bak'''....''health'' |- | '''e''' = 2 ||'''teb'''....''head'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''jeb'''....''season''|| '''mes'''....''door'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''sem'''....''table''||'''det'''....''associate'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''i''' = 3 ||'''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''mir'''....''earth'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''dib'''....''office'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''sim'''....''chair''||'''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''tid'''....''sibling''|| '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''u''' = 4 ||'''tub'''....''arm'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''sum'''....''bed''||'''dut'''....''gentleperson'' || '''tud'''....''child || '''buk'''....''injury'' |- | '''yo''' = 5 ||'''tyob'''....''leg'' || || '''jyob*'''....''hour'' || || || || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || '''tyod'''....''people''||'''byok'''....''pain'' |- | '''ya''' = 6 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyab*'''....''minute'' || || || || || || || ||'''byak'''....''hygiene'' |- | '''ye''' = 7 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || '''jyeb*'''....''second'' || || || || || || || ||'''byek'''....''cure'' |} </small> ::: <small>* The palatal glide '''y''' in these words, which follows a palatal '''j''' is hard to pronounce, so the '''y''' is replaced with a '''w''', giving '''jwob''', '''jwab''', and '''jweb'''.</small> ::* '''Second-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A second-level hierarchy of scalar words can be creating by adding a vowel immediately after the ordinal vowel of the word stem. ::: Examples: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Second-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! '''mi...p''' !! '''me...p''' !! '''tu...b''' !! '''tyo...b'''!! '''ma...f''' !! '''me...g''' || '''Me...r'''||'''do...b''' |- | '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mep'''....''way'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mer'''....''planet''|| '''dob'''....''state'', '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''miap'''....''stream'' || '''meap'''....''road'' || '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tyoab'''....''hip''|| '''maaf'''....''stratus'' || '''meag'''....''marble'' || '''Mear'''....''Mercury''||'''doab'''...''fatherland'' |- | '''miep'''....''brook'' || '''meep'''....''path'' || '''tueb'''....''upper arm'' || '''tyoeb'''....''thigh''|| '''maef'''....''cumulus'' || '''meeg'''....''slate'' || '''Meer'''....''Venus''||'''doeb'''....''province, state'' |- | '''miip'''....''rivulet'' || '''meip'''....''trail'' || '''tuib'''....''elbow'' || '''tyoib'''....''knee''|| '''maif'''....''stratocumulus'' || '''meig'''....''granite'' || '''Meir'''....''Earth''||'''doib'''....''county, shire'' |- | '''miup'''....''torrent'' || '''meup'''....''track'' || '''tuub'''....''forearm'' || '''tyoub'''....''shin''|| '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' || '''meug'''....''clay, dough'' || '''Meur'''....''Mars''|| '''doub'''....''district'' |- | '''miyop'''....''trickle'' || || '''tuyob'''....''wrist'' || '''tyoyob'''....''ankle''||'''mayof'''....''nimbostatus'' || '''meyog'''....''china'' || '''Meyor'''....''Jupiter''|| |- | || || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tyoyab'''....''foot''||'''mayaf'''....''altostratus'' || '''meyag'''....''chalk'' || '''Meyar'''....''Saturn''|| |- | || || '''tuyeb'''....''fist'' || '''tyoyeb'''....''heel''|| '''mayef'''....''altocumulus'' || '''meyeg'''....''limestone'' || '''Meyer'''....''Uranus''|| |- | || || '''tuyib'''....''palm'' || '''tyoyib'''....''sole''|| '''mayif'''....''cirrus'' || '''meyig'''....''alabaster'' || '''Meyir'''....''Pluto''|| |- | || || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tyoyub'''....''toe''|| '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' || '''meyug'''....''gypsum''|| || |- | || || '''tulob'''....''fingernail'' || '''tyolob'''....''toenail''||'''malof'''....''cirrocumulus'' || || |} </small> ::* '''Third-level Ordinal Scaling''' ::: A third-level hierarchy can be created by adding a third ordinal number vowel to the front of the word. ::: Example: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Third-level Ordinal Scaling |- ! ...tuyub |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |- | '''etuyub'''....''index'' |- | '''ituyub'''....''middle finger'' |- | '''utuyub'''....''ring finger'' |- | '''yotuyub'''....''pinky'' |} ::: So, to sum up, we have: ::::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Summary of Scaling |- ! '''t...b''' !! '''tob''' = ''human being'' |- | FIRST-LEVEL || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | SECOND-LEVEL || '''tuyub'''....''finger'' |- | THIRD-LEVEL || '''atuyub'''....''thumb'' |} ::* '''Scaling with Prefixed Numbering''' ::: We can also obtain a very convenient classification for new words through prefixed numbering even though there is no first-level or second-level numbering. ::: Example: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefix Numbering |- ! ...dob !! ...pet !! ...deb !! ...mez |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''pet'''....''animal'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''mez'''....''gem'' |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''amez'''....''diamond'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''epet'''....''bull'' || '''edeb'''....''king'' || '''emez'''....''topaz'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''imez'''....''ruby'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''umez'''....''emerald'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yomez'''....''saphire'' |- | '''yadob'''....''county'' || '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yamez'''....''lapis lazuli'' |- | '''yedob'''....''dominion'' || '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yemez'''....''amthyst'' |- | '''yudob'''....''barony'' || '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yudeb'''....''baron'' || '''yumez'''....''quartz'' |} </small> ==== Rule #4: Overlapping ==== : When combining two words, if the generic (final) consonant of the first word is the same as the classifier (first) consonant of the second word, the generic consonant of the determining word is dropped. This results in '''''overlapping'''''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Overlapping in Compounds |- ! FIRST WORD !! SECOND WORD !! PORTMANTEAU |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''domep'''....''boulevard'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | '''teypib'''....''tooth'' || '''byok'''....''pain'' || '''teypibyok'''....''toothache'' |} ==== Rule #5: Adding Ordinal Vowels ==== : When forming a compound word with the words of a same family of terms, if the ordinal vowel is an '''o''', replace it with the ordinal vowel of the determinant word. : Examples: ::* '''idob'''....''kingdom'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''ideb'''....''monarch'' ('''dweb'''....''king'', '''deyb'''....''queen'') ::* '''udob'''....''principality'' -> '''deb'''....''chief'' -> '''udeb'''....''prince'' ('''udweb'''....''prince'', '''udeyb'''....''princess'') : By contrast, if the two words are already ordered, the vowel of the determinant (first word) is inserted between the ordinal vowel of the determined (second) word and the generic (final) consonant: : Examples: : '''mil'''....''water'' + '''mal'''....''air'' -> '''mial'''....''vapor, steam'' ==== Rule #6: Swapping Generic Consonants ==== : When the generic (final) consonant of a base word is replaced by that of another base word, the entire family of the latter undergoes the transformation by the new generic consonant. : Example: <div style="font-size:larger;"> '''to<u>b</u>'''↘ ^human → '''tof'''....''clothing'' ^commercial → '''nof'''....''cloth'' '''no<u>f</u>'''↗ </div> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Swapping Generic Consonants |- ! BASE WORD 1 !! BASE WORD 2 !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tov'''....''lingerie'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove'' |- | '''doob'''^*....''nation'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''doof'''....''flag'' |- | '''taob'''^*....''flesh'' || '''tol'''....''food'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' |} :<small>* This is a derived, not base, word, but the principle holds.</small> ==== Rule #7: Coding Chemical Elements ==== : The names of chemical elements are formed by converting the abbreviation for the element into Mirad lowercase alphabetic equivalents, then adding '''l''', a suffix stub for substances. For example, the abbreviation for ''hydrogen'' is ''H''. So we replace that with the word for lowercase '''h''' in Mirad: '''he'''. By adding the stub suffix '''l''', we get '''hel'''. The following chart shows some other examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Coding Chemical Elements |- ! ENGLISH ELEMENT NAME !! ABBREVIATION !! MIRAD NAME |- | ''silver'' || ''Ar'' || '''arol''' |- | ''iron'' || ''Fe'' || '''feel''' |- | ''hydrogen'' || ''H'' || '''hel''' |- | ''nitrogen'' || ''N'' || '''nil''' |- | ''mercury'' || ''Hg'' || '''hegel''' |- | ''darmstadtium'' || ''Ds'' || '''dasol''' |} : Chemical compounds such as ''H₂O (hydrogen dioxide)'' are coded in the following manner. ::# The ''H'' for ''hydrogen'' is rendered as '''he''' (without the '''-l'''). ::# The number 2 refers to two hydrogen atoms, so the Mirad prefix for ''two, bi-'', '''en-''' is prefixed to the '''h''', giving '''enhe'''. ::# The word for ''oxygen'', '''ol''' is added, giving '''enheol'''. ::# The English word ends in ''-ide'', which is rendered in Mirad as '''-iz''', giving '''enheoliz''' :Such chemical suffix equivalents are given below: : Given the chemical element ''sulfur'', which has the abbreviation ''S'', the Mirad equivalent for this solid is '''sol'''. Possible variants of this chemical are: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chemical Suffix Equivalents |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT !! ENGLISH EXAMPLE !! MIRAD EQUIVALENT |- | ''-ide'' || '''-iz''' || ''sulfide'' || '''soliz''' |- | ''-ite'' || '''-is''' || ''sulfite'' || '''solis''' |- | ''-ate'' || '''-as''' || ''sulfate'' || '''solas''' |} : Note that the numberals in chemical formulae end in '''-n''' and precede the element to which they apply. The numerals ''5'' through ''9'' are represented as '''yon''', '''yan''', '''yen''', '''yin'''. By the same token, ''10'' is represented by '''alon''', etc. : Examples: ::* ''carbon <u>di</u>oxide (C₂O)''....'''ca<u>en</u>oliz''' ::* ''sodium <u>bi</u>carbonate (Na2C)''....'''niamul <u>en</u>calas''' ::* ''calcium <u>di</u>hydrogen phosphate''....'''caal <u>en</u>hel polas''' ::* ''glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)''....'''<u>yan</u>ca<u>alan</u>he<u>yan</u>ol''' ::* ''methanol (C₃HOH)''....'''ca<u>in</u>heohel''' : Note: the '''-l''' is added only at the end of a compound. ==== Rule #8: Marking Words for Gender ==== : Words in Mirad are neutral with respect to gender, but specifically masculine or feminine gender can be marked in animate nouns and pronouns with the use of the masculine infix '''w''' and the feminine infix '''y'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically male, precede the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''w'''. ::* To make a neutral animate noun or pronoun specifically female, follow the ordinal (stem) vowel with '''y'''. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Marking Animate Nouns for Gender |- ! GENDER NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''young person'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''it'''....''he/she/it'' || '''wit'''....''he'' || '''iyt'''....''she'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apwat'''....''rooster'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |} ::* Inanimate objects, such as items of clothing or body pats, can be "feminized" in a similar way. In such a case, the feminized form refers to an object that is for woman, rather than men, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Making Inanimate Objects Female-related |- ! MALE-ORIENTED !! FEMALE-ORIENTED |- | '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''tyoyav'''....''sock'' || '''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |- | '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiav'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''penis'' || '''tiyuyb'''....''vagina'' |} ::* In nouns that end in '''-ut''', the agentive suffix meaning ''-er, one who...'', the nouns can be feminized by changing '''-ut''' to '''-uyt''', eg. '''dezut'''....''actor'' -> '''dezuyt'''....''actress''. Because the stem of such words is often a verb, prefixing '''-ut''' with '''w''' to make it specifically male is normally not done, because the '''w''' can sometimes be confused with the passive voice marker. For this reason, a word like '''dezut''' can mean ''actor'' of neutral or male gender. ::* Animate nouns having the ending '''-et''' (smaller version of some person), are genderized by adding '''w''' or '''y''' to the semantic base of the word, eg. '''tobet'''....''child, youth'' -> '''toybet'''....''girl'' or '''twobet'''....''boy''. ==== Rule #9: Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels ==== : A series of related words can be derived from a Group 1 base word by replacing the ordinal vowel with one of the following vowels, which have certain specific meanings, usually geographical. : Geo-specific Vowels: ::* '''o'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''outer space, abstract object, initial stuff''' ::* '''a'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sky, air, gas''' ::* '''e'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''land, soil, solid''' ::* '''i'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''sea, water, liquid''' ::* '''u'''<big>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;</big>'''underground, mineral, concrete object''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Words with Geo-specific Vowels |- ! '''m...p''' !! '''m...m''' !! '''d...p''' !! '''p...t''' !! '''m...l''' !! '''m...r''' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''mom'''....''space'' || '''dop'''....''military'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' |- | '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mar'''....''star'' |- | '''mep'''....''road''|| '''mem'''....''land''|| '''dep'''....''army'' || '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' |- | '''mip'''....''river''|| '''mim'''....''sea''|| '''dip'''....''marine force'' || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mir'''....''world'' |- | '''mup'''....''tunnel''|| '''mum'''....''underground'' || || || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' |} : This vowel codification also allows generating other categories of words by infixing, just before the generic (final) consonant, a vowel having the value that is attributed to it in Rule #9. This creates "hybrid" nouns. See the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Hybrids|Hybrids]] for more on this subject. :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid nouns |- ! FIRST-LEVEL DERIVATION !! + GEOSPECIFIC VOWEL !! SECOND-LEVEL DERIVATION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''i'''....''water, sea''|| '''peit'''....''aquatic mammal'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''a'''....''air, sky''|| '''pelat'''....''flying insect'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''i'''....''water, sea'' || '''meil'''....''mud'' |- | '''mil'''....''air'' || '''a'''....''air, gas'' || '''mial'''....''vapor'' |} ==== Rule #10: Deriving Words with Directional and Positional Vowels ==== : The rule for deriving words with directional and positional vowels starts with the following schema: :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Directional and Positional Vowel Values |- | colspan=8 align=center | '''A''' |- | rowspan=6 align=center | '''U''' || || '''a'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''<u>a</u>''' || <big>↑</big><br>'''<u>ya</u>''' ||'''ya'''<br>↑<big></big> || || rowspan=6 align=center | '''I''' |- | '''u''' → || || '''<u>e</u>'''||'''<u>ye</u>''' || || → '''i''' |- | → '''<u>u</u>''' || ||'''e''' ||'''ye''' || || '''<u>i</u>''' → |- | → '''<u>yu</u>''' || || colspan=2 align=center| '''E''' || || '''<u>yi</u>''' → |- | '''yu''' → || || || || || → '''yi''' |- | || <big>↑</big><br>'''o''' || '''<u>o</u>'''<br>↑<big></big> || '''<u>yo</u>'''<br><big>↓</big> || <big>↓</big><br>'''yo''' || |- | colspan=8 align=center| '''O''' |} :: Explanation of the above chart: :::* If the vowel is capitalized, it indicates a '''''positional''''' value. It is used in its lowercase spelling as a prefix in Group I words. :::* The non-capitalized vowels (including y-glides) indicate '''''directional''''' values. :::* If the vowel is underlined, it means that it is placed '''''before''''' the classifier consonant (prefixed) in verbs :::* Otherwise, a normal vowel means that it is placed '''''after''''' the classifier consonant (infixed) in Group 2 words. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" border="0" |+ Explanation of the Vowel Meanings Chart |- | '''A''' || position || || on, above, north || '''amer'''....''north'' |- | '''a''' || movement || (free) || ''on'' || '''baer'''....''lean'' |- | '''<u>a</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''onto''||'''aber'''....''put on'' |- | '''ya''' || movement || (free) || ''up, ascend''|| '''byaer'''....''lift'' |- | '''<u>ya</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''up, get up, set up''|| '''yaber'''....''raise'' |- | '''O''' || position || || under, lower, south|| '''omer'''....''south'' |- | '''o''' || movement || (free) || ''off''|| '''boer'''....''hang'' |- | '''<u>o</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''on the bottom of, underneath''|| '''oper'''....''get off'' |- | '''yo''' || movement || (free) || ''down''|| '''pyoser'''....''fall'' |- | '''<u>yo</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''fall''|| '''yoper'''....''rise'' |- | '''U''' || position || || left, west|| '''umer'''....''west'' |- | '''u''' || movement || (free) || ''move toward the center, come''|| '''uber'''....''send'' |- | '''<u>u</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''reach the center, arrive''|| '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yu''' || movement || (free) || ''near, approach''|| '''yuber'''....''approach'' |- | '''<u>yu</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''near, reach''|| '''byuser'''....''touch'' |- | '''I''' || position || || right, east|| '''imer'''....''east'' |- | '''i''' || movement || (free) || ''from the center out, go away''|| '''pier'''....''go away'' |- | '''<u>i</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from the center out, leave''|| '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''yi''' || movement || (free) || ''away, go far''|| '''yiper'''....''go far'' |- | '''<u>yi</u>''' || movement || (contact) || ''from afar, originate''|| '''pyiser'''....''originate'' |- | '''E''' || position || || center, equator|| '''emer'''....''equator'' |- | '''e''' || rest || || ''between''|| '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''<u>e</u>''' || rest || || ''at, stay, hold''|| '''bexer'''....''hold'' |- | '''ye''' || movement || || ''in, into, enter''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''<u>ye</u>''' || ||(contact) || ''up against, strike''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike'' |} :: '''''Special value of certain vowels''''' : The prefixes '''a-''' or '''an-''' meaning ''one, sole, singular'' contrast with : the prefixes '''ya-''' or '''yan-''' meaning ''collection, plural''. : Also, the prefix '''yan-''' meaning ''together'' contrasts with '''yon-'''....''apart''. ==== Rule #11: Deriving Words with Mnemonic Patterns ==== : Sometimes part of a derived word can serve as a mnemonic pattern for forming other words having some relationship or parallelism in meaning. : For example, '''eu''' pattern in the word for mouth, '''teud''' can be used to form many other words having an oral, acoustic, vocal, or sound-related meaning: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Pattern Derivation |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teub'''....''mouth'' !! CLASSIFIER !! GENERIC |- | '''teud'''....''shout'' || '''t''' = human || '''d''' = communication |- | '''teuz'''....''voice'' || '''t''' = human || '''z''' = art |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''d''' = communication || '''z''' = art |- | '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''s''' = thing || '''z''' = art |- | '''seux'''....''sound'' || '''s''' = thing || '''x''' = action |- | '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''x''' = action || '''s''' = thing |} ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Mnemonic Pattern Derivations |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teab'''....''eye'' !! '''(t)ea-''' = ''see'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teaper'''....''visit'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teader'''....''witness'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teaxer'''....''look'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teaser'''....''seem'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teater'''....''see'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keaxer'''....''scan'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleaxer'''....''check'' || '''vyal-''' = ''certain''|| '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''yoneater'''....''distinguish'' || '''yon-''' = ''apart''|| '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''beaxer'''....''guard'' || '''be-''' = ''hold'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teatier'''....''perceive'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teatuer'''....''show'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- ! PATTERN WORD<br>'''teeb'''....''ear'' !! '''(t)ee-''' = ''hear'' !! GENERIC |- | '''teeper'''....''attend'' || " " " || '''p''' = ''go'' |- | '''teeder'''....''testify'' || " " " || '''d''' = ''say'' |- | '''teexer'''....''listen'' || " " " || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teeser'''....''sound (like)'' || " " " || '''s''' = ''be'' |- | '''teeter'''....''hear'' || " " " || '''t''' = ''know'' |- | '''keexer'''....''scan (acoustically)'' || '''ke-''' = ''seek'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''koteexer'''....''snoop on'' || '''ko-''' = ''hide'' || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''vyaleexer'''....''sound out'' || '''vyal-''' = certain || '''x''' = ''do'' |- | '''teetier'''....''get wind of'' || || '''-i-''' = subject-directed |- | '''teetuer'''....''make heard'' || || '''-u-''' = object-directed |- | '''zyateetuer'''....''rumor'' || '''zya-''' = ''all around'' || '''-u-''' = objected-directed |} : A syllable of a long compound can be suppressed as long as it does not cause ambiguity or confusion. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shortening Long Compounds |- ! WORD 1 !! WORD 2 !! LONG COMPOUND !! SHORTENED COMPOUND |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''apeteuder''' || '''apeder'''....''neigh'' |- | '''ipet'''....''donkey'' || '''teuder'''....''make a noise'' || *'''ipeteuder''' || '''ipeder'''....''bray'' |- | '''vafeb'''....''grape'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''vafebil'''....''grape juice'' || '''vafil'''....''wine'' |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''il'''....''liquid'' || *'''yavobil'''....''hop juice'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |} : Sometimes, the last syllable of a compound will give birth to a new words whose derivations, through the application of this rule, will not be long. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building on Shortened Compounds |- ! COMPOUND !! NEW SHORTER WORD |- | '''tilabil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |- | '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''-uf'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''cylinder'' |- | '''zyeg'''....''hole'' || '''-yeg'''....(stub suffix for types of) ''hole'', ''hollow thing'' |- | '''levafil'''....''alcohol'' || '''fil'''....''alcohol'' |} : The clipped word '''bil''' now gives rise to other compounds: ::* '''bilyig'''....''cheese'' ::* '''bilyigem'''....''cheese factory'' ::* '''bilyug'''....''butter'' ::* '''bilyugyena'''....''butter-like'' : The word '''mufyeg''' (Lit: hollow stick) means '''pipe, reed''' ==== Rule #12: Deriving Nuanced Words Phonetically ==== : Words which follow Rule #12 are those that are connected by a similarity of meaning or quality. These words differ by nuances and it is phonetic nuances that govern their formation. : These nuances are obtained by: :* Addition of a subordinal vowel of the same type as the ordinal vowel. :: These vowels are: ::: '''a''' for '''a''' and '''ya''' ::: '''e''' for '''e''' and '''ye''' ::: '''i''' for '''i''' and '''yi''' ::: '''o''' for '''o''' and '''yo''' ::: '''u''' for '''u''' and '''yu''' :: Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with a Doubled Vowel |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nad'''....''line'' || '''naad'''....''rail'' |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyaab'''....''system'' |- | '''boka'''....''sick'' || '''booka'''....''tired'' |} :* Post-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''less''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deintensification with Post-y-gliding |- ! WORD !! MITIGATED DERIVATION |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''iyfer'''....''like'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''iyva'''....''glad'' |- | '''zyutom'''....''tower'' || '''zyutoym'''....''turret'' |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''ayma'''....''warm'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |} :* Pre-y-gliding the ordinal vowel or subordinal vowel, to produce a nuance of '''''greater''''' intensity: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with Pre-y-Gliding |- ! WORD !! ENHANCED DERIVATION |- | '''pot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyot'''....''predator animal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pyat'''....''bird of prey'' |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tyod'''....''people'' |- | '''oma'''....''cold'' || '''yoma'''....''frozen'' |- | '''nuxer'''....''pay'' || '''nyuxer'''....''deliver'' |} :* Following the ordinal vowel or the generic consonant with the intensifying liquid '''l''' or the further intensifying liquid '''r''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Intensification with L and R |- ! WORD !! L-INTENSIFIED || R-INTENSIFIED |- | '''ifer'''....''love'' || '''ifler'''....''be fond of'' || '''ifrer'''....''adore'' |- | '''iva'''....''happy'' || '''ivla'''....''content'' || '''ivra'''....''enchanted'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vala'''....''sure'' || '''vara'''....''evident'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agla'''....''great'' || '''agra'''....''capital'' |- | '''ga'''....''more'' || '''gala'''....''multiple'' || '''gara'''....''exponential'' |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press'' || '''barer'''....''crush'' |- | '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yexrer'''....''toil, slave'' |- | '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' |} :* Adding consonants other than '''l''' or '''r''' as the generic consonant: : Some words have so many nuanced varieties that other letters like '''t''', '''f''', '''s''', '''k''', and '''z''' are used as the generic consonant, eg.: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Nuances with Other Consonants |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fika'''....''perfect''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''futa'''....''wicked''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten'' |- | '''gea'''....''equal'' || '''geta'''....''identical''<br>'''gela'''....''alike'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyama'''....''real'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoka'''....''incorrect''<br>'''vyoma'''....''fake'' |- | '''yiga'''....''hard'' || '''yigza'''....''sour''<br>'''yigla'''....''brusk''<br>'''yigra'''....''brutal'' |- | '''yuga'''....''soft'' || '''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugla'''....''tender''<br>'''yugra'''....''mild'' |} :* Transforming the generic consonant from voiced to unvoiced or vice versa: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Voicing or Devoicing Consonants for Nuance |- ! WORD !! NUANCED DERIVATION |- | '''nab'''....''row'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''vyava'''....''just'' || '''vyafa'''....''precise'' |- | '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jwap'''....''moment'' |- | '''jweb'''....''second'' || '''jwep'''....''instant'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''tob'''....''person'' || '''top'''....''soul, animus'' |- | '''nov'''....''linen'' || '''nof'''....''cloth'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nas'''....''money'' |- | '''nag'''....''dimension'' || '''nak'''...''unit of measurement'' |} === Forming Adjectives === : You can form an adjective by adding the suffix '''a''' to a substantive, adverb, or preposition. By substantive is meant a noun, pronoun, or gerund. Any of these can be adjectivized. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''taam'''....''home'' || '''taama'''....''domestic'' |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''dooba'''....''national'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''teja'''....''vital'' |- | '''tyoyapyaf'''....''ability to walk'' || '''tyoyapyafa'''....''ambulatory'' |- | '''martun'''....''astronomy'' || '''martuna'''....''astronomical'' |- ! PRONOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''at'''....''I, me'' || '''ata'''....''my'' |- | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''euta'''....''your own'' |- | '''hiyen'''....''this kind'' || '''hiyena'''....''this kind of'' |- | '''duhat?'''....''who?'' || '''duhata?'''....''whose?'' |- ! GERUND !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''ifeken'''....''recreation'' || '''ifekena'''....''recreational'' |- ! VERB FORM !! ADJECTIVE (= PARTICIPLE) |- | '''teje'''....''(he) lives'' || '''tejea'''....''living'' |- | '''tojo'''....''will die'' || '''tojoa'''....''moribund, about to die'' |- | '''tojbu'''....''would kill'' || '''tojbua'''....''lethal'' |- | '''twa'''....''was known'' || '''twaa'''....''known'' (usu. shortened to '''twa''') |} ==== Adjectival Suffixes ==== : Various types of adjectives can be created with adjectival suffixes beyond just '''a'''. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Other Adjectives |- ! SUFFIX !! MEANING !! NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- ! -aya !! ''full of, having, -ous, -ful, -ly'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozaya'''....''colorful'' |- | || || '''futax'''....''resentment'' || '''futaxaya'''....''resentful'' |- | || || '''tiibil'''....''blood'' || '''tiibilaya'''....''bloody'' |- | || || '''yilf'''....''courage'' || '''yilfaya'''....''courageous'' |- ! -oya !! ''bereft of, -less, un-'' !! !! |- | || || '''voz'''....''color'' || '''vozoya'''....''colorless, pale'' |- | || || '''tajyaf'''....''talent'' || '''tajyafoya'''....''untalented'' |- ! -ika !! ''full of, -ous, -ful, -y'' (same as '''-aya''') !! !! |- | || || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mapika'''....''windy'' |- ! -uka !! ''bereft of, without, -less'' (same as '''-oya''') !! !! |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasuka'''....''broke, penniless'' |- ! -yena !! ''-like, -ous, -ly, -y, -ish, -ic, -al, having the qualities of'' !! !! |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotyena'''....''childish, infantile'' |- | || || '''tot'''....''god'' || '''totyena'''....''divine, godly'' |- | || || '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityena'''....''fish-like, fishy'' |- ! -wa or -awa !! ''-ed, past passive participle'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''t-'''....''know'' || '''twa''' or '''tawa'''....''known'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalwa''' or '''dalawa'''....''spoken, oral'' |- | || || '''nisbu-'''....''sell'' || '''nisbuwa'''....''sold'' |- ! -ea !! ''-ing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ot-'''....''not know'' || '''otea'''....''ignorant'' |- | || || '''tej-'''....''live'' || '''tejea'''....''living, alive'' |- | || || '''tuj-'''....''die'' || '''tujea'''....''dying'' |- ! -yea !! ''-ive, prone to Xing, given to X'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''tujb-'''....''kill'' || '''tujbyea'''....''murderous'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyea'''....''pensive, thoughtful'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyea'''....''forgetful'' |- | || || '''ax-'''....''act'' || '''axyea'''....''active'' |- ! -uwa !! ''-able, apt to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE |- | || || '''ex-'''....''operate'' || '''exuwa'''....''operable'' |- | || || '''tos'''....''feel'' || '''tosuwa'''....''palpable'' |- | || || '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texuwa'''....''conceivable'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''teluwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yafa !! ''-able, capable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafa'''....''sightful, able to see'' |- | || || '''dyed-'''....''read'' || '''dyedyafa'''....''literate'' |- ! -yafwa !! ''-able, possible to be Xed'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyafwa'''....''visible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyafwa'''....''memorable'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyafwa'''....''audible'' |- | || || '''tel-'''....''eat'' || '''telyafwa'''....''edible'' |- ! -yofa !! ''incapable of Xing'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL SUBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' |- | || || '''tyoyap-'''....''walk'' || '''tyoyapyofa'''....''lame'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''deaf'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''dumb, incapable of speaking'' |- ! -yofwa !! ''un-X-able'' (added to verb stem) !! VERB STEM !! NEGATIVE POTENTIAL OBJECT-ORIENTED |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyofa'''....''inaudible'' |- | || || '''tox-'''....''forget'' || '''toxyofa'''....''unforgetable'' |- | || || '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyofa'''....''unspeakable'' |- ! -ifa !! ''fond of, -phile'' ( !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potifa'''....''pet-friendly'' |- | || || '''hyitoob-'''....''same-gender'' || '''hyitoobifa'''....''homophile'' |- | || || '''tobot'''....''child'' || '''tobotifa'''....''pedophile'' |- | || || '''fitel'''....''food'' || '''fitelifa'''....''gourmand'' |- | || || '''doob'''....''nation'' || '''doobifa'''....''patriotic'' |- ! -ufa !! ''adverse to, hating, miso-, -phobic'' !! NOUN STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tobufa'''....''misanthropic'' |- | || || '''hyut-'''....''other person'' || '''hyutufa'''....''xenophobic'' |- | || || '''toyb-'''....''woman'' || '''toybufa'''....''misogynist'' |- ! -ef(w)a !! ''needful of, (necessary to be X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' |- | || ||'''tel'''....''food'' || '''telefa'''....''hungry'' |- | || || '''nas'''....''money'' || '''nasefa'''....''poor, needy'' |- | || || '''yelb-'''....''to oil'' || '''yelbefwa'''....''squeaky, in need of oil'' |- ! -yef(w)a !! ''worthy of, due to be (deserving of being X-ed)'' !! NOUN OR VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''fid'''....''praise'' || '''fidyefa'''....''praiseworthy'' |- | || || '''dud'''....''answer'' || '''dudyefa'''....''responsible'' |- | || || '''tax-'''....''remember'' || '''taxyefwa'''....''memorable'' |- ! -yuk(w)a !! ''easy to, (easily X-ed)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible'' |- | || || '''vatex-'''....''believe'' || '''vatexyukwa'''....''incredible, hard to believe'' |- ! -yik(w)a !! ''hard to, (hard of X-ing)'' !! VERB STEM !! ADJECTIVE |- | || || '''teat-'''....''see'' || '''teatyikwa'''....''opaque'' |- | || || '''teet-'''....''hear'' || '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' |} ==== Adjectival Prefixes ==== :: '''''Negating the Meaning of Adjectives''''' ::: The semantics of an adjective can be reversed with the prefix '''o-'''. ::: Examples: ::::* '''vlea'''....''probable'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>vlea'''....''improbable'' ::::* '''fika'''....''perfect'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fika'''....''imperfect'' ::::* '''twa'''....''known'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>twa'''....''unknown'' ::::* '''bosa'''....''quiet'' <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>bosa'''....''upset, unquiet'' ::: Note: Occasionally, the prefix '''lo-''' is used to avoid ambiguity, as in the following case: ::::* '''fwa'''....''wanted'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>o</u>fwa'''....''prohibited'' <big><</big> '''ofer'''....''to prohibit'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>yo</u>fwa'''....''impossible'' <big><</big> '''yofer'''....''to be unable'' ::::* <big>→</big> '''<u>lo</u>fwa'''....''unwanted'' <big><</big> '''fer'''....''to want'' (disambiguated) ::: The prefixes '''lyo-''' and '''ov''' are more intense for reversing the meaning of an adjective: ::::* '''data'''....''friendly'' ::::* '''odata'''....''unfriendly'' ::::* '''ovdata'''....''hostile'' ::::* '''lyodata'''....''inimical'' ::::* '''dota'''....''social'' ::::* '''odota'''....''unsocial'' ::::* '''ovdota'''....''antisocial'' ::::* '''lyodota'''....''savage'' :: '''''Table of Adjective Prefixes''''' ::: As in English, where the sense of adjectives can be altered by a number of prefixes of Germanic, Latin, and Greek origin, the sense of adjectives in Mirad can also be altered with prefixes. Here are the principal ones: :::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Altering the Sense of Adjectives with Prefixes<br>Click on double arrow to alphabetize the column |- ! MIRAD PREFIX !! ENGLISH PREFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | '''o-''' || ''un-, a(n)-, in-, non-'' ||'''<u>o</u>baka'''....''unhealthy''<br>'''<u>o</u>yezyebeya'''....''incontinent'', '''<u>o</u>yelpea'''....''non-invasive''<br>'''<u>o</u>totina'''....''atheist'' |- |'''ov-''' || ''anti-, counter-'' || '''<u>ov</u>zuina'''....''anti-leftist''<br>'''<u>ov</u>iztida'''....''counter-intuitive'' |- |'''av-''' || ''pro-'' || '''<u>av</u>hyitoosifa'''....''pro-gay'' |- | '''kovyo-''' ||''pseudo-'' || '''<u>kovyo</u>tepina'''....''pseudo-intellectual'' |- | '''hya(s)-''' || ''all-, pan-, omni-'' || '''<u>hyas</u>tea'''....''all-knowing, omniscient'' |- | '''voy-, gal-''' || ''re-'' || '''<u>voy</u>upya'''....''returned''<br>'''<u>ga</u>abwa'''....''<u>re</u>applied'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''mis-'' || '''<u>vyo</u>seudwa'''....''mispronounced'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, half-'' ||'''<u>eyn</u>levelaya'''....''semi-sweet''<br>'''<u>eyn</u>tija'''....''half-awake'' |- |'''yiz-''' || ''ultra-, super-'' || '''<u>yiz</u>doobina'''....''ultra-nationalist''<br>'''<u>yiz</u>mola'''....''supernatural'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''under-, hypo-'' || '''<u>gro</u>jaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''over-, hyper-, uber-'' || '''<u>gra</u>agxwa'''....''overgrown''<br>'''<u>gra</u>toseya'''....''hypersensitive'' |- | '''gla-''' ||''multi-, many-, poly-'' || '''<u>gla</u>kuma'''....''multilateral''<br>'''<u>gla</u>tadaya'''....''polygamous'' |- |'''fu-''' || ''mal-, ill-'' || '''<u>fu</u>teyenxwa'''....''ill-conceived''<br>'''<u>fu</u>sanxwa'''....''malformed'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''well-'' || '''<u>fi</u>tofabwa'''....''well-dressed'' |- | '''yuyb-''' ||''quasi-, almost'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>daba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''pre-, (a)fore-, pro-'' ||'''<u>ja</u>teyenxwa'''....''pre-conceived''<br>'''<u>ja</u>igdawa'''....''aformentioned'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''post-'' || '''<u>jo</u>dropeka'''....''post-war'' |- | '''oyeb-'''|| ''extra-'' || '''<u>oyeb</u>tada'''....''extra-marital'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''endo-'' || '''<u>yeb</u>tayoba'''....''endo-dermal'' |- | '''gwag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''<u>gwag</u>mora'''....''macrocosmic'' |- | '''gwog-''' || ''micro-'' || '''<u>gwog</u>mora'''....''microcosmic'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''auto-, self-, sui-'' || '''<u>ut</u>pana'''....''automatic''<br>'''<u>ut</u>tojbua'''....''suicidal'' |- | '''hyaewa-''' || ''ambi-'' || '''<u>hyaewa</u>tesea'''....''ambivalent'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-'' || '''<u>en</u>toobifa'''....''bisexual'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''circum-'' || '''<u>yuz</u>teaxea'''....''circumspect'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-'' || '''<u>gel</u>sauna'''....''homogeneous'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-'' || '''<u>ogel</u>sauna'''....''heterogeneous'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''infra-, sub-'' || '''<u>oyb</u>ivoza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''iso-, equi-'' || '''<u>ge</u>voza'''....''isochromatic'' |- | '''gwaag-''' || ''mega-'' || '''<u>gwaag</u>tipa'''....''megamaniacal'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''para-'' || '''<u>ku</u>ega'''....''paranormal'' |- | '''yuyb-''' || ''quasi-, almost, pen-'' || '''<u>yuyb</u>dobyena'''....''quasi-official'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far-'' || '''<u>yib</u>pyuxea'''....''far-reaching'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''trans-, cross-'' || '''<u>zey</u>mimaga'''....''transoceanic'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''<u>aaj</u>toba'''....''paleoloanthropic'' |- | '''eej-''' || ''neo-'' || '''<u>eej</u>visauna'''....''neoclassical'' |} ==== English and Mirad Adjectival Suffix Comparison ==== : Here is a chart showing a comparison between English adjectival suffixes and their Mirad counterparts: :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ English and Mirad Adjectival Suffixes Compared |- ! ENGLISH SUFFIX !! MEANING !! MIRAD SUFFIX !! ALTERED ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES |- | ''-ful'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''voz<u>aya</u>'''....''colorful'', '''tuz<u>ika</u>'''....''skillful'' |- | ''-ous'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''naz<u>ika</u>'''....''precious'', '''mil<u>aya</u>'''....''aqueous'' |- | ''-filled'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoke-filled'' |- | ''-y'' || full of || '''-aya, -ika''' || '''mov<u>ika</u> / mov<u>aya</u>'''....''smoky'', |- | ''-ous'' || of, like || '''-a''' || '''totin<u>a</u>'''....''religious'', '''vyos<u>a</u>'''....''erroneous'' |- | ''-ly'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tot<u>yena</u>'''....''godly'', '''toyb<u>yena</u>'''....''womanly'' |- | ''-like'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pat<u>yena</u>'''....''bird-like'' |- | ''-ish'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tobot<u>yena</u>'''....''childish'' |- | ''-y'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''fyab<u>yena</u>'''....''fruity'' |- | ''-ic'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''tuz<u>yena</u>'''....''artistic'', '''sil<u>yena</u>'''....''acidic'' |- | ''-ic'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''tun<u>a</u>'''....''scientific'', '''bek<u>a</u>'''....''therapeutic'' |- | ''-ical'' || of, related to || '''-a''' || '''zyunid<u>a</u>'''....''spherical'', '''iztex<u>a</u>'''....''logical'' |- | ''-ological'' || pertaining to the study of || '''-tuna''' || '''tej<u>tuna</u>'''....''biological'' |- | ''-ist(ic)'' || pertaining to the doctrine of || '''-ina''' || '''dopar<u>ina</u>'''....''militarist(ic)'', '''nasyan<u>ina</u>'''....''capitalist(ic)'' |- | ''-ophobic'' (and ''miso-'' prefix) || hating, fearful of || '''-ufa''' || '''yudat<u>ufa</u>'''....''xenophonic'', '''tobyan<u>ufa</u>'''....''misanthropic'' |- | ''-ophilic'' (and ''philo-'' prefix) || loving || '''-ifa''' || '''tobot<u>ifa</u>'''....''pedophilic'', '''tob<u>ifa</u>'''....''philanthropic'' |- | ''-al'' || like || '''-yena''' || '''pyot<u>yena</u>'''....''bestial'' |- | ''-al'' || of, pertaining to || '''-a''' || '''tej<u>a</u>'''....''vital'', '''aman<u>a</u>'''....''thermal'' |- | ''-less'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''tej<u>uka</u>'''....''lifeless'', '''tobot<u>oya</u>'''....''childless'' |- | ''-free'' || without, empty of || '''-oya, -uka''' || '''yom<u>uka</u>'''....''ice-free'', '''vyos<u>oya</u>''', ''error-free'' |- | ''-safe, -proof'' || free, not subject to || '''-vaka''' || '''mil<u>vaka</u>'''....''water<u>proof</u>'' |} === Forming Adverbs === : Adjectives can be converted into adverbs by post-y-gliding the adjectival suffix '''a''', in other words, by adding a '''y''' to the adjective. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. : Examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Deriving Adverbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! ADVERB |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fi<u>ay</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''vya<u>a</u>'''....''true'' || '''vya<u>ay</u>'''....''truly'' |- | '''gyu<u>a</u>'''....''easy'' || '''gyu<u>ay</u>'''....''easily'' |- | '''ig<u>a</u>'''....''quick'' || '''ig<u>ay</u>'''....''quickly'' |- | '''aut<u>a</u>'''....''personal'' || '''aut<u>ay</u>'''....''personally'' |} : For brevity's sake, the stem of de-adjectival adverbs like those above can be used at the end of a clause or sentence. For example: ::* '''It tyoyape <u>ig</u>.'''....''He walks <u>fast</u>.'' ::* '''Yit xa has <u>fi</u>.'''....''They did it <u>well</u>.'' ==== Special Adverbs ==== : Mirad has special adverbs that are not derived from adjectives and may or may not end in '''-ay'''. : Here are the principal such adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Special Adverbs |- ! MIRAD !! ENGLISH |- | '''vay'''||''indeed, really, certainly, do'' (cf. '''va'''....''yes'') |- | '''vey'''||''possibly, may, might'' (cf. '''ve'''....''maybe'') |- | '''voy'''||''not'' (cf. '''vo'''....''no'') |- | '''ga'''||''more'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gay'''||''also, moreover, further, still'' |- | '''ge'''||''as, equally'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''gey'''||''even'' |- | '''go'''||''less'' (modifying an adjective, adverb, or verb) |- | '''goy'''||''no longer, no more'' |- | '''gla'''||''very'' |- | '''glay'''||''quite, rather, so'' |- | '''gle'''||''so'' |- | '''glo'''||''not very, not so'' |- | '''gra'''||''too'' |- | '''gre'''||''enough, sufficiently, over-'' |- | '''gro'''||''not...enough, inadequately, under-'' |- | '''gwa'''||''most, super-'' |- | '''gwe'''||''average'' |- | '''gwo'''||''least, sub-'' |- | '''zay'''||''ahead, forward'' |- | '''zey'''||''across'' |- | '''zoy'''||''back'' |- | '''zye'''||''through'' |- | '''zya'''||''throughout'' |} : The first three adverbs in the above chart are used to affirm or emphasize, cast doubt on, or negate verb predicates as in the examples that follow: ::* AFFIRMATIVE: '''Va, at <u>vay</u> se taduwa.'''....''Yes, I am <u>indeed</u> married.'' ::* DUBITIVE: '''Iyta dud se <u>vey</u> vyosa.'''....''Her response is <u>possibly</u> wrong.'' ::* NEGATIVE: '''At <u>voy</u> se eta yuxrut.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your slave.'' : The adverbs above beginning with '''g''' are quantitative adverbs and modify an adjective, verb, or another adverb: ::* '''Et se <u>gla</u> via.'''....''You are <u>very</u> beautiful [=ADJECTIVE].'' ::* '''Et peya <u>gra</u> ig.'''....''You were going <u>too</u> fast [=ADVERB].'' ::* '''It <u>gra</u> dale.'''....''He talks [=VERB] <u>too</u> much.'' : Other special adverbs, which do not end in '''-ay''', include the following, which can all be used in multi-word prepositions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Adverbs Used in Prepositional Phrases |- ! SPECIAL ADVERB !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''Ha pat papa <u>yab</u> bu ha mam.'''....''The bird flew <u>up</u> to the sky.'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''Teaxu <u>yob</u> bu ha mel.'''....''Look <u>down</u> to the ground.'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''Besu <u>yub</u> bi ha mas.'''....''Stay <u>near</u> the wall.'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''Ha tobi igpia <u>yib</u> bi ha yovbyokam.'''....''The people ran <u>far from</u> the prison.'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in, inward, inside'' || '''Kyedu hat hu ogja tyoyapa <u>yeb</u>!'''....''Guess who just walked <u>in</u>!'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out, outside'' || '''It tyoyapa <u>oyeb</u> zye bi ha zames.'''....''He walked <u>out</u> through the front door.'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''Teaxu <u>ib</u>, diwe.'''....''Look <u>away</u>, please.'' |- | '''ub'''....''this way'' || '''Tyoyapu <u>ub</u> him.'''....''Walk <u>toward</u> this way.'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''Yit daza <u>yuz</u> bi yat.'''....''They danced <u>around</u> us.'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''Et yefe teaxer <u>yiz</u> bi hia tistam av yux.'''....''You must look <u>beyond</u> this school for help.'' |- | '''iz'''....''directly, straight'' || '''Pu <u>iz</u> bu hat.'''....''Go <u>right up</u> to him.'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''Uzpu <u>zi</u>!'''....''Turn <u>right</u>!'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''Hat uzpa <u>zu</u>.'''....''He turned <u>left</u>.'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''Yat buxo ha muyv <u>zye</u> bi ha dref.'''....''We will push the pin <u>through</u> the paper.'' |- | '''zyu'''....''around'' || '''Pu <u>zyu</u>.'''....''Go <u>around</u>.'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''Van yat tyopu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Let's walk <u>together</u>.'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''Ha meri kyapeye <u>yon</u>.'''....''The planets are drifting <u>apart</u>.'' |} ==== Pro-adverbs ==== : There are also adverbial expressions that are formed with deitic prefixes and categorical stubs to produce what are known as '''''pro-adverbs'''''. These include interrogative pro-adverbs like '''duham?''' (''where?''), '''duhayen?''' (''how?''), '''duhaj?''' (''when?''), '''duhagla''' (''to what extent?''), and their answers, such as '''hum''' (''there''), '''heyen''' (''somehow''), and '''hoj''' (''never''), '''hugla''' (''so, to that extent''). These words are discussed under the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners|Deictic Determiners]]. === Forming Verbs === : Verbs can be formed from various parts of speech. ==== Forming Verbs from Nouns ==== : Verbs can often be formed from nouns simply by adding the verb infinitive suffix '''er''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Denominal Verb Derivation |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''syager'''....''to count'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afer'''....''may, be allowed'' |- | '''teud'''....''cry, shout'' || '''teuder'''....''to cry, shout, exclaim'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''tajer'''....''to be born'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejer'''....''to live'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tojer'''....''to die'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejer'''....''to continue'' |- | '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijer'''....''to begin'' |- | '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ijer'''....''to end'' |- | '''yuj'''....''sleep'' || '''tujer'''....''to sleep'' |} ==== Verb Formants ==== : More often, an auxiliary verb or verb stub is used to create various verbs from nouns. The most common such '''''verb formants''''' are in this chart: :* '''-ser'''....''to be/become'' usually intransitive and stative (''unite'' = ''become one'') :* '''-xer'''....''to do/make'' usually transitive and dynamic (''unite'' = ''make one'') :* '''-per'''....''to go'' usually intransitive and a dynamic verb of motion (''mount'' = ''get onto'') :* '''-ber'''....''to put'' usually transitive and a verb of gesture (''apply'' = ''put onto'') :* '''-ier''' a stub from the verb ''to take'', usually an action verb benefiting the agent (''eat'' = ''take food'') :* '''-uer''' a stub from the verb ''to give'', usually an action verb benefiting the patient (''feed'' = ''give food'') :* '''-der'''....''to say'', a verb of communication (''affirm'' = ''say yes'') :* '''-ter'''....''to know'', verbs of the perception and knowledge ('''teater''' = ''see'') :: Some of the above formants can be intensified with the liquids '''l''' or '''r''', eg.'''-sler, -xler, -xrer, -bler, '''-prer'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Verb Formants |- ! NOUN !! AUXILIARY VERB OR VERB STUB FORMANT !! VERB |- | '''yav'''....''innocence'' || '''der'''....''to say'' || '''yavder'''....''to acquit'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''yovaber'''....''to shame, accuse'' |- | '''yov'''....''shame, guilt'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''yovober'''....''to excuse, exculpate'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''tofaber'''....''to dress, don'' |- | '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''ober'''....''to remove, take off'' || '''tofober'''....''to undress, strip'' |- | '''det'''....''associate'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''detser'''....''to associate'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''datxer'''....''to befriend'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''sanser'''....''to form (intransitive)'' |- | '''san'''....''form'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''sanxer'''....''to form (transitive)'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''telier'''....''to eat, consume'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''teluer'''....''to feed, nourish'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ifier'''....''to enjoy'' |- | '''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''ifuer'''....''to please'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''(b)er'''....''to give'' || '''tajber'''....''to give birth'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tejper'''....''to come alive'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''(b)er'''....''to give'' || '''tejber'''....''to bring to life'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tojper'''....''to drop dead'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tojber'''....''to kill'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''tijper'''....''to wake up'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''tijber'''....''to awaken'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(p)er'''....''to go'' || '''tujper'''....''to fall asleep'' |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''(b)er'''....''to put'' || '''tujber'''....''to put to sleep'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''taxier'''....''to recall'' |- | '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''taxuer'''....''to remind'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''yevder'''....''to judge'' |- | '''vyan'''....''truth'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyander'''....''to tell the truth'' |- | '''vyon'''....''falsehood'' || '''der'''....''to say, tell'' || '''vyonder'''....''to tell a lie'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aker'''....''to gain'' || '''ilaker'''....''to take on liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''oker'''....''to lose'' || '''iloker'''....''to leak, lose liquid'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)ier'''....''to take'' || '''ilier'''....''to soak up'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''(b)uer'''....''to give'' || '''iluer'''....''to pour, water'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikser'''....''to get full'' || '''ilikser'''....''to be soaked'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ikxer'''....''to fill up'' || '''ilikxer'''....''to flood, soak'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukser'''....''to become empty'' || '''ilukser'''....''to drain'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ukxer'''....''to empty'' || '''ilukxer'''....''to flush'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ser'''....''to be, become'' || '''ilser'''....''to liquify, melt'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''xer'''....''to do, make'' || '''ilxer'''....''to liquify, melt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aber'''....''to apply, put on'' || '''ilaber'''....''to wash'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''aper'''....''to get on'' || '''ilaper'''....''to float'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''per'''....''to go'' || '''ilper'''....''to flow'' (intransitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyaber'''....''to spread'' || '''ilzyaber'''....''to spray, shower'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''zyober'''....''to squeeze'' || '''ilzyober'''....''to squirt'' (transitive) |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''pyexer'''....''to strike'' || '''ilpyexer'''....''to splash (with liquid)'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''yujer'''....''to close'' || '''ilyujer'''....''to plug'' |} : Note that verbs ending in '''-ser''' and '''-ier''' are intransitive (they take no object), while those ending in '''-xer''' and '''-uer''' are transitive. Also, '''-ier''' verbs are inchoative, while '''-uer''' verbs are benefactive or causative (making someone do something). ==== Forming Verbs from Adjectives With -xer and -ser ==== : The verbs that are formed from adjectives fall mainly into two groups, the transitive group with '''-xer'''....''to do, make, cause'', and the intransitive group with '''-ser'''....''to be, become''. : The following chart shows how these verbs are formed: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Verbs with Xer and Ser |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aza'''....''strong'' || '''azaxer'''....''fortify, strengthen, make strong'' || '''azaser'''....''get strong'' |- | '''oza'''....''week'' || '''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' || '''ozaser'''....''grow weaker'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyiaxer'''....''weigh down'' || '''kyiaser'''....''grow heavy'' |- | '''kyua'''....''light'' || '''kyuaxer'''....''lighten, make lighter'' || '''kyiaser'''....''get lighter'' |- | '''yana'''....''together'' || '''yanaxer'''....''bring together'' || '''yanaser'''....''get together'' |} : The final adjective ending '''a''' is often dropped to form a verb with a slightly different meaning, usually somewhat more idiomatic. In some cases, dropping the '''a''' makes it clear that the verb is created from a noun rather than an adjective, as in the last example of the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Comparing Full and Stub Adjectives in Verb Formation |- ! ADJECTIVE !! TRANSITIVE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | || '''agxer'''....''grow'' || '''agxer'''....''grow up, mature'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaxer'''....''accelerate'' || '''igaser'''....''speed up'' |- | || '''igxer'''....''rush'' || '''igser'''....''hurry up'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''baka'''....''healthy'' || '''bakaxer'''....''make healthy'' || '''bakaser'''....''get healthy'' |- | || '''bakxer'''....''heal'' || '''bakser'''....''heal'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''sana'''....''formal'' || '''sanaxer'''....''formalize'' || '''sanaser'''....''become formal'' |- | || '''sanxer'''....''form, shape'' || '''sanser'''....''form, take shape'' |} ==== Forming Verbs of Gesture and Motion with -ber and -per ==== : Verbs of gesture are formed with the transitive auxiliary verb '''ber'''....''to put'', while parallel verbs of motion are formed with the intransitive auxiliary verb '''per'''....''to go''. These verbs are usually paired and are often built from a prepositional base. If the prepositional base ends in '''b''', the '''b''' is dropped. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Verb Derivation with Ber and Per |- ! PREPOSITON<br>BASE !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE VERB !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION VERB |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''apply, put on'' || '''aper'''....''mount, get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove, take off'' || '''oper'''....''dismount, get off'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''leave'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''<br>'''oyeber'''....''take out'' || '''yeper'''....''enter''<br>'''oyeper'''....''exit'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- ! !! !! |- |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''put up front'' || '''zaper'''....''take the lead'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''advance'' || '''zayper'''....''advance, go forward'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''balance'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''take across, transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross, go over, transit'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''hinder'' || '''zoper'''....''trail, lag'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''set back, return'' || '''zoyper'''....''retreat, go back, return'' |- ! !! !! |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''aim for'' |- | '''uz'''....''crooked'' || '''uzber'''....''divert'' || '''uzper'''....''turn, diverge'' |- |- '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''set to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''set to the left'' || '''zuper'''.... ''go left'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''pass by'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''take around'' || '''yuzper'''....''go around'' |} : More elaborate verbs of gesture and motion can be formed by adding positional/directional ordinal vowels along with combinations of '''ser''' and '''xer''', plus the intensifiers '''y''', '''l''' and '''r'''. In this more complex world, the last letter of the stem determines the transitivity: '''s''' for intransitive and '''x''' for transitive. Prepositions can also be prefixed to change the direction of the gestures or motions. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating More Elaborate Verbs |- ! GESTURE VERB !! GESTURE VERB || MOTION VERB || MOTION VERB |- ! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE !! INTRANSITIVE !! TRANSITIVE |- | || '''ber'''....''put''<br>'''beer'''....''have''<br>'''yebeer'''....''contain''<br>'''beler'''....''carry''<br>'''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''bexler'''....''keep''|| '''per'''....''go''|| |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''baer'''....''lean on'' || '''baler'''....''press''<br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress''<br>'''yobaler'''....''depress, suppress''<br>'''yuzbaler'''....''hug''<br>'''zoybaler'''....''repress''<br>'''barer'''....''crush'' || || |- |'''baser'''....''gesticulate'' || '''baxer'''....''make a gesture''<br>'''abaxer'''....''caress, pat'' || '''paser'''....''move''||'''paxer'''....''move'' |- |'''byaser'''....''stand up'' || '''byaxer'''....''set up, erect'' || '''pyaser'''....''jump up'' || '''pyaxer'''....''shoot, launch'' |- |'''basler'''....''budge'' || '''baxler'''....''rouse''<br>'''abaxler'''....''stroke'' || '''paaser'''....''get excited'' || '''paaxer'''....''excite''<br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' |- |'''basrer'''....''shake'' || '''baxrer'''....''shake''<br>'''abaxrer'''....''rub'' || || '''apaxrer'''....''scrub'' |- ! !! !! !! |- |'''beser'''....''stay'' || '''bexer'''....''hold''<br>'''zoybexer'''....''restrain''<br>'''yobexer'''....''detain, hold down'' || '''peser'''....''wait'' || '''pexer'''....''trap''<br>'''pexler'''....''capture''<br>'''pexrer'''....''abduct'' |- |'''byeser'''....''behave''|| '''byexer'''....''hit'' || '''pyeser'''....''run into, bump into''|| '''pyexer'''....''strike, knock''<br>'''yonpyexer'''....''break''<br>'''yopyexer'''....''knock down''<br>'''epyexer'''....''fight''<br>'''apyexer'''....''attack''<br>'''ovpyexer'''....''offend''<br>'''kunpyexer'''....''sideswipe''<br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' |- |'''besler'''....''adhere'' || '''bexler'''....''retain''|| || '''pyexler'''....''pound, beat''<br>'''apyexler'''....''assault''<br>'''yonpexler'''....''shatter, burst'' |- | || || '''yanpyesrer'''....''implode''<br>'''yonpyesler'''....''explode'' || '''pyexler'''....''blast, bomb'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''boser'''....''calm down''<br>'''boyser'''....''rest'' || '''boxer'''....''quieten, quell'' || '''poser'''....''stop''<br>'''poyser'''....''pause'' || '''poxer'''....''stop'' |- | '''byoser'''....''hang'' || '''byoxer'''....''hang'' || '''pyoser'''....''fall''<br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' || '''pyoxer'''....''drop, throw down''<br>'''yopyoxer'''....''topple''<br> |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''biser'''....''originate'' || '''bixer'''....''pull''<br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract''<br>'''yonbixer'''....''distract''<br>'''yubixer'''....''attract''<br>'''yibixer'''....''distract''<br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract''<br>'''yebixer'''....''push in'' || || '''pixer'''....''catch'' |- |'''bisler'''....''spring'' || '''bixler'''....''yank''<br>'''bixrer'''....''ravage'' || || '''pixler'''....''snatch''<br>'''pixrer'''....''rape'' |- ! !! !! !! |- | '''buser'''....''be destined'' || '''buxer'''....''push, drive''<br>'''zyobuxer'''....''squeeze''<br>'''yebuxer'''....''expel''<br>'''abuxer'''....''impose'' || '''apuser'''....''assault'' || '''puxer'''....''throw, thrust'' |- |'''byuser'''....''bump into'' || '''byuxer'''....''touch''<br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' ||'''pyuser'''....''run into'' || '''pyuxer'''....''crash'' |- |'''busler'''....''swoop'' || '''buxler'''....''shove'' || '''pusler'''....''lunge, pounce'' || '''puxler'''....''thrust''<br>'''zyapuxler'''....''splatter'' |} : Yet more complex verbs can be generated by adding directional and positional prefixes to the above verbs. Let's just take the one verb '''baxer''' (and its intransitive partner '''baser''') as our base verb and generate many others through prefixation of prepositional and other words as shown in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Baxer Verbs |- ! PREFIX !! VERB |- ! colspan=2 | '''baxer'''....''gesture, make a bodily motion'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''abaxer'''....''caress, pat, pet, stroke, rub'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izbaxer'''....''point'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebaxer'''....''nod'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vatebaxer'''....''nod yes'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''votebaxer'''....''nod no'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vetebaxer'''....''shrug'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyabaxer'''....''wave'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tubaxer'''....''flail, swing'' |- | '''teubab'''....''tongue'' || '''teubabaxer'''....''lick'' |- | '''teab'''....''eye'' || '''teubaxer'''....''wink'' |- | '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''patubaxer'''....''flap'' |- | '''tiyub'''....''tail'' || '''tiyubaxer'''....''wag'' |- ! colspan=2 | '''baser'''....''gesticulate'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igbaser'''....''jerk'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''igzaybaser'''....''lurch'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoybaser'''....''recoil'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yobaser'''....''bow, bend down'' |- | '''ku-'''....''side'' || '''kubaser'''....''slide'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''igkubaser'''....''slip'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' + '''uz'''....''curved'' || '''uizbaser'''....''sway, swagger, swish'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' + '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle, wobble, totter'' |} ==== Forming Frequentative Verbs ==== : A frequentative verb, that is, one that involves an action done quickly multiple times in succession, can be formed by infixing the syllable '''eg-''' between the verb stem and verb ending. Here are some examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The -eg- Frequentative Infix |- ! REGULAR VERB !! FREQUENTATIVE VERB |- | '''paser'''....''move'' || '''paseger'''....''shake, shudder'' |- | '''pyaser'''....''jump'' || '''pyaseger'''....''bounce'' |- | '''paper'''....''fly'' || '''papeger'''....''flutter, flit'' |- | '''braser'''....''shake'' || '''braseger'''....''shudder, quiver, vibrate'' |- | '''teupixer'''....''bite'' || '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'' |- | '''ilzyaber'''....''spray'' || '''ilzyabeger'''....''sprinkle'' |- | '''pyexer'''....''beat'' || '''pyexeger'''....''batter, whip'' |} ==== Forming Hybrid Words with Alternating Components ==== : Expressions with alternating components like ''back-and-forth'', ''up-and-down'', etc. are formed in a peculiar, hybrid way. The following table shows this formation and how such words can be used, especially as prefixes on verbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Hybrid Words |- ! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS !! HYBRID EXPRESSION !! EXAMPLES |- | '''yab'''....''up'' +<br>'''yob'''....''down'' || '''yao(b)-'''....''up-and-down'' || '''yaoper'''....''fluctuate'', '''yaopuser'''....''bounce'' |- | '''a-'''....''up, north, skyward'' +<br>'''o-'''....''down, south'' || '''ao-'''....''vertical'' || '''aonada'''....''vertical'', '''aomera'''....''north-south'' |- | '''za(y)'''....''forth'' +<br>'''zo(y)'''....''back'' || '''zao(b)-'''....''front-back/north-to-south'' || '''zaobaser'''....''rock'' |- |- '''zu'''....''left/west'' +<br>'''zi'''....''right/east'' || '''zui(b)-'''....''right-to-left/east-to-west'' || '''zuinada'''....''horizontal'', '''zuibaser'''....''wiggle'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' +<br>'''bi'''....''from'' || '''bui-'''....''to-and-from'' || '''buipar'''....''shuttle'', '''buipop'''....''round-trip'' |- | '''ab'''....''on'' +<br>'''ob'''....''off'' || '''ao(b)-'''....''on-and-off'' || '''aoper'''....''get on and off'' |- | '''yuj-'''....''closed'' +<br>'''yij-'''....''open'' || '''yuij-'''....''open-and-shut'' || '''yuijbar'''....''switch'', '''igyuijer'''....''blink'' |- | '''uj-'''....''stop'' +<br>'''ij-'''....''start'' || '''uij-'''....''stop-and-start'' || '''uijparpan'''....''stop-and-go traffic'' |- | '''(a)yeb'''....''in'' +<br>'''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''aoye(b)-'''....''in-and-out'' || '''igaoyeper'''....''run in-and-out'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' +<br>'''yib'''....''far'' || '''yui(b)-'''....''near-and-far'' || '''yuipoper'''....''travel near-and-far'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' +<br>'''ib'''....''away'' || '''ui(b)-'''....''toward-and-away'' || '''uipen'''....''coming and going'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' +<br>'''him'''....''here'' || '''huim'''....''here-and-there'' || '''huimkexer'''....''search high-and-low (here-and-there)'' |- | '''hus'''....''that'' +<br>'''his'''....''this'' || '''huis'''....''this-and-that'' || '''huisyexer'''....''do odd jobs, work at this-or-that'' |- | '''hyut'''....''other person'' +<br>'''hyit'''....''same person'' || '''hyuit'''....''one another'' || '''hyuitifer'''....''love one another'', '''hyuita'''....''mutual, reciprocal'' |} : Here are some more examples: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ More Hybrids ! HYBRID WORD !! ENGLISH GLOSS !! ALTERNATING COMPONENTS |- |'''aogsen'''||'' fluctuation (in size) ''|| '''ag-''' (''big'') + '''og-''' (''little'') + '''s-''' (''become'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''aonada'''||''vertical ''|| '''a-''' (''up/north'') + '''o-''' (''down/south'') + '''nad''' (''line'') + '''-a''' (''adj.'') |- |'''aopuys'''||'' hop-on-hop-off ''|| '''a(p)-''' (''on'') + '''o(p)-''' (''off'') + '''puys-''' (''hop'') |- |'''buien'''||'' trading, swapping ''|| '''bu-''' (''give'') + '''bi-''' (''trake'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''buip'''||'' traffic ''|| '''bu-''' (''to'') + '''bi-''' (''from'') + '''p-''' (''go'') |- |'''buixar'''||'' pump ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix''' (''pull'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''buixek'''||'' tug-o-war ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''buixnyem'''||'' drawer ''|| '''bux-''' (''push'') + '''bix-''' (''pull'') + '''nyem''' (''box'') |- |'''byaosen'''||'' teetering, stumbling ''|| '''byas-''' (''stand'') + '''byos-''' (''fall'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''diep'''||'' marine force ''|| '''dip''' (''sea force'') + '''dep''' (''land force'') |- |'''duid'''||'' q&a, interview ''|| '''dud''' (''answer'') + '''did''' (''question'') |- |'''eigpyexer''' || ''batter, whip'' || '''eg-''' (''again'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') + '''pyexer''' (''to hit'') |- |'''gao'''||'' more-or-less ''|| '''ga''' (''more'') + '''go''' (''less'') |- |'''glaojo'''||'' sooner or later ''|| '''gla''' (''very'') + '''glo''' (''slightly'') + '''jo''' (''after'') |- | '''huimkexer''' || ''search here and there'' || '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-m''' (''place'') + '''kex''' (''search'') + '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''huis'''||'' this-and-that ''|| '''hu-''' (''that'') + '''hi-''' (''this'') + '''-s''' (''thing'') |- |'''hyuit'''||'' one another ''|| '''hyu-''' (''other'') + '''hyi-''' (''same'') + '''-t''' (''person'') |- |'''kyaopen'''||'' fluctuation ''|| '''kya-''' (''mobile'') + '''kyo''' (''static'') + '''-pen''' (''going'') |- |'''maluier'''||'' breathe ''|| '''mal-''' (''air'') + '''u-''' (''let out'') + '''i-''' (''take in'') '''-er''' (''inf.'') |- |'''maojyex'''||'' double-shift work ''|| '''maj''' (''day'') + '''moj''' (''night'') + '''yex''' (''work'') |- |'''maonig'''||'' flicker ''|| '''man''' (''light'') + '''mon''' (''dark'') + '''ig-''' (''fast'') |- |'''maolza'''||'' black&white/gray ''|| '''malza''' (''white'') + '''molza''' (''black'') |- |'''meil'''||'' mud ''|| '''mel''' (''soil'') + '''mil''' (''water'') |- |'''memuiben'''||'' import-exports ''|| '''mem''' (''country'') + '''ub-''' (''send'') + '''ib-''' (''receive'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''mial'''||'' vapor ''|| '''mil''' (''water'') + '''mal''' (''air'') |- |'''mieg'''||'' reef ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-g''' (''stone'') |- |'''miek'''||'' sand ''|| '''mi-''' (''sea'') + '''me-''' (''land'') + '''-k''' (''rocky substance'') |- |'''miem'''||'' swamp ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''mem''' (''land'') |- |'''mimpuin'''||'' dock ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''mimpyaos'''||'' surf ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''pyas-''' (''surge'') + '''pyos-''' (''sink'') |- |'''mimuip'''||'' tide ''|| '''mim''' (''sea'') + '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip-''' (''go'') |- |'''peit'''||'' amphibian ''|| '''pet''' (''land animal'') + '''pit''' (''sea creature'') |- |'''puim'''||'' kiss-and-ride zone ''|| '''pu-''' (''arrive'') + '''pi-''' (''depart'') + '''-m''' (''place'') |- |'''puixek'''||'' baseball ''|| '''pux-''' (''pitch'') + '''pix-''' (''catch'') + '''ek''' (''play'') |- |'''teabyuij'''||'' blink ''|| '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') |- |'''tuijea'''||'' nodding off ''|| '''tuj-''' (''sleep'') + '''tij''' (''wake'') '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''uijdal'''||'' stutter ''|| '''uj-''' (''finish'') + '''ij-''' (''start'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''uipeni'''||'' comings & goings ''|| '''up-''' (''come'') + '''ip''' (''go'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') + '''-i''' (''pl.'') |- |'''uiza'''||'' serpentine, snaky ''|| '''uza''' (''crooked'') + '''iza''' (''straight'') |- |'''vao?'''||'' yes or no? ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') |- |'''vaod'''||'' decision ''|| '''va''' (''yes'') + '''vo''' (''no'') + '''d-''' (''say'') |- |'''yaobar'''||'' elevator ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaobyuijar'''||'' piston ''|| '''yab-''' (''raise'') + '''yob-''' (''lower'') + '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open '') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaoplas'''||'' oscillation ''|| '''yap-''' (''up'') + '''yop-''' (''down'') + '''plas''' (''shake'') |- |'''yaopsim'''||'' seesaw ''|| '''yap-''' (''ascend'') + '''yop-''' (''descend'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''yaopus'''||'' bounce ''|| ya(''b'')'''-''' (''up'') + yo(''b'')'''-''' (''down'') + '''pus''' (''jump'') |- |'''yaovdut'''||'' juror ''|| '''yav-''' (''innocent'') + '''yov-''' (''guilty'') + '''d-''' (''say'') + '''-ut''' (''agent'') |- |'''yaoza'''||'' uneven, bumpy, serrated ''|| '''yaza''' (''convex'') + '''yoza''' (''concave'') |- |'''yaozgoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''yaz''' (''protrusion '') + '''yoz''' (''indentation'') + '''gobl-''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yaozil'''||'' wave ''|| '''yaz''' (''swell'') + '''yoz''' (''trough'') + '''-il''' (''liquid'') |- |'''yuibteabar'''||'' bifocals ''|| '''yub''' (''near'') + '''yib''' (''far'') + '''teab''' (''eye'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''yuijar'''||'' valve, switch ''|| '''yuj-''' (''close'') + '''yij-''' (''open'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaobelur'''||'' ferry ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''bel-''' (''carry'') + '''-ur''' (''vehicle'') |- |'''zaobyexar'''||'' swatter, bat ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''byex-''' (''strike'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaodal'''||'' dialog ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''dal''' (''speech'') |- |'''zaogoblar'''||'' saw ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''gobl''' (''cut'') + '''-ar''' (''instrument'') |- |'''zaokyax'''||'' alternation ''|| '''za''' (''forth'') + '''zo''' (''back'') + '''kyax''' (''change'') |- |'''zaopasen'''||'' swinging ''|| '''za-''' (''forth'') + '''zo-''' (''back'') + '''pasen''' (''moving'') |- |'''zaopsim'''||'' swing or rocker ''|| '''zap-''' (''go forth'') + '''zap''' (''go back'') + '''sim''' (''seat'') |- |'''zuibasen'''||'' wiggling ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bas-''' (''move bodily'') + '''-en''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuibayx'''||'' wag ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''bayx-''' (''slight body move'') |- |'''zuibyoxea'''||'' dangling ''|| '''zu''' (''left'') + '''zi''' (''right'') + '''byox-''' (''hang down'') + '''-ea''' (''-ing'') |- |'''zuiyafa'''||'' ambidextrous ''|| '''zu-''' (''left'') + '''zi-''' (''right'') + '''yafa''' (''capable'') |- |'''zyaobas'''||'' throb ''|| '''zya-''' (''wide'') + '''zyo-''' (''narrow'') + '''bas''' (''bodily movement'') |- |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Greetings|Word Families}}</noinclude> 7l2zuyww2bv6isqk8o6in4npsg0pdz8 0 417656 4095559 4094736 2022-08-23T21:50:43Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Core Words */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''yeg-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''yegaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''<br>'''duzdinog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''duzdinagam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''screen'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> '''taxer'''....''remember''<br><small>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> '''texer'''....''think''<small><br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''</small><br>'''ter'''....''know''<small><br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''</small><br>'''trer¹'''....''recognize''<small><br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''</small><br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tyer'''....''know how''<br><small>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''</small><br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<small><br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br></small><br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<small><br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</small></td><td valign=top> '''toxer'''....''forget'' </td><td valign=top> '''tixer'''....''study'' </td><td valign=top> '''tuxer'''....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top>'''teser'''....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<small><br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</small></td><td valign=top>'''toser'''....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> '''tier'''....''learn''<small><br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</small></td><td valign=top> '''tuer'''....''inform''<small><br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</small></td></tr> </table> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwana'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwena'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwona'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} laij400psz0xuo8dqjbcpl4in4tutr7 4095562 4095559 2022-08-23T21:51:33Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Creating Derived xer Words with Prefixes */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''voy-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''voyaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''<br>'''duzdinog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''duzdinagam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''screen'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> '''taxer'''....''remember''<br><small>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> '''texer'''....''think''<small><br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''</small><br>'''ter'''....''know''<small><br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''</small><br>'''trer¹'''....''recognize''<small><br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''</small><br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tyer'''....''know how''<br><small>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''</small><br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<small><br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br></small><br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<small><br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</small></td><td valign=top> '''toxer'''....''forget'' </td><td valign=top> '''tixer'''....''study'' </td><td valign=top> '''tuxer'''....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top>'''teser'''....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<small><br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</small></td><td valign=top>'''toser'''....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> '''tier'''....''learn''<small><br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</small></td><td valign=top> '''tuer'''....''inform''<small><br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</small></td></tr> </table> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwana'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwena'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwona'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} 3eryc096lwxs3uju9rhvpgsxrkn7yf6 4095566 4095562 2022-08-23T22:00:35Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Communication Arts */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''voy-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''voyaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''dyuz'''....''opera''<br>'''dyuzog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''dyuzam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''silver screen'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> '''taxer'''....''remember''<br><small>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> '''texer'''....''think''<small><br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''</small><br>'''ter'''....''know''<small><br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''</small><br>'''trer¹'''....''recognize''<small><br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''</small><br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tyer'''....''know how''<br><small>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''</small><br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<small><br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br></small><br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<small><br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</small></td><td valign=top> '''toxer'''....''forget'' </td><td valign=top> '''tixer'''....''study'' </td><td valign=top> '''tuxer'''....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top>'''teser'''....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<small><br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</small></td><td valign=top>'''toser'''....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> '''tier'''....''learn''<small><br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</small></td><td valign=top> '''tuer'''....''inform''<small><br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</small></td></tr> </table> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwana'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwena'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwona'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} 241o2e2pomxzmsl23dfluc6a9htg7i1 4095571 4095566 2022-08-23T22:23:23Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Core Words */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''voy-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''voyaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''dyuz'''....''opera''<br>'''dyuzog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''dyuzam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''silver screen'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === <small> :<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> <big>'''taxer'''</big>....''remember''<br>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> <big>'''texer'''</big>....''think''<br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''<br><big>'''ter'''</big>....''know''<br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''<br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br><big>'''tyer'''</big>....''know how''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''<br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br><big>'''trer'''</big>....''recognize''<br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''<br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''toxer'''</big>....''forget'' </td><td valign=top><big>'''tixer'''</big>....''study'' </td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuxer'''</big>....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top><big>'''teser'''</big>....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</td><td valign=top><big>'''toser'''</big>....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tier'''</big>....''learn''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuer'''</big>....''inform''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</td></tr> </table> </small> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwana'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwena'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwona'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} pxhrljgyixs3ba5m05ul63s50w1hlv2 4095575 4095571 2022-08-23T22:32:28Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Some Parallel Time Terms */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''voy-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''voyaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''dyuz'''....''opera''<br>'''dyuzog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''dyuzam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''silver screen'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === <small> :<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> <big>'''taxer'''</big>....''remember''<br>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> <big>'''texer'''</big>....''think''<br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''<br><big>'''ter'''</big>....''know''<br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''<br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br><big>'''tyer'''</big>....''know how''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''<br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br><big>'''trer'''</big>....''recognize''<br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''<br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''toxer'''</big>....''forget'' </td><td valign=top><big>'''tixer'''</big>....''study'' </td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuxer'''</big>....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top><big>'''teser'''</big>....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</td><td valign=top><big>'''toser'''</big>....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tier'''</big>....''learn''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuer'''</big>....''inform''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</td></tr> </table> </small> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwafa'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwefa'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} awtvy3qt6w7f6lol3kb1dj2tv78wffn 4095576 4095575 2022-08-23T22:34:48Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Core Words */ wikitext text/x-wiki = Word Families = == Stubs == : Stubs are abbreviated pieces of a root word that are often used as suffixes and sometimes as prefixes. Here is a an alphabetical list: : ::* '''-ab'''....''government, staff'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dab'''....''government'' ::* '''-al'''....''gaseous substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mal'''....''air, gas'' ::* '''-am'''....''house'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tam'''....''house'' ::* '''-ar'''....''instrument'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sar'''....''tool'' ::* '''do-'''....''public'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dosyena'''....''official'' ::* '''-eb'''....''leader'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''deb'''....''leader'' ::* '''-el'''....''food'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tel'''....''food'' ::* '''-em'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-i-'''....''self-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''bier'''....''take'' ::* '''-ib'''....''administration'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''dib'''....''administration'' ::* '''-if'''....''endearing term'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''ifer'''....''to love'' ::* '''-il'''....''liquid substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mil'''....''water'' ::* '''-im'''....''room'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tim'''....''room'' ::* '''-ir'''....''machine'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sir'''....''machine'' ::* '''-j'''....''time'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''job'''....''time'' ::* '''-m'''....''place'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nem'''....''place'' ::* '''-of'''....''material'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nof'''....''tissue'' ::* '''-om'''....''situation or furniture'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nom'''....''situation'' or '''nom'''....''furniture'' ::* '''-or'''....''device in general'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sor'''....''device'' ::* '''-ov'''....''cloth'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nov'''....''linen'' ::* '''-s'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-t'''....''person from'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-u-'''....''other-directed verb formant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''buer'''....''give'' ::* '''-ud'''....''descendant'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tud'''....''child'' ::* '''-ul'''....''substance'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''mul'''....''substance'' ::* '''-um'''....''cell, compartment'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''tum'''....''compartment'' ::* '''-un'''....''thing'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sun'''....''thing'' ::* '''-ur'''....''motorized device'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''sur'''....''motor'' ::* '''-ut'''....''agent, one who'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''aot'''....''person'' ::* '''-uz'''....''piece of jewelry'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nuz'''....''jewel'' ::* '''-yeb'''....''container'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyeb'''....''container'' ::* '''-yeg'''....''hole'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''zyeg'''....''hole'' ::* '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''myel'''....''viscous substance'' ::* '''-yem'''....''enclose space'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' ::* '''-yen'''....''manner, kind'' &nbsp;&nbsp;<big> < </big>&nbsp;&nbsp; '''byen'''....''manner, way'' == Root Morphemes Alphabetized == : Here is an alphabetical list of root morphemes in Mirad. All native Mirad words are derived from one or more of these roots. Some of the roots are base words with an underlined ordinal vowel '''o''', which means that they represent the top-level member of a list of words where the ordinal vowel changes. For example, '''m<u>o</u>r''' (''universe'') is the top-level member of a related hierarchy of words: '''mar''' (''star''), '''mer''' (''planet''), etc. This list does not include stub roots like ''-il'' (< '''mil''' ''water''), which are listed separately in the next section. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Root Morphemes |- | valign=top | '''-a'''....''derivational suffix that forms an adjective'' '''-a-'''....''inflectional infix denoting perfect aspect'' '''-a'''....''inflectional suffix denoting past tense'' '''a'''....''the number one'' '''ab'''....''on'' '''af'''....''permission'' '''ag-'''....''big, size'' '''aj'''....''past'' '''ak'''....''gain, win'' '''am'''....''heat'' '''as-'''....''become'' '''at'''....''I, me'' '''av'''....''for'' '''ax-'''....''render'' '''ay'''....''conjunction meaning and'' '''-ay'''....''suffix denoting adverb, -ly'' '''-ay-.'''....''infix meaning full of, -ful, -some, -ous'' '''az-'''....''strong'' '''b-'''....''put, set, transitive verb formant of gesturing'' '''ba-'''....''lean on'' '''bal-'''....''press'' '''bar-'''....''crush'' '''bas-'''....''budge'' '''bax-'''....''stir'' '''bay'''....''with'' '''be'''....''at'' '''be-'''....''have'' '''bel-'''....''carry'' '''bes-'''....''stay'' '''bex-'''....''hold'' '''bey'''....''by, via'' '''bi'''....''from, of'' '''bi-'''....''take'' '''bis-'''....''withdraw'' '''bix-'''....''pull'' '''bo-'''....''prop up'' '''b<u>o</u>k'''....''illness'' '''bol-'''....''uphold'' '''bos-'''....''be still'' '''box-'''....''calm'' '''boy'''....''without'' '''bu-'''....''give'' '''bu'''....''to'' '''bul-'''....''grant'' '''bur-'''....''yield'' '''bus-'''....''head for'' '''bux-'''....''push'' '''byal-'''....''lift'' '''byas-'''....''stand'' '''byax-'''....''erect'' '''byen'''....''manner'' '''byex-'''....''tap'' '''byi'''....''since, starting with'' '''byis-'''....''emanate'' '''byix-'''....''derive'' '''byos-'''....''hang'' '''byox-'''....''drop'' '''byu-'''....''attain'' '''byu'''....''up to, as far as'' '''byux-'''....''touch'' '''d-'''....''say, tell, communicate'' '''dal-'''....''speak'' '''daz-'''....''dance'' '''del-'''....''declare'' '''dez-'''....''theater'' '''di-'''....''ask'' '''din'''....''story'' '''diz'''....''comedy'' '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' '''dol-'''....''be quiet'' '''d<u>o</u>m'''....''city'' '''d<u>o</u>p'''....''military'' '''d<u>o</u>t'''....''society, social'' '''dr-'''....''write'' '''draf'''....''card'' '''dras'''....''document'' '''dref'''....''paper'' '''dres'''....''note'' '''drev'''....''page'' '''drez'''....''poetry'' '''dro-'''....''erase'' '''drof'''....''board'' '''drov'''....''cardboard'' '''du-'''....''suggest'' '''dun'''....''word'' '''duz'''....''music'' '''dye-'''....''read'' '''dyez'''....''cinema'' '''dyu-'''....''call'' '''-e-'''....''infix inflection denoting progressive aspect'' '''-e'''....''suffix inflection denoting present tense'' '''e'''....''the number two'' '''eb'''....''between'' '''ef'''....''need, necessity'' '''eg-'''....''normal'' '''ej'''....''present'' '''ek'''....''play, risk'' '''-en'''....''suffix inflection denoting a gerund'' '''-er'''....''suffix inflection denoting verbal infinitive'' '''es-'''....''exist'' '''-es'''....''inanimate diminutive suffix'' '''-et'''....''animate diminutive suffix'' '''et'''....''you'' '''ev-'''....''neutral'' '''ex-'''....''operate'' '''ey'''....''the conjunction or'' '''f-'''....''want'' '''fi-'''....''good, well'' '''f<u>o</u>b'''....''plant'' '''fu-'''....''bad/ill'' '''fuf'''....''cylinder, pipe'' '''fya'''....''holy, sacred, hiero-, sancti-'' '''fyel'''....''wax'' '''fyi-'''....''useful'' '''fyo-'''....''profane, unholy, evil'' '''fyu-'''....''harmful, damaging'' '''ga'''....''more'' '''ge'''....''equal, as'' '''gi-'''....''sharp'' '''go'''....''less'' '''gu-'''....''angle'' '''gya-'''....''fat'' '''gyi-'''....''solid, compact, tenacious'' '''gyo-'''....''thin, slim'' '''gyu-'''....''fragile, delicate'' '''hay'''....''hello'' '''hey'''....''hey, oh'' '''hiy'''....''here is'' '''h<u>o</u>-'''....''which?, what?'' '''hoy'''....''goodbye'' '''huy'''....''there is'' '''hyay'''....''hurrah, congratulations, cheers, thanks'' '''hyey'''....''please, you're welcome'' '''hyoy'''....''boo, sorry, too bad, excuse me'' '''-i-'''....''infix acting as a subject-directed verb formant'' '''-i'''....''suffix for pluralizing a noun'' '''i'''....''the number three'' '''ib'''....''away'' '''if'''....''pleasure'' '''ig-'''....''fast'' '''ij'''....''beginning'' '''ik-'''....''full'' '''im-'''....''wet'' '''is-'''....''start out'' '''it'''....''he, him, she, her'' '''iv-'''....''happy'' '''ix-'''....''result'' '''iz'''....''straight'' '''ja'''....''before'' '''jag'''....''age'' '''je'''....''while, during'' '''ji'''....''since'' '''jo'''....''after'' '''j<u>o</u>b'''....''time'' '''jod'''....''occasion, time'' '''jog'''....''age'' '''ju'''....''until'' '''jud'''....''date'' '''jwa-'''....''early'' '''jwe-'''....''on time'' '''jwo-'''....''late'' | valign=top | '''ka-'''....''find'' '''ke-'''....''seek'' '''ki-'''....''oblique'' '''ko-'''....''hidden'' '''ku-'''....''lateral, side'' '''kya-'''....''change, variable'' '''kye-'''....''haphazard, random'' '''kyi-'''....''heavy'' '''kyo-'''....''fixed, stationary'' '''kyu-'''....''light, levity'' '''-l-'''....''infix for the decades'' '''-l-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''lo-'''....''prefix that reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''lyo-'''....''prefix that strongly reverses the semantics of the stem'' '''-m'''....''suffix or infix denoting metal '' '''ma-'''....''bright'' '''maf'''....''cloud'' '''mag'''....''fire'' '''maj'''....''daytime'' '''mak'''....''electricity'' '''malz'''....''white'' '''mav'''....''flame'' '''meb'''....''mountain'' '''mef'''....''brick'' '''meg'''....''stone'' '''mek'''....''power'' '''mev'''....''porcelain'' '''mez'''....''crystal'' '''-ml-'''....''infix for the millions'' '''mo-'''....''dark'' '''mob'''....''abyss'' '''mog'''....''ash'' '''moj'''....''nighttime'' '''m<u>o</u>l'''....''nature'' '''molz'''....''black'' '''m<u>o</u>m'''....''outer space'' '''m<u>o</u>p'''....''orbit'' '''m<u>o</u>r'''....''universe, cosmos'' '''m<u>o</u>s'''....''floor'' '''mov'''....''smoke'' '''-mr-'''....''infix for the billions'' '''-ms-'''....''infix denoting metalloid'' '''mub'''....''promontory'' '''muf'''....''stick'' '''mug'''....''metal'' '''muk'''....''mineral'' '''muz'''....''precious ore'' '''-n'''....''nominalizing suffix'' '''nab'''....''row, rank'' '''nad'''....''line'' '''nag'''....''dimension'' '''nap'''....''order'' '''nas'''....''money'' '''nax'''....''price'' '''naz'''....''value'' '''ne-'''....''save'' '''ned'''....''surface'' '''neg'''....''level'' '''nem'''....''place'' '''ni-'''....''consume'' '''nid'''....''volume'' '''nig'''....''space'' '''no-'''....''spend'' '''nod'''....''point'' '''n<u>o</u>f'''....''cloth'' '''nog'''....''degree'' '''nom'''....''situation'' '''n<u>o</u>v'''....''linen'' '''nu-'''....''supply'' '''nuz'''....''jewel'' '''nya-'''....''accumulate'' '''nye-'''....''stock, store'' '''nyem'''....''enclosed space'' '''nyi-'''....''order, requisition'' '''nyo-'''....''waste'' '''nyu-'''....''ship, deliver'' '''-o-'''....''infix inflection denoting the imminent aspect'' '''o-'''....''prefix that reverses semantics of the stem, -un, -in, non-'' '''-o'''....''suffix inflection denoting the future tense'' '''o'''....''the number zero or null'' '''ob'''....''off'' '''of'''....''prohibition'' '''og-'''....''little, small'' '''oj'''....''future'' '''ok'''....''loss'' '''om'''....''cold'' '''os-'''....''cease to be'' '''ot'''....''person, one'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ov'''....''against'' '''ox-'''....''be idle'' '''oy'''....''conjunction but'' '''-oy-'''....''infix denoting without, -less'' '''oz-'''....''weak'' '''p-'''....''go'' '''pas-'''....''move'' '''pax-'''....''move'' '''pes-'''....''wait'' '''pex-'''....''trap'' '''pi-'''....''depart'' '''pix-'''....''catch'' '''pos-'''....''stop'' '''p<u>o</u>t'''....''animal'' '''pox-'''....''stop'' '''pu-'''....''arrive'' '''pus-'''....''jump'' '''pux-'''....''throw'' '''pya-'''....''hover'' '''pyas-'''....''jump'' '''pyax-'''....''launch'' '''pyex-'''....''strike'' '''pyis-'''....''spring from'' '''pyos-'''....''fall'' '''pyox-'''....''drop'' '''pyu-'''....''reach'' '''pyus-'''....''pounce'' '''pyux-'''....''collide'' '''-r-'''....''infix for the thousands'' '''-r-'''....''infix that intensifies the semantics of the stem'' '''s-'''....''be, become'' '''-s-'''....''numeric infix for hundreds (like aso, meaning one hundred)'' '''sa-'''....''comprise'' '''sag'''....''number'' '''san'''....''form'' '''sar'''....''instrument, tool'' '''sav'''....''reason'' '''sin'''....''image'' '''sir'''....''machine'' '''s<u>o</u>m'''....''furniture'' '''son'''....''matter'' '''sor'''....''device of some kind'' '''su-'''....''provide'' '''sun'''....''thing'' '''sur'''....''motorized device'' '''syab'''....''summit'' '''syan'''....''kind'' '''syen'''....''style'' '''syin'''....''subject'' '''syob'''....''base'' '''syun'''....''object'' '''t-'''....''know'' '''taj'''....''birth'' '''tap'''....''physique'' '''tax-'''....''remember'' '''tej'''....''life'' '''tep'''....''mind'' '''tex-'''....''think'' '''tez'''....''art'' '''ti-'''....''find out'' '''tij'''....''woke state'' '''tin'''....''doctrine, -ism'' '''tip'''....''sentiment'' '''tis-'''....''learn'' '''tix-'''....''study'' '''t<u>o</u>b'''....''human, man, person'' '''t<u>o</u>d'''....''family'' '''t<u>o</u>f'''....''clothing, apparel'' '''toj'''....''death'' '''t<u>o</u>l'''....''nutrition'' '''t<u>o</u>m'''....''building'' '''top'''....''soul'' '''tos'''....''feeling'' '''t<u>o</u>t'''....''god'' '''tox-'''....''forget'' '''tr-'''....''recognize'' '''tu-'''....''inform'' '''tuj'''....''sleep'' '''tun'''....''science, -ology'' '''tup'''....''limb'' '''tux-'''....''teach'' '''tyan'''....''class'' '''tyen'''....''skill'' '''tyez'''....''magic'' '''tyod'''....''people'' | valign=top | '''-u-'''....''infix denoting an action toward an object'' '''-u-'''....''infix inflection denoting the potential aspect'' '''-u'''....''suffix inflection denoting the hypothetical mood'' '''u'''....''the number four''.... '''ub'''....''toward'' '''ug-'''....''slow'' '''uj'''....''end'' '''um-'''....''dry'' '''us-'''....''end up'' '''-us'''....''inanimate agent suffix'' '''-ut'''....''agent suffix'' '''ut'''....''self'' '''uv-'''....''sad'' '''ux-'''....''cause'' '''uz'''....''curve'' '''va'''....''yes'' '''ve'''....''maybe'' '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' '''vo'''....''no'' '''v<u>o</u>b'''....''crop'' '''v<u>o</u>l'''....''vegetable....'' '''v<u>o</u>s'''....''flower'' '''v<u>o</u>lz'''....''color'' '''vu-'''....''ugly'' '''vya-'''....''true, truly'' '''vye-'''....''relative'' '''vyi-'''....''clean'' '''vyo-'''....''wrong, mis-'' '''vyu-'''....''dirty'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting male gender'' '''-w-'''....''infix denoting passive voice'' '''-w-'''....''infix for the numeric units'' '''-w-'''....''substitute for intensifying infix -y- when pronunciation would be difficult'' '''x-'''....''do, make, cause, -ify'' '''xa-'''....''execute'' '''xag'''....''occasion'' '''xi-'''....''result in'' '''xo-'''....''undergo'' '''xu-'''....''bring about'' '''-y-'''....''infix denoting active voice in bi-level tenses'' '''ya'''....''the number six'' '''yab'''....''up'' '''yaf-'''....''able'' '''yag-'''....''long'' '''yak-'''....''expect'' '''yan'''....''together'' '''yat'''....''we, us'' '''yav-'''....''innocent'' '''yax-'''....''be busy'' '''yaz'''....''convexity'' '''ye'''....''the number seven'' '''yeb'''....''in'' '''yef'''....''obligation'' '''yeg-'''....''prefix meaning again, re-'' '''yek'''....''attempt'' '''yet'''....''you (pl.)'' '''yev'''....''just, fair'' '''yex-'''....''work'' '''yez'''....''along'' '''yi'''....''the number eight'' '''yib'''....''far'' '''yif-'''....''dare, courageous'' '''yig-'''....''hard'' '''yij-'''....''open'' '''yik-'''....''difficult'' '''yit'''....''they, them'' '''yiv-'''....''free, freedom'' '''yix-'''....''use'' '''yiz'''....''beyond'' '''yo-'''....''prefix that intensely negates the semantics of the stem'' '''yo'''....''the number five'' '''yob'''....''down'' '''yof-'''....''inability, cannot'' '''yog-'''....''short'' '''yok-'''....''be surprised'' '''yom'''....''ice'' '''yon'''....''apart'' '''yot'''....''they, people'' '''yov-'''....''guilty'' '''yox-'''....''be idle'' '''yoz'''....''concavity'' '''yu'''....''the number nine'' '''yub'''....''near'' '''yuf-'''....''fear'' '''yug-'''....''soft'' '''yuj-'''....''closed'' '''yuk-'''....''easy'' '''yuv-'''....''bound'' '''yux-'''....''help'' '''yuz'''....''around'' '''za'''....''front'' '''zay'''....''ahead'' '''ze'''....''middle'' '''zey'''....''across'' '''zi'''....''right'' '''zo'''....''behind'' '''zoy'''....''back'' '''zu'''....''left'' '''zya'''....''throughout'' '''zye'''....''through'' '''zyi-'''....''flat'' '''zyo-'''....''narrow'' '''zyu-'''....''round'' |} == Mnemonics and Analogy == : This is a language where phonetics is used to present mnemonic relationships and analogy among words as in the following example, based on the word '''teub'''....''mouth'': : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Mnemonic Family | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''seux'''....''sound''|| '''xeus'''....''noise'' || '''xeuz'''....''tune'' || '''teuz'''....''voice''....'''deuz'''....''song'' || '''seuz'''....''tone'' || '''deus'''....''accent'' ||'''deud'''....''shout'' |} : Here are some other examples where analogy and mnemonics are used to the maximum: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Analogy and Mnemonics |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' || '''feb'''....''treetop'' || '''veb'''....''tuft''|| || || |- | '''tub'''....''limb'' || '''dub'''....''minister'' || '''xub'''....''subsidiary'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''vub'''....''twig'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' ||'''petub'''....''paw'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak'' || '''peteub'''....''muzzle'' || || || || || |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''potayeb'''....''mane''|| || |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''tayof'''....''leather'' || '''petayob'''....''hide'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| || || |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''plant root'' || '''syob'''....''base''|| || || || |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''fib'''....''tree trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || || || || || |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''petulob'''....''claw'' || '''fulob'''....''thorn'' || '''defulob'''....''needle'' || '''mulob'''....''pin, prick''|| || || |- | '''tiibuf'''....''artery'' || '''fuf'''....''pipe'' || '''muf'''....''stick, rod'' || '''movuf'''....''cheminey'' || '''fauf'''....''log'' || '''manuf'''....''candle''|| || |- | '''til'''....''drink'' || '''teabil'''....''tear'' || '''teubil'''....''saliva'' || '''dril'''....''ink'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mamil'''....''rain'' || '''tayobil'''....''sweat'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' |} == The '''xer''' (''Do'') Family == : The verb '''xer''' means ''to do''. Many words are built from this base word using the postional/directional vowel coding rule. Words ending in '''xer''' contrast with those ending in '''ser''', in that the former are transitive (taking an object), as opposed to intransitive (taking no object). === Core Words === : This chart shows the core verbs in the '''xer'''....''do'' family: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Xer Family Core Words |- | '''axer'''....''render'' || '''exer'''....''function'' || '''oxer'''....''undo'' || '''ixer'''....''effect'' || '''uxer'''....''cause'' |- | '''axler'''....''act, behave'' || '''exler'''....''process'' || || '''ixler'''....''react'' || '''uxler'''....''influence'' |- | '''axrer'''....''carry out'' || '''exner'''....''behave''|| || || '''uxrer'''....''provoke'' |- | '''xaer'''....''execute'' || '''xeer'''....''exercise'' || '''xoer'''....''undergo'' || '''xier'''....''result'' || '''xuer'''....''affect'' |- | '''xaler'''....''accomplish'' || '''xeler'''....''practice'' || '''xoler'''....''fail'' || '''xiler'''....''undertake'' || '''xuler'''....''bring about'' |- | '''yaxer'''....''be busy'' || '''yexer'''....''work''|| '''yoxer'''....''be idle'' || '''yixer'''....''use'' || '''yuxer'''....''help'' |- | || '''yexler'''....''labor'' || '''yoxler'''....''resign'' || '''yixler'''....''hire, employ''<br>'''loyixler'''....''fire'' || '''yuxler'''....''serve'' |- | || '''yexrer'''....''toil'' || || '''yixrer'''....''exploit'' || '''yuxrer'''....''slave''<br>'''yuxruer'''....''enslave'' |} === Creating Derived '''xer''' Words with Prefixes === : Using prefixation, many other words can be built from these core words: : Keep in mind that '''xer''' can mean ''do'', ''make'', or ''cause'' in the following derived terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Prefixing Xer Words |- ! PREFIX !! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''ana'''....''single'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anaxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''an-'''....''one-'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''anxer'''....''unite'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''exer'''....''operate'' || '''yanexer'''....''cooperate'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''yanyexer'''....''collaborate'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''yonxer'''....''split'' |- | '''ge'''....''equal'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''gexer'''....''copy'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''jaxer'''....''prepare'' |- | '''je'''....''while'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''jexer'''....''continue'' |- | '''ig-'''....''fast'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''igxer'''....''rush'' |- | '''ug-'''....''slow'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ugxer'''....''delay'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''ojxer'''....''plan'' |- | '''zoy-'''....''re-, back-'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''zoyxer'''....''redo'' |- | '''sa(n)'''....''shape'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''saxer'''....''create'' |- | '''se(n)'''....''being'' || '''xer'''....''make'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''sexer'''....''build'' || '''losexer'''....''destroy'' |- | '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''yexer'''....''work'' || '''melyexer'''....''plough'' |- | '''tea(b)'''....''eye'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''teaxer'''....''look'' |- | '''lo-'''....''un-'' || '''yixler'''....''hire'' || '''loyixler'''....''fire'' |- | '''mag'''....''fire'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''magxer'''....''burn'' |- | '''yuf'''....''fear'' || '''xer'''....''cause'' || '''yufxer'''....''frighten'' |- | '''dofun'''....''crime'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''dofunxer'''....''commit a crime'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''xer'''....''do'' || '''graxer'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''voy-'''....''re-'' || '''axler'''....''act'' || '''voyaxler'''....''react'' |- | '''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''exner'''....''behave'' || '''fuexner'''....''misbehave'' |} === Using '''xer''' to Build Verbs from Adjectives === : Unlimited transitive verbs can be created with adjectives and '''xer''' as a suffix like ''-ify'', ''-ate'', ''-ize'' in English. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs from Adjectives |- ! ADJECTIVE !! VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaxer'''....''magnify'' |- | '''goa'''....''lesser'' || '''goaxer'''....''diminish'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fiaxer'''....''improve'' |- | '''jwoa'''....''late'' || '''jwoaxer'''....''retard'' |- | '''uva'''....''sad'' || '''uvaxer'''....''sadden'' |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''viaxer'''....''beautify'' |- | '''ebdooba'''....''international'' || '''ebdoobaxer'''....''internationalize'' |} : '''''Note''''': Sometimes, the adjectival ending '''-a''' is dropped. This often produces a difference nuance. For example, '''agaxer''' means ''to magnify, make bigger'', but '''agxer''' is more idiomatic and means ''to grow''. : The passive of '''xer''', '''xwer'''....''to be done'' can be used to mean ''to happen'' or ''to become''. For example: ::* '''Duhaj hus xwa?'''....''When did that happen?'' ::* '''At uvaxwa haj hu at teata ha tobud.'''....''I became sad (=was saddened) when I saw the child.'' === Using '''xer''' for All-Purpose Idioms === : The verb '''xer''' can be used as an all-purpose verb for actions which in English are expressed with a variety of idiomatic verbs, for example: ::* '''<u>xer</u> deuz'''....''to <u>perform</u> a song'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ifpop'''....''to <u>take</u> a cruise'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> ebdid'''....''to <u>conduct</u> an interview'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> yagigpek'''....''to <u>run</u> a marathon'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dazun'''....''to <u>do</u> a dance number'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dezekgon'''....''to <u>play</u> a role'' ::* '''<u>xer</u> dovyabdras'''....''to <u>enact</u> a piece of legislation'' === Using '''axer''' with Adjectives === : The verb '''axer''' can be used as a standalone word to form expressions with adjectives, such as '''to make/render someone happy''', eg.: :* '''Hua deuz <u>axa</u> at uva.'''....''That song <u>made</u> me sad.'' :* '''Et <u>axeye</u> yat gla oyukoma.'''....''You <u>are making</u> us very uncomfortable.'' :* '''Hia apyex <u>axa</u> at teptuja.'''....''This attack <u>rendered</u> me unconcious.'' === Using '''uxer''' for Causative Constructions=== : The verb '''uxer''' is used in the meaning '''cause/make/get/force''' someone do something, eg.: ::* '''Ha teyd <u>uxa</u> ha tud doler.'''....''The mother <u>got</u> the child to be silent.'' ::* '''At <u>uxwa</u> simper boy der hyes.'''....''I <u>was made</u> to sit without saying anything.'' ::* '''Iyt <u>uxa</u> iyta tayeb goblwer.''''....''She <u>got</u> her hair cut.'' (Same as: '''Iyt gobluxa iyta tayeb.'') === Using '''oxer''' for Failing to Do Something=== : The verb '''oxer'' is used in the meaning ''fail (to do something)'', eg.: ::* '''Ven et <u>oxo</u> puer gwe, et loyixlo.'''....''If you <u>fail</u> to arrive on time, you will be fired.'' ::* '''At <u>oxa</u> tester has hu at yakweya xer.'''....''I <u>failed</u> to understand what I was supposed to do.'' == The '''ser''' (''Be'') Family == === Core Words === : The core verb '''ser''' means ''to be'' and is the base for many verbs having to do with being, becoming, and creating. Verbs ending in '''ser''' are intransitive (taking no object) and contrast with those ending in '''xer''', which are transitive (taking an object). Verbs in '''ser''' often are stative, i.e. linking verbs. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Ser Verbs |- | '''aser'''....''become'' || '''eser'''....''exist, there to be'' || '''oser'''....''cease to be'' || '''iser'''....''start out'' || '''user'''....''end up'' |} === Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives === : The core verb '''ser''' can be postfixed to adjectives to form a class of verbs called stative, which have the meaning '''become X''', and which contrast with parallel transitive verbs in '''xer'''. If the adjectival ending '''a''' is dropped, then the resulting stative verb has a more idiomatic sense. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stative Verbs |- ! ADJECTIVE !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agaser'''....''get big'' |- | '''aga'''....''big'' || '''agser'''....''grow'' |- | '''uza'''....''curved'' || '''uzaser'''....''curve, bend, bow'' |- | '''kyaa'''....''mobile'' || '''kyaser'''....''change, vary'' |- | '''mayna'''....''clear'' || '''maynaser'''....''clear up'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igaser'''....''become fast, accelerate'' |- | '''iga'''....''fast'' || '''igser'''....''rush, hurry'' |} : Stative verbs in '''-ser''' are most often intransitive and contrast with dynamic, transitive verbs in '''-xer'''. Here are some comparative examples: :* '''It <u>agxe</u> vafyabi.'''....''He <u>grows</u> grapes.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''Vafyabi voy <u>agse</u> fiay him.'''....''Grapes do not <u>grow</u> well here.'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) :* '''His <u>kyaxa</u> yata teji.'''....''This <u>changed</u> our lives.'' :* '''Yata teji <u>kyasa</u> hujub.'''....''Our lives <u>changed</u> on that day.'' :* '''Ha mapi <u>uzaxa</u> ha fabi.'''....''The winds <u>bent</u> the trees.'' :* '''Ha fabi <u>uzasa</u> je ha mapilag.'''....''The trees <u>bowed</u> during the storm.'' :* '''Von <u>igxu</u> at.'''....''Don't <u>rush</u> me.'' (TRANSITIVE/DYNAMIC) :* '''<u>Igsu</u>!'''....''<u>Hurry up</u>!'' (INTRANSITIVE/STATIVE) === Creating Stative Verbs from Nouns === : The above stative verbs were created from adjectives, but such verbs can also be formed from nouns and have the meaning '''to become (something)''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Creating Stative Verbs from Adjectives |- ! NOUN !! STATIVE VERB |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''megser'''....''petrify, become rock'' |- | '''abnod'''....''peak'' || '''abnodser'''....''peak, climax'' |- | '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fubser'''....''branch out, ramify'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yomser'''....''freeze'' |- | '''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mafser'''....''cloud over'' |- | '''il'''....''liquid'' || '''ilser'''....''liquefy, melt'' |} === Using Aser as a Standalone Verb Meaning "become"=== : The verb '''aser''' can mean "to become (something or some way), eg.: ::* '''Ha graotyan <u>aseye</u> paaxwa.'''....''The crowd <u>is becoming</u> agitated.'' ::* '''At fe <u>aser</u> dovalkdibut haj at agso.'''....''I want <u>to become</u> a policeman when I grow up.'' == The '''ber''' (''Put'') and '''per''' (''Go'') Families == : The base words '''ber'''....''to put'' and '''per'''....''to go'', combined with positional/directional prefixes and various other word prefixes, form many words having to do with positions, bodily gestures, and directional motions. Those ending in '''ber''' are transitive verbs, while those ending in '''per''' are mostly intransitive. : === Common '''ber/per''' Verbs Built from Prefixes === : (Bear in mind that a '''b''' at the end of a prepositional or adverbial prefix is dropped before '''per''' or '''ber''') : ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs with Positional/Directional Prefixes and Vowels ! PREFIX !! TRANSITIVE GESTURE !! INTRANSITIVE MOTION |- | '''ab'''....''on'' || '''aber'''....''put on'' || '''aper'''....''get on'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''eber'''....''block'' || '''eper'''....''intervene'' |- | '''ob'''....''off'' || '''ober'''....''remove'' || '''oper'''....''dismount'' |- | '''ib'''....''away'' || '''iber'''....''receive'' || '''iper'''....''go away'' |- | '''ub'''....''toward'' || '''uber'''....''send'' || '''uper'''....''come'' |- | '''bi'''....''from'' || '''bier'''....''take'' || '''pier'''....''leave'' |- | '''bu'''....''to'' || '''buer'''....''give'' || '''puer'''....''arrive'' |- | '''ayb'''....''over'' || '''ayber'''...''put over'' || '''ayper'''....''go over'' |- | '''oyb'''....''under'' || '''oyber'''...''put under'' || '''oyper'''....''go under'' |- | '''bay'''....''with'' || '''bayber'''....''impart'' || '''bayper'''....''accompany'' |- | '''boy'''....''without'' || '''boyber'''....''deprive'' || '''boyper'''....''go without'' |- | '''byi'''....''since'' || '''byier'''....''emanate'' || '''pyier'''....''originate'' |- | '''byu'''....''up to'' || '''byuer'''....''touch'' || '''pyuer'''....''reach'' |- | '''yab'''....''up'' || '''yaber'''....''raise'' || '''yaper'''....''rise'' |- | '''yeb'''....''in'' || '''yeber'''....''insert''|| '''yeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yober'''....''lower'' || '''yoper'''....''descend'' |- | '''yib'''....''far'' || '''yiber'''....''take away'' || '''yiper'''....''move far away'' |- | '''yub'''....''near'' || '''yuber'''....''bring'' || '''yuper'''....''approach'' |- | '''oyeb'''....''out'' || '''oyeber'''....''expose'' || '''oyeper'''....''enter'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''zaber'''....''advance'' || '''zaper'''....''advance'' |- | '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zeber'''....''balance'' || '''zeper'''....''mediate'' |- | '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zober'''....''put behind'' || '''zoper'''....''follow'' |- | '''zi'''....''right'' || '''ziber'''....''put to the right'' || '''ziper'''....''go right'' |- | '''zu'''....''left'' || '''zuber'''....''put to the left'' || '''zuper'''....''go left'' |- | '''iz'''....''straight'' || '''izber'''....''guide'' || '''izper'''....''head'' |- | '''uz'''....''curve'' || '''uzber'''....''turn'' || '''uzper'''....''turn'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zayber'''....''promote'' || '''zayper'''....''proceed'' |- | '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zeyber'''....''transfer'' || '''zeyper'''....''cross'' |- | '''zoy'''....''back'' || '''zoyber'''....''put back'' || '''zayper'''....''return'' |- | '''zya'''....''all over'' || '''zyaber'''....''spread'' || '''zyaper'''....''disperse'' |- | '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyeber'''....''pass through'' || '''zyeper'''....''penetrate'' |- | '''zyi'''....''flat'' || '''zyiber'''....''lay'' || '''zyiper'''....''lie'' |- | '''zyu'''....''round'' || '''zyuber'''....''rotate'' || '''zyuper'''....''roll'' |- | '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yizber'''....''take beyond'' || '''yizper'''....''surpass'' |- | '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yuzber'''....''turn'' || '''yuzper'''....''circulate'' |- | '''zyag'''....''stretched out'' || '''zyagber'''....''stretch'' || '''zyagper'''....''stretch out'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jaber'''....''prepare'' || '''japer'''....''precede'' |- | '''je'''....''during'' || '''jeber'''....''continue'' || '''jeper'''....''continue'' |- | '''jo'''....''after'' || '''jober'''....''delay'' || '''joper'''....''follow'' |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajber'''....''pass'' || '''ajper'''....''pass'' |- | '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejber'''....''present'' || '''ejper'''....''present oneself'' |- | '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojber'''....''postpone'' || '''ojper'''....''wait?'' |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanber'''....''assemble'' || '''yanper'''....''join'' |- | '''yon'''....''apart'' || '''yonber'''....''take apart'' || '''yonper'''....''separate'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'' || '''kober'''....''hide'' || '''koper'''....''hide'' |- | '''ki-'''....''oblique'' || '''kiber'''....''bend'' || '''kiper'''....''slant, slide, incline'' |- | '''ku-'''....''lateral'' || '''kuber'''....''set aside'' || '''kuper'''....''avoid, sidestep'' |- | '''ik-'''....''full'' || '''ikber'''....''fill'' || '''ikper'''....''become full'' |- | '''uk-'''....''empty''||'''ukber'''....''empty'' || '''ukper'''....''become empty'' |} === Common Verb Derivatives === : The following chart shows a number of verb derivatives of '''ber''' and '''per''' formed by: ::* augmenting the '''b''' or '''p''' with a vowel having a general sense of direction relative to the speaker; ::* adding a verb formant at the end of the stem ('''-s''' (intransitive), '''-x''' (transitive), '''-l''', '''-r''', or '''-n'''); ::* intensifying the meaning of the word by prefixing the vowel stem with '''-y-''', '''-l-''', or '''-r'''-. ::* sometimes prefixing the stem with one or more prepositions or other semantic morphemes. : In these words, stems beginning with '''p-''' are more intense than those in '''b-'''. : The general formula for these verbs is "(PREFIX +)?[bp][y]?[aeoiu][sx]?[lr]?er". {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Building B- and P- Verbs with Verb Formants, Directional Vowels, and Intensifying Consonants ! A-vowel || E-vowel || O-vowel || I-vowel || U-vowel |- | valign=top | '''baer'''....''lean on'' <br>'''baler'''....''press'' <br>'''yuzbaler'''....''squeeze'' <br>'''kyibaler'''....''stress'' <br>'''yanbaler'''....''compress'' <br>'''yobaler'''....''suppress'' <br>'''yebaler'''....''impress'' <br>'''zoybaler'''....''squelch'' <br>'''zyobaler'''....''constrict'' <br>'''tyoyibaler'''....''trample'' <br>'''ilbaler'''....''squirt'' <br>'''lokyibaler'''....''relax'' <br>'''oyebaler'''....''express'' <br>'''barer'''....''crush'' <br>'''abarer'''....''squash'' <br>'''gibarer'''....''stab'' <br>'''ikbarer'''....''obliterate'' <br>'''tyoyibarer'''....''stomp on'' <br>'''yanbarer'''....''crunch'' <br>'''yuzbarer'''....''choke'' <br>'''zyobarer'''....''compact'' <br>'''baser/baxer'''....''budge/stir'' <br>'''zaobaser/zaobaxer'''....''rock/rock'' <br>'''byaser/byaxer'''....''stand up/erect'' <br>'''abaxer'''....''pat'' <br>'''abalser'''....''stroke'' <br>'''abarxer'''....''rub'' <br>'''basler/baxler'''....''shake/shake'' <br>'''byaler'''....''lift'' <br>'''paer'''....''hover'' <br>'''paser/paxer'''....''move/move'' <br>'''kipaser'''....''glide'' <br>'''kuipaser'''....''slide'' <br>'''ugpaser'''....''dawdle'' <br>'''tapaser'''....''exercise'' <br>'''tepaxer'''....''motivate'' <br>'''tiplaxer'''....''thrill'' <br>'''yokpaser'''....''jerk'' <br>'''kyepaser'''....''wander'' <br>'''kupaser/kupaxer'''....''move aside/move aside'' <br>'''uizpaser'''....''stagger'' <br>'''yuzpaser'''....''circulate'' <br>'''zaopaser'''....''swing'' <br>'''zaypaser'''....''progress'' <br>'''pasler/plaxer'''....''shake/shake up'' <br>'''praser/paxler'''....''convulse/rattle'' <br>'''zaopasler/zaopaxler'''....''wobble/shake back and forth'' <br>'''ompasler'''....''shiver'' <br>'''apaxer'''....''wipe'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''sweep'' <br>'''ibapaxler'''....''sweep away'' <br>'''apaxler'''....''scrub'' <br>'''pyaser/pyaxer'''....''jump/launch'' <br>'''yapyaser/yapyaxer'''....''jump up/throw up'' <br>'''yaopyaser/yaopyaxer'''....''bounce/bounce'' <br>'''aypyaser/aypyaxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''uzpyaser'''....''vault'' <br>'''opyaser/opyaxer'''....''jump off/throw off'' <br>'''oyepyaser/oyepyaxer'''....''jump out/throw out'' | valign=top | '''beer'''....''have'' <br>'''beler'''....''carry'' <br>'''beser/bexer'''....''stay/hold'' <br>'''kyobexer'''....''hold steady'' <br>'''zoybexer'''....''retain'' <br>'''zobexer'''....''detain'' <br>'''oyebeser/oyebexer'''....''stay out/exclude'' <br>'''yebeser/yebexer'''....''stay in/include'' <br>'''yanbeser/yanbexer'''....''adhere/hold together'' <br>'''valbeser/valbexer'''....''stay safe/keep safe'' <br>'''yagbexer'''....''conserve'' <br>'''yubexer'''....''hug'' <br>'''yibeser/yibexer'''....''shun/keep away'' <br>'''bexler'''....''keep'' <br>'''fibexler'''....''maintain'' <br>'''byexer'''....''hit'' <br>'''abyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''azbyexer'''....''slam'' <br>'''ebyexer'''....''clash'' <br>'''igbyexer'''....''swat'' <br>'''ilbyexer'''....''splash'' <br>'''kyibyexer'''....''thump'' <br>'''obyexer'''....''protect'' <br>'''ovbyexer'''....''resist'' <br>'''tuyabyexer'''....''clap'' <br>'''tuyubyexer'''.....''rap'' <br>'''tyoyabyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tyoyubyexer'''....''tap'' <br>'''yigbyexer'''....''knock'' <br>'''yobyexer'''....''knock down'' <br>'''yonbyexer'''....''break'' <br>'''igyonbyexer'''....''snap'' <br>'''seuxbyexer'''....''bang'' <br>'''zaobyexer'''....''bat'' <br>'''zyibyexer'''....''smack'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonbexrer'''....''shatter'' <br>'''peser/pexer'''....''wait/trap'' <br>'''pyexer'''....''strike'' <br>'''apyexer'''....''attack'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''azapyexer'''....''aggress'' <br>'''igpyexer'''....''sock'' <br>'''ilzyapyexer'''....''splatter'' <br>'''ilzyoyexer'''....''squirt'' <br>'''opyexer'''....''defend'' <br>'''epyexer'''....''fight'' <br>'''ovapyexer'''....''counterattack'' <br>'''koapyexer'''....''mug'' <br>'''tuyapyexer'''....''slap'' <br>'''tuyipyexer'''.....''smack'' <br>'''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick'' <br>'''tujpyexer'''....''knock out cold'' <br>'''yigpyexer'''....''whap'' <br>'''yopyexer'''....''strike down'' <br>'''yonpyexer'''....''crack'' <br>'''pyexegarer'''....''whip'' <br>'''adoparpyexer'''....''pistol whip'' <br>'''pexler'''....''beat'' <br>'''tojpexler'''....''beat to death'' <br>'''apexler'''....''assail'' <br>'''zoyapexler'''....''retaliate'' <br>'''izapexler'''....''strike head-on'' <br>'''tuyepexler'''....''fist pound'' <br>'''bukbyexer'''....''clobber'' <br>'''yonpesler/yonpexler'''....''burst/bust'' <br>'''pexrer'''....''shock'' <br>'''yepexrer'''....''implode'' <br>'''yonpesrer/yonpexrer'''....''explode/detonate'' <br>'''makpexrer'''....''electrocute'' <br>'''yanpesrer/yanpexrer''''....''collide/wreck'' | valign=top | '''boer'''....''hold up'' <br>'''boler'''....''prop up'' <br>'''boser/boxer'''....''be quiet/quieten'' <br>'''oboser/oboxer'''....''be bothered/annoy'' <br>'''tepoboser/tepoboxer'''....''worry/worry'' <br>'''lyobroser/lyobroxer'''....''agonize/torment'' <br>'''byoser/byoxer'''....''hang/hang'' <br>'''abyoser/abyoxer'''....''depend/hang on'' <br>'''obyoser/obyoxer'''....''be loose/loosen'' <br>'''teyopyoxer'''....''hang by the neck'' <br>''yapyoser/yapyoxer'''....''hang up'' <br>'''yopyoser/yopyoxer'''....''hang down'' <br>'''yivpyoser'''....''dangle'' <br>'''poser/poxer'''....''stop/stop'' <br>'''poner'''....''rest'' <br>'''poyser/poyxer'''....''pause/pause'' <br>'''dovalpoxer'''....''arrest'' <br>'''japoxer'''....''forestall'' <br>'''yexpoxer'''....''strike'' <br>'''zepoxer'''....''interrupt'' <br>'''pyoser/pyoxer'''....''fall/drop'' <br>'''aypyoser'''....''shower'' <br>'''kipyoser'''....''slip'' <br>'''milpyoser'''....''rain'' <br>'''mampyoser'''....''skydive'' <br>'''oyepyoser'''....''fall out'' <br>'''yanpyoser'''....''collapse'' <br>'''tojpyoser'''....''drop dead'' <br>'''yonpyoser'''....''decay'' <br>'''zoypyoser'''....''fall back'' <br>'''zyepyoser'''....''fall through'' <br>'''zyipyoser'''....''fall flat'' <br>'''zyupyoser'''....''tumble'' <br>'''teipyoser'''....''nose-dive'' <br>'''kyipyoser/kyipyoxer'''....''plop'' <br>'''igpyoser'''....''plummet'' <br>'''ilpyoser/ilpyoxer'''....''pour/pour'' <br>'''posler/poxler'''....''sink/dunk'' <br>'''ilposler/ilpoxler'''....''plunge/plunge'' <br>'''milpoxler'''....''dunk'' <br>'''posrer/poxrer'''....''drown/drown'' | valign=top | '''bier'''....''take'' <br>'''biser/bixer'''....''retire/pull'' <br>'''abixer'''....''pull on'' <br>'''aybixer'''....''pull over'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''ilbixer'''....''suction'' <br>'''kyobixer'''....''lure'' <br>'''miloybixer'''....''drown'' <br>'''obixer'''....''pull off'' <br>'''oyebixer'''....''extract'' <br>'''teyibixer'''....''distract'' <br>'''yagbixer'''....''stretch'' <br>'''yanbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''yebixer'''....''pull in'' <br>'''yibixer'''....''detract'' <br>'''yubixer'''....''attact'' <br>'''yogbixer'''....''contract'' <br>'''zaybixer'''....''protract'' <br>'''yembixer'''....''withdraw'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''yovbixer'''....''seduce'' <br>'''yonbixer'''....''pull apart'' <br>'''zobixer'''....''drag'' <br>'''zyabixer'''....''extend'' <br>'''yabixer'''....''pull up'' <br>'''yobixer'''....''pull down'' <br>'''ibixer'''....''pull away'' <br>'''byiser/byixer'''....''originate/derive'' <br>'''blixer'''....''yank'' <br>'''yabixler'''....''dredge'' <br>'''yeblixer'''....''drag in'' <br>'''yibixler'''....''yank away'' <br>'''yobixler'''....''drag down'' <br>'''bixrer'''....''snatch'' <br>'''oyebixrer'''....''rip out'' <br>'''yonbixrer'''....''rip apart'' <br>'''pier'''....''depart'' <br>'''pixer'''....''catch'' <br>'''pitpixer'''....''fish'' <br>'''plixer'''....''capture'' <br>'''koplixer'''....''abduct'' <br>'''tobotpixler'''....''kidnap'' <br>'''yipixler'''....''hijack'' <br>'''purpixler'''....''carjack'' | valign=top | '''buer'''....''give'' <br>'''buser/buxer'''....''lurch/push'' <br>'''bluxer'''....''drive'' <br>'''yebuxler'''....''expel'' <br>'''yonbuxler'''....''dislodge'' <br>'''oyebuxler'''....''oust'' <br>'''yanbuxler'''....''shove together'' <br>'''byuser/byuxer'''....''aim/touch'' <br>'''yanbyuxer'''....''contact'' <br>'''buxrer'''....''kick'' <br>'''abuxrer'''....''stomp'' <br>'''oyebuxrer'''....''kick out'' <br>'''obuxrer'''....''kick off'' <br>'''yebuxrer'''....''kick in'' <br>'''yobuxrer'''....''kick down'' <br>'''yonbuxrer'''....''kick apart'' <br>'''puer'''....''arrive'' <br>'''mempuer'''....''land'' <br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early'' <br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time'' <br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late'' <br>'''mimpuer'''....''dock'' <br>'''tampuer'''....''arrive home'' <br>'''yempuer'''....''accede'' <br>'''puser/puxer'''....''jump/throw'' <br>'''apuser/apuxer'''....''jump aboard/throw on'' <br>'''opuser/opuxer'''....''jump off/eject'' <br>'''ilpuser/ilpuxer'''....''spew/spew'' <br>'''ilzyapuser/ilzyapuxer'''....''spray/spray'' <br>'''ilzyopuser/ilzyopuxer'''....''squirt/squirt'' <br>'''ipuser/ipuxer'''....''jump away/discard'' <br>'''milapuxer'''....''douse'' <br>'''oyepuser/oyepuxer'''....''jump out/extrude'' <br>'''oypuser/oypuxer'''....''jump under/throw under'' <br>'''yipuser/yipuxer'''....''jump away/jettison'' <br>'''zaypuser/zaypuxer'''....''jump ahead/propel'' <br>'''zoypuser/zoypuxer'''....''jump back/throw back'' <br>'''yepuser/yepuxer'''....''jump in/inject'' <br>'''aypuser/aypuxer'''....''jump over/throw over'' <br>'''kupuser/kupuxer'''....''jump aside/cast aside'' <br>'''igilpuser/igilpuxer'''....''spurt/spurt'' <br>'''azpuxer'''....''force'' <br>'''igpuser/igpuxer'''....''fling oneself/fling'' <br>'''zaopuser/zaopuxer'''....''bounce/jostle'' <br>'''puyser/puyxer'''....''skip/toss'' <br>'''teubilpuxer'''....''split'' <br>'''pyuxer'''....''bump into'' <br>'''izpyuxer'''....''impact head-on'' <br>'''kupyuxer'''....''sideswipe'' <br>'''yanpyuxer'''....''collide with'' <br>'''zapyuxer'''....''collide head-on'' <br>'''pusler/puxler'''....''lunge/plunge'' <br>'''teipuxler'''....''sneeze'' <br>'''tepuxler'''....''impress'' <br>'''yopusler/yopuxler'''....''crash down/fell'' <br>'''puxrer'''....''shoot'' <br>'''apuxrer'''....''fire at'' <br>'''tojpuxrer'''....''shoot dead'' <br>'''yopuxrer'''....''shoot down'' |} === Using Ber and Per to Form Dynamic Verbs === : Some verbs with stems ending in '''-j''' are inherently stative. Their dynamic counterparts end in '''-ber''' for transitive verbs and in '''-per''' for intransitive verbs. There is a table showing this: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Using Ber and Per with J Verbs |- ! STATIVE-INTRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-TRANSITIVE !! DYNAMIC-INTRANSITIVE |- | '''tojer'''....''die'' || '''tojber'''....''kill'' || '''tojper'''....''drop dead'' |- | '''tajer'''....''be born'' || '''tajber'''....''give birth (to), bear'' || '''tajper'''....''spring up'' |- | '''tejer'''....''live'' || '''tejber'''....''bring to life'' || '''tejper'''....''come to life'' |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake'' || '''tijber'''....''awaken'' || '''tijper'''....''wake up'' |- | '''tujer'''....''sleep'' || '''tujber'''....''put to sleep'' || '''tujper'''....''fall asleep'' |- | '''ijer'''....''begin'' || '''ijber'''....''begin (something)'' || '''ijper'''....''start up'' |- | '''ujer'''....''end'' || '''ujber'''....''finish, put an end to'' || '''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- | '''yijer'''....''open up'' || '''yijber'''....''open up (something)'' || '''yijper'''....''come open'' |- | '''yujer'''....''close'' || '''yujber'''....''close, bring to a close'' || '''yujper'''....''come to a close'' |} == The '''der''' (''Say'') Family == === Core Words === : Words ending in '''der''' have to do with communicating, thus '''''saying, talking, writing, reading'''''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Der Core Words |- valign=top | '''daler'''....''speak''<br>'''dalzeyn'''....''language''<br>'''dalzeynes'''....''dialect'' || '''der'''....''say''<br>'''deler'''....''state'' || '''doler'''....''be silent'' || '''dier'''....''ask''<br>'''dider'''....''question''<br>'''diler'''....''request''<br>'''direr'''....''demand'' || '''duer'''....''suggest''<br>'''duder'''....''answer''<br>'''duler'''....''urge''<br>'''durer'''....''instigate'' |- valign=top | || '''drer'''....''write''<br>'''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''droer'''....''erase'' || || |- valign=top | || '''dyeer'''....''read''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''<br>'''dyeder'''....''dictate'' || || || |- | || '''seuxder'''....''pronounce''<br>'''dreder'''....''spell'' || || '''din'''....''story'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''dyan'''....''sentence'' |- valign=top | '''draf'''....''card''<br>'''drav'''....''notebook'' || '''dref'''....''paper''<br>'''drev'''....''page''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''drof'''....''board''<br>'''drov'''....''cardboard'' || || '''dyuf'''....''sheet''<br>'''dyuv'''....''page'' |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dez'''....''theater''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry'' || ||'''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''deuz'''....''song'' |} === Verbs of Communication === : Many verbs of communication are created by prefixing elements to '''der''' (''to say, tell'') as in the following chart: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Verbs of Communication with Der |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''vader'''....''affirm'' |- | '''vo'''....''no'' || '''voder'''....''deny'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''veder'''....''guess'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyader'''....''swear'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''false'' || '''vyoder'''....''lie'' |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyader'''....''bless'' |- | '''fyoa'''....''profane'' || '''fyoder'''....''curse'' |- | '''oza'''....''weak'' || '''ozder'''....''hint'' |- | '''eg'''....''re-'' || '''egder'''....''repeat'' |- | '''ve'''....''maybe'' + '''yova'''....''guilty'' || '''veyovder'''....''indict'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''yova'''....''guility'' || '''vayovder'''....''convict'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jader'''....''predict'' |- | '''vao'''....''yes/no'' || '''vaoder'''....''decide'' |- | '''yev'''....''justice'' || '''yevder'''....''judge'' |- | '''fia'''....''good'' || '''fider'''....''praise'' |- | '''fua'''....''bad'' || '''fuder'''....''disparage'' |- | '''af'''....''permission'' || '''afder'''....''authorize'' |- | '''of'''....''prohibition'' || '''ofder'''....''ban'' |- | '''naz'''....''value'' || '''nazder'''....''evaluate'' |- | '''yov'''....''guilt'' || '''yovder'''....''blame'' |- | '''zyaa'''....''wide'' || '''zyader'''....''broadcast'' |- | '''yaga'''....''long'' || '''yagder'''....''elaborate'' |- | '''vyoa'''....''wrong'' + '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vyovider'''....''flatter'' |- | '''vyea'''....''relative'' || '''vyeder'''....''relate'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' + '''oj'''....''future'' || '''vaojder'''....''promise'' |- | '''ut'''....''self'' + '''fia'''....''good'' || '''utfider'''....''boast'' |- | '''uv'''....''sorrow'' + '''tax'''....''memory'' || '''uvtaxder'''....''regret'' |- | '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''tesder'''....''mean'' |- | '''ov'''....''against'' || '''ovder'''....''object'' |- | '''kyia'''....''heavy'' || '''kyider'''....''emphasize'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwader'''....''warn'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''vo'''....''no'' || '''javoder'''....''preclude'' |- | '''yuj'''....''close'' || '''yujder'''....''conclude'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' + '''nap'''....''order'' || '''janapder'''....''preordain'' |- | '''hyay'''....''hurrah'' || '''hyayder'''....''congratulate'' |- | '''hyey'''....''thanks'' || '''hyeyder'''....''thank'' |- | '''gra'''....''too much'' || '''grader'''....''exaggerate'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizder'''....''joke'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dreder'''....''spell'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' || '''ebder'''....''communicate'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''di-'''....''ask'' || '''ebdider'''....''interview'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tes'''....''meaning'' || '''ebtesder'''....''interpret'' |- | '''eb'''....''between'' + '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''ebtexder'''....''decide'' |- | '''ek-'''....''play'' || '''ekder'''....''pretend'' |} === Animal Sounds === : Animal noise verbs are created by replacing the final '''-t''' of an animal name with '''der''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Building Animal Sound Verbs |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeder'''....''bark'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeder'''....''mew'' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow'' || '''epeyder'''....''moo'' |- | '''epat'''....''duck'' || '''epader'''....''quack'' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey'' || '''ipader'''....''gobble'' |} === Speaking in Languages === : Names of languages can be formed by replacing the final '''-m''' of the country name with '''-d'''. Then, the verb meaning to ''say in x language'' or ''speak in x language'' can be formed by adding '''-der''' or '''-daler''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Language Speaking Verbs |- | '''Anglam'''....''England''|| '''Anglad'''....'''English''' || '''Anglader'''....''say in English'' || '''Angladaler'''....''speak in English'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' || '''Fransader'''....''say in French'' || '''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' |} : The name of the language discussed in this book is '''Mirad''', which comes from '''mira''', meaning ''global, world''. Thus, ''say in Mirad'' is '''Mirader''' and ''speak Mirad'' is '''Miradaler'''. A speaker of Mirad is a '''Miradut''' or '''Miradalut'''. '''Duven et Mirade?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?''. '''Hey Miraduti, ansu!'''....''Hey, speakers of Mirad, unite!'' : Examples: ::* '''Duven et Miradale?'''....''Do you speak Mirad?'' ::* '''Diwe Engladu has.'''....''Please say it in English.'' ::* '''Voy ese gaj gla Latinaduti.'''....''There are no longer many Latin-speakers.'' : Note: '''Latinadalut''' can be shortened to '''Latinadut'''. : Similarly, ''to write in Mirad'' and ''to read in Mirad'' would be '''Miradrer''' and '''Miradyeer''', respectively. === Communication Arts === : Words for various communication art forms begin '''d-''' and end in '''-z''', eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Communications Art Words with D-Z |- valign=top | '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dazun'''....''a dance'' || '''dazut'''....''dancer''<br>'''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina''<br>'''dazutyan'''....''dance troupe'' || '''dazim'''....''ballroom''<br>'''dyazim'''....''ballet studio'' |- | '''dez'''....''theater'' || '''dezun'''....''a play'' || '''dezut'''....''stage actor''<br>'''dezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dezam'''....''theater''<br>'''dezyem'''....''stage''<br>'''dezmisof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy'' || '''dizun'''....''a sketch'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian''<br>'''dizutyan'''....''comedy cast'' || '''dizam'''....''comedy club''<br>'''dizyem'''....''stage'' |- | '''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''a poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' || '''drezim'''....''poetry salon'' |- | '''duz'''....''music''<br>'''dyuz'''....''opera''<br>'''dyuzog'''....''operetta, musical'' || '''duzun'''....''a musical piece'' || '''duzut'''....''musician''<br>'''duzutyan'''....''orchestra'' || '''duzam'''....''music arena''<br>'''dyuzam'''....''opera house''<br>'''duzar'''....''musical instrument'' |- | '''dyez'''....''cinema'' || '''dyezun'''....''a movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''screen actor''<br>'''dyezutyan'''....''cast''|| '''dyezam'''....''movie theater''<br>'''dyezim'''....''movie salon''<br>'''dyezmis'''....''silver screen'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzun'''....''a song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzam'''....''auditorium'' |} == The '''ter''' (''Know'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''', meaning human and mental states and activities like ''knowing'', ''thinking'', ''feeling'', etc.: === Core Words === <small> :<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow"> <tr><td valign=top> <big>'''taxer'''</big>....''remember''<br>'''taxier'''....''memorize''<br>'''taxuer'''....''remind'' </small></td><td valign=top> <big>'''texer'''</big>....''think''<br>'''vatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vatexuer'''....''persuade''<br>'''vetexer'''....''suspect''<br>'''votexer'''....''doubt''<br>'''votexuer'''....''dissuade''<br>'''vyotexuer'''....''deceive''<br>'''vyatex'''....''reason''<br><big>'''ter'''</big>....''know''<br>'''oter'''....''ignore''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''twas'''....''datum''<br>'''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''ten'''....''knowledge''<br>'''tier'''....''find out''<br>'''tuer'''....''inform''<br>'''tuun'''...''datum''<br>'''tuunyan'''....''information''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br><big>'''tyer'''</big>....''know how''<br>'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''tyier'''....''get trained''<br>'''tyuer'''....''train''<br>'''tyun'''....''concept''<br>'''tyen'''....''skill''<br>'''tyenyan'''....''technology''<br><big>'''trer'''</big>....''recognize''<br>'''trier'''....''get acquainted''<br>'''truer'''....''acquaint''<br>'''teyen'''....''idea''<br>'''teyentun'''....''philosophy''<br>'''teyenyan'''....''ideology''<br>'''teyenier'''....''conceptualize''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''toxer'''</big>....''forget'' </td><td valign=top><big>'''tixer'''</big>....''study'' </td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuxer'''</big>....''teach''<br>'''tuuxer'''....''educate''</td></tr> <tr><td valign=top></td><td valign=top><big>'''teser'''</big>....''mean''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''tesier'''....''infer''<br>'''tesuer'''....''imply''<br>'''tester'''....''understand''<br>'''tesder'''....''explain''<br>'''testier'''....''realize''<br>'''testun'''....''semantics''</td><td valign=top><big>'''toser'''</big>....''feel'' <br>'''tos'''....''sense''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tier'''</big>....''learn''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine''<br>'''iztis'''....''intuition''<br>'''vyatis'''....''wisdom''</td><td valign=top> <big>'''tuer'''</big>....''inform''<br>'''tun'''....''science''<br>'''tuin'''....''theory''<br>'''tuz'''....''art''</td></tr> </table> </small> : <small>1. Note that '''trer'''....''recognize, know, be familiar with'' is used instead of '''ter'''....''know'' when referring to a person, much like Fr. '''conna&icirc;tre'''....''be familiar with (a person)'' vs. '''savoir'''....''know (a fact, how to)'', eg. '''It voy te van at <u>tre</u> it.'''....''He doesn't know that I <u>know</u> him.'' '''Tyer''', on the other hand, means ''to know how to do something''.</small> === Ologies === : Suffixing '''-tun'''....''science'' to words forms many ''-ology'' terms. An ''-ologist'' is rendered with ''-tut'', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ologies |- | '''tep'''....''mind'' || '''teptun'''....''psychology'' || '''teptut'''....''psychologist'' |- | '''tieb'''....''lung'' || '''tiebtun'''....''pneumology'' || '''tiebtut'''....''pneumologist'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''tejtun'''....''thanatology'' || '''tejtut'''....''thanatologist'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattun'''....''ornithology'' || '''pattut'''....''ornithologist'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pittun'''....''ichthyology'' || '''pittut'''....''ichthyologist'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''pottun'''....''zoology'' || '''pottut'''....''zoologist'' |- | '''mul'''....''matter'' || '''multun'''....''chemistry'' ("materiology?") || '''multut'''....''chemist'' |- | '''ko-'''....''hidden'', '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''kodrentun'''....''cryptology'' || '''kodrentut'''....''cryptologist'' |} : Some ''-ology'' words in English refer to theories or pseudo-science and are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tuin''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Tuin Suffix Words |- | '''mar'''....''star'' || '''martuin'''....''astrology'' (cf. '''martun'''....''astronomy'')|| '''martuit'''....''astrologist'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''sagtuin'''....''numerology'' (cf. '''sagtun'''....''mathematics'')|| '''sagtuit'''....''numerologist'' |- | '''nif'''....''string'' || '''niftuin'''....''string theory'' || '''niftuit'''....''string theoretician'' |} === Ism's === : Words in English referring to doctrines, dogmas, or ''-isms'' are translated into Mirad with the ending '''-tin''' or its stub, '''-in''', eg: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Ism Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dotin'''....''socialism'' |- | '''Buda'''....''Buddha'' || '''Budatin'''....''Bhuddism'' |- | '''gwa'''....''most'', '''fis'''....''good thing'' || '''gwafistin'''....''optimism'' |- | '''vyaa'''....''true'' || '''vyatin'''....''orthodoxy, truism'' |- | '''an-'''....''one'', '''tot'''....''god'' || '''antotin'''....''monotheism'' |} === Schools === : The general word for ''school'' is '''tistam''' (house of learning). The various levels of schools are translated with this word scalarized numerically. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Schools | '''jotistam''' || ''pre-school, kindergarten'' |- | '''atistam''' || ''primary school'' |- | '''etistam''' || ''secondary school'', ''high school'', ''lycee'' |- | '''itistam''' || ''college'' |- | '''utistam''' || ''university'' |- | '''joutistam''' || ''post-graduate school'' |} : The word ''pre-school, kindergarten'' is represented with '''jatitam''' (lit. ''pre-school''), while ''post-graduate school'' is rendered with '''joutitam''' (lit. ''pre-university''). : Some other, related terms: ::* '''enjab itistam'''....''two-year college'' ::* '''dovyab tistam'''....''law school'' ::* '''tyena tistam'''....''trade school, vocational school'' ::* '''zetistam'''....''middle school'' ::* '''tutam'''....''academy'' ::* '''tiut'''....''pupil'' ::* '''tixut'''....''student'' ::* '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' ::* '''tuxut'''....''teacher'' ::* '''tuut'''....''educator'' ::* '''tuen'''....''education'' ::* '''tut'''....''professor, scholar'' ::* '''tit'''....''disciple, learner'' ::* '''tistameb'''....''principal'' ::* '''itistameb'''....''college dean'' ::* '''tuxutyan'''....''faculty'' ::* '''tuxim'''....''lecture hall, classroom'' ::* '''tixim'''....''study hall'' ::* '''tistyan'''....''class'' ::* '''tisun'''....''lesson'' ::* '''tisundyes'''....''lesson book'' ::* '''aa tisnog'''....''first grade'' ::* '''ea tisnog'''....''second grade'' == The '''fer''' (''Want'') Family == : The verb '''fer''' means ''to want'' and is following by a noun or pronoun, an infinitive, or an entire clause, eg.: ::* '''At voy <u>fe</u> hyea yux.'''....''I do not <u>want</u> any help.'' ::* '''Yat <u>fa</u> iyt poser.'''....''We <u>wanted</u> her to stop.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fe</u> per bay at?'''....''Do you <u>want</u> to go with me?'' ::* '''Yit voy <u>fe</u> has hu at fe.'''....''They do not <u>want</u> what I want.'' : Use of the verb '''fer''' in the hypothetical mood means ''would like'', eg.: ::* '''At <u>fu</u> beser him.'''....''I <u>would like</u> to stay here.'' ::* '''Duven et <u>fu</u> til.'''....''<u>Would</u> you <u>like</u> a drink?'' : Other derivatives: ::* '''fon'''....''will, volition'' ::* '''fler'''....''to desire'' ::* '''flon'''....''desire'' ::* '''frer'''....''to aspire, wish for, yearn, long for, crave'' ::* '''fron'''....''aspiration, yearing'' ::* '''ojfer'''....''to hope'' ::* '''ojfon'''....''hope'' ::* '''vafer'''....''to intend'' ::* '''vaf'''....''intention'' ::* '''fifer'''....''to wish well, mean well'' ::* '''fifi'''....''well wishes'' ::* '''fifon'''....''goodwill, benevolence'' ::* '''fufer'''....''to wish bad for'' ::* '''fuf'''....''bad wish'' ::* '''fufon'''....''bad will, malevolence'' ::* '''fonder'''....''to volunteer'' ::* '''graf'''....''craving, addiction'' ::* '''gafer'''....''to prefer'' ::* '''kofer'''....''to covet'' ::* '''tepfer'''....''to pretend'' ::* '''trefer'''....''to be curious about'' == The '''job''' (''Time'') Family == : Here are the most important words derived from '''job'''....''time''. Bear in mind that, in English, there are two meanings for ''time''. One refers to time as it passes, which is translated by '''job''' in Mirad, and the other refers to a ''point in time'', an ''instance'' or ''occasion'', i.e. a countable noun concerning frequency, translated by '''jod''' in Mirad. === Calendar Time Units === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Calendar Time Units |- ! TIME !! GEOLOGIC<br>PERIODS !! SEASONS !! MONTHS !! DAYS OF THE WEEK |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''joab'''....''eon'' || '''jeab'''....''spring'' || '''jiab'''....''January'' || '''juab'''....''Monday'' |- | '''jab'''....''year'' || '''joeb'''....''era'' || '''jeeb'''....''summer'' || '''jieb'''....''February'' || '''jueb'''....''Tuesday'' |- | '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''joib'''....''period'' || '''jeib'''....''autumn'' || '''jiib'''....''March'' || '''juib'''....''Wednesday'' |- | '''jib'''....''month'' || '''joub'''....''epoch'' || '''jeub'''....''winter'' || '''jiub'''....''April'' || '''juub'''....''Thursday'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''joyob'''....''age'' || || '''jiyob'''....''May'' || '''juyob'''....''Friday'' |- | '''jwob'''* ''hour'' ||'''joyab'''....''chron'' || || '''jiyab'''....''June'' || '''yuyab'''....''Saturday'' |- | '''jwab'''* ''minute''<br>'''jwap'''....''moment'' ||'''joyeb'''....''term'' || || '''jiyeb'''....''July'' || '''juyeb'''....''Sunday'' |- | '''jweb'''* ''second''<br>'''jwep'''....''instant'' || || || '''jiyib'''....''August'' || |- | || || || '''jiyub'''....''September'' || |- | || || || '''jilob'''....''October'' || |- | || || || '''jilab'''....''November'' || |- | || || || '''jileb'''....''December'' || |- ! OTHER !! !! !! !! |- | '''yejub'''....''week'' || '''sojab'''....''century'' || '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ||'''hyajob'''....''eternity'' ||'''oyujan'''....''infinity'' |} : <small>* These would normally be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''', but there are hard to pronounce and difficult to hear, so the '''y''' is replaced by a '''w'''.</small> === Times of Day === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Times of Day |- ! DAY / NIGHT !! PERIODS |- | rowspan=7 | '''maj'''....''daytime'' || '''majij'''....''dawn'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon'' |- | '''jazemaj (JaZ.)'''....''ante-meridian, AM'' |- | '''jozemaj (JoZ.)'''....''afternoon, postmeridian, PM'' |- | '''jwomaj'''....''late day'' |- | '''majuj'''....''dusk, twilight'' |- | rowspan=4 | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwamoj'''....''evening'' |- | '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |} : Note: '''jub''' ''day'' is a general word referring to the whole 24-hour cycle without reference to morning or night. '''Maj''' refers to the daylight hours and '''moj''' to the darkness hours. : Examples of usage: ::* '''At teato et <u>zajub jwamaj</u>.'''....''I will see you <u>tomorrow morning</u>.'' ::* '''Yat teapa iyt <u>zojub jozemaj</u>.'''....''We visited her <u>yesterday afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''Ha maar yope <u>be majuj</u>.'''....''The sun sets <u>at dusk</u>.'' ::* '''Mamila <u>zojub jwamoj</u>.'''....''It rained <u>yesterday evening</u>.'' ::* '''At tijpe <u>be majij</u>.'''....''I wake up <u>at dawn</u>.'' === Clock Time === : The following examples show how to express clock time: ::* '''<u>Se hojab</u>?'''....''<u>What time is it</u>?'' ::* '''Se <u>alo jwabi</u> JaZ (=jazemaj).'''....''It is <u>ten o'clock</u> A.M.'' ::* '''Se uwa jwabi <u>JoZ</u> (=jozemaj).'''....''It is four o'clock <u>P.M.</u>'' ::* '''Se yawa <u>jwabi gab ilo</u>.'''....''It is <u>six thirty</u>. (= plus thirty)'' ::* '''Se alo (jwebi) ji yiwa.'''....''It is ten (minutes) til eight.'' (or:) ::* '''Se yiwa (jwabi) gab alo.'''.... " " " ::* '''Se <u>uyn ji</u> awa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter past</u> ( = since) one.'' ::* '''Se <u>uyn ju</u> ewa.'''....''It is <u>a quarter til</u> ( = until) two.'' ::* '''Se go <u>jo</u> ewa.'''....''It is a little <u>past</u> ( = after) two.'' ::* '''Se <u>jubay</u> uwa jwabi.'''....''It is <u>almost</u> 4 o'clock.'' ::* '''Se <u>gwe</u> zemaj.'''....''It is <u>exactly</u> (= just) noon.'' ::* '''Se <u>go yiz</u> zemoj.'''....''It was <u>slightly past</u> (= beyond) midnight.'' ::* '''At so hum <u>ojo</u> ale jwebi.'''....''I'll be there <u>in</u> (= not-after) twelve minutes.'' ::* '''Su him <u>jwa</u> / jwe!'''....''Be here <u>early</u> / on time!'' ::* '''Von su <u>jwo</u>!'''....''Don't be <u>late</u>!'' === General Time Words === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ General Time Words |- ! GENERAL TIME WORDS !! EXAMPLES |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''job bi uvan'''....''a time of sadness''<br>'''Job pape.'''....''Time flies.'' |- | '''jod'''....''time, instance, occasion'' || '''awa jod'''....''once''<br>'''ewa jodi'''....''two times''<br>'''gajod'''...''again, another time'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''Hoxag?'''....''How often?''<br>'''glaxag'''....''very often''<br>'''hyoxag'''....''never'' |- | '''jud'''....''date'' || '''Be hoa jud?'''....''On what date?''<br>'''be ga jwoa jud'''....''at a later date'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''Et se hojaga?'''....''How old are you?''<br>'''At se ulo jaga.'''....''I am forty years old.'' |} === Some Parallel Time Terms === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallel Time Words |- | '''taj'''....''birth'' || '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna'''....''former, old''|| '''ajoba'''....''ancient'' || '''ja'''....''before'' || '''jay'''....''already'' ||'''jana'''....''previous'' || '''jaga'''....''old'' || '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwafa'''....''pre-mature'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna'''....''new''|| '''ejoba'''....''modern'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''jena'''....''current'' || ||'''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwefa'''....''mature, ripe'' |- | '''toj'''....''death'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna'''....''imminent''|| '''ojoba'''....''futuristic'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''joy'''....''afterwards'' || '''jona'''....''next'' || '''joga'''....''young'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''tij'''....''wakefulness'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna'''....''initial''|| '''ijob'''....''early times'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || || || '''jiga'''....''fresh, vibrant'' || || |- | '''tuj'''....''sleep'' || '''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna'''....''final''|| '''ujob'''....''latter days'' || '''ju'''....''until'' || || || '''juga'''....''tired, jaded'' || || |} === Time, Frequency, and Age Questions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Time, Frequency, and Age Questions |- ! WHEN !! HOW OFTEN !! HOW OLD |- | '''duhaj?'''....''when?'' || '''duhaxag'''....''how often?'' || '''duhajaga?'''....''how old?'' |- | '''haj hu'''....''when'' || '''haxag hu'''....''as often as'' || '''hajaga hu'''....''as old as'' |- | '''hej'''....''sometime'' || '''hexag'''....''sometimes'' || '''hejaga'''....''of a certain age'' |- | '''hoj'''....''never'' || '''hoxag'''....''never'' || |- | '''hij'''....''now''|| '''hixag'''....''this often'' || '''hijaga'''....''this old'' |- | '''huj'''....''then'' || '''huxag'''....''that often'' || '''hujaga'''....''that old'' |- | '''huuj'''....''at such a time'' || '''huuxag'''....''so often'' || '''huujaga'''....''so old'' |- | '''hyaj'''....''always'' || '''hyaxag'''....''at all times''|| '''grajaga'''....''too old'' |- | '''hyej'''....''anytime'' || '''hyexag'''....''however often'' || '''grojaga'''....''under-aged'' |- | '''hyoj'''....''never'' || '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' || '''glejaga'''....''rather old'' |- | '''hyij (vyel)'''....''at the same time (as)'' || '''gexag (vyel)'''....''as often (as)'' || '''gejaga (vyel)'''....''of the same age (as)'' |- | '''hyuj (vyel)'''....''some other time (than)''|| '''ogexag (vyel)'''....''not as often (as)'' || '''ogejaga (vyel)'''....''not as old (as)'' |- | '''be jodi'''....''at times'' || '''awa jod'''....''once'' || '''awa (jab) jaga'''....''one year old'' |- | '''be hujobi'''....''in those times'' || '''ewa jodi'''....''twice'' || '''ewa (jabi) jaga'''....''two years old'' |- | '''byu jobuj'''....''forever'' || '''gla jodi'''....''many time'' || '''alo (jabi) jaga'''....''ten years old'' |- | '''byi huj'''....''since then'' || '''aloni bi jodi'''....''hundreds of times'' || '''gajaga (vyel)'''....''older (than)'' |} : ''How old are you?'' is expressed as '''Hojaga se et?'''. A typical response is '''At se ali (jabi) jaga.'''....''I am thirteen (years old).'' If the quantity of time is months, than the answer would be like the following: '''Iyt sa ewa jibi (jaga).'''....''She was two months (old).'' === Age Classes === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Age Classes ! GENDER-NONSPECIFIC (MALE) !! FEMALE |- | '''awajag(w)at'''....''one-year-old (boy)''||'''awajagayt'''....''one-year-old girl'' |- | '''alojag(w)at'''....''ten-year-old (boy)''||'''alojagayt'''....''ten-year-old girl'' |- | '''jog(w)at'''....''youngster, youth, (boy)'' || '''jogayt'''....''girl, damsel'' |- | '''gwajog(w)at'''....''youngest person/(boy)'' || '''gwajogayt'''....''youngest girl'' |- | '''gojag(w)at'''....''younger person/(boy), cadet'' || '''gojagayt'''....''younger girl'' |- | '''aloyjag(w)at'''....''teenager, (teenaged boy)'' || '''aloyjagayt'''....''teenaged girl'' |- | '''grajog(w)at'''....''minor, (under-aged boy)'' || '''grajogayt'''....''minor female, girl too young'' |- | '''grojag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwot'''....''minor, immature person/(boy)''||'''grojagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwoyt'''....''minor girl'' |- | '''grejagseat'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwet'''....''adolescent (boy)'' || '''grejagseayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jweyt'''....''adolescent (girl)'' |- | '''grejag(w)at'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwat'''....''adult male, (boy of age)'' || '''grejagayt'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;'''jwayt'''....''adult female, girl of age'' |- | '''zejag(w)at'''....''middle-aged person/(man)'' || '''zejagayt'''....''middle-aged female/woman'' |- | '''gajag(w)at'''....''older person/(man), elder, superior''||'''gajagayt'''....''older female/woman, elder, superior'' |- | '''grajag(w)at'''....''over-aged person/(man), person/(man too old)'' || '''grajagayt'''....''over-aged female/woman, woman too old'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''youngish individual, youngish (man)'' || '''jaygayt'''....''youngish female, youngish woman'' |- | '''yilojag(w)at'''....''octogenarian'' || '''yilojagayt'''....''octogenarian woman, woman in her eighties'' |- | '''yulojag(w)at'''....''nonagenarian'' || '''yulojagayt'''....''nonagenarian woman, woman in her nineties'' |- | '''asojag(w)at'''....''centenarian'' || '''asojagayt'''....''centenarian woman, 100-year-old woman'' |- | '''jag(w)at'''....''oldster, veteran, old person, (old man), elder'' || '''jagayt'''....''old woman, old lady'' |- | '''jayg(w)at'''....''oldish person''|||'''jaygayt'''....''oldish woman'' |- | '''gwajag(w)at'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest person/(man)'' ||'''gwajagayt'''....''oldest/senior-most/eldest woman'' |- | '''gwojag(w)at'''....''the least old person/(man)'' || '''gwojagayt'''....''the least old woman'' |} == The '''sag''' (''Number''), '''xag''' (''Frequency''), '''nog''' (''Measure''), '''nod''' (''Point'') Families == : The words in this family have to do with numbers, measurements, degrees, points, lines, etc. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Core Words |- ! ...AG WORDS !! N...[BPD] WORDS |- | '''ag'''....''size'' || '''nod'''....''point'' |- | '''sag'''....''number'' || '''nad'''....''line'' |- | '''syag'''....''count'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''syaag'''....''calculation'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' |- | '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''nap'''....''order'' |- | '''nak'''....''measurement unit'' || |- | '''neg'''....''level'' || '''naab'''....''organization'' |- | '''nig'''....''space'' || '''naap'''....''system'' |- | '''jag'''....''age'' || '''nyap'''....''rule'' |- | '''xag'''....''frequency'' || '''nyed'''....''grid'' |- | '''yag'''....''length'' || |} === Shapes === : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Shapes |- | '''san'''....''shape, figure'' |- | '''nid'''....''volume, solid'' |- | '''ned'''....''plane'' |- | '''nod'''....''point, dot'' |- | '''gin'''....''point, tip'' |- | '''gun'''....''angle'' |- | '''kun'''....''side'' |- | '''zyus'''....''circle'' |- | '''zyuys'''....''oval'' |- | '''zyunid'''....''sphere'' |- | '''zyuk'''....''wheel'' |- | '''unizgun'''....''rectangle'' |- | '''ungekun'''....''square'' |- | '''ungun'''....''quadrangle'' |- | '''unoizgun'''....''rhombus'' |- | '''ingun'''....''triangle'' |- | '''yoongun'''....''pentagon'' |- | '''ginnid''' (or: '''defebnid''')....''cone'' |- | '''yagekunid'''....''cube'' |- | '''inguginid'''....''pyramid'' |- | '''fufnid'''....''cylinder'' |- | '''amezsan'''....''diamond'' |- | '''tosan'''....''cross'' |- | '''uznad'''....''arc'' |- | '''ilpyaon'''....''wave'' |- | '''gunnid'''....''wedge'' |- | '''maarsan'''....''star shape'' |} == The '''tom''' (''Building''), '''em''' (''Place'') Families == : The stems in this family end mostly in '''-m''', meaning ''place''. The family includes areas, places, locations, buildings, houses, rooms, spaces, and containers. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Place Words |- ! FULL WORDS !! STUBS |- | '''tom'''....''building'', '''nem'''....''place'' || '''-em'''....''general (usu. open) place'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'', '''nam'''....''store'' || '''-am'''....''indoor place, building'' |- | '''tem'''....''hall'', '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''-yem'''....''enclosed space'' |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''-im'''....''room'' |- | '''tum'''....''closet, cell, compartment'' || '''-um'''....''cell, booth, stall, compartment'' |- | '''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''syeb'''....''can''<br>'''zyeb'''....''bottle'' || '''-yeb'''....''container'' |} === Common Spaces with -(e)m === : The words in the following table refer to spaces or open places: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -EM Words |- ! PLACE !! ROOT |- | '''abem'''....''top'' || '''ab'''....''on'' |- | '''obem'''....''bottom'' || '''ob'''....''base'' |- | '''ebem'''....''interval'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''oyebem'''....''outdoors'' || '''oyeb'''....''out'' |- | '''yebem'''....''indoors'' || '''yeb'''....''in'' |- | '''yubem'''....''vicinity'' || '''yub'''....''near'' |- | '''yibem'''....''distance'' || '''yib'''....''far'' |- | '''yabem'''....''upstairs'' || '''yab'''....''up'' |- | '''yobem'''....''downstairs'' || '''yob'''....''down'' |- | '''hom?'''....''where?'' || '''ho-'''....''which'' |- | '''zem'''....''middle'' || '''ze-'''....''middle'' |- | '''zam'''....''front'' || '''za'''....''before'' |- | '''zom'''....''back'' || '''zo'''....''after'' |- | '''kum'''....''side'' || '''kua'''....''lateral'' |- | '''kim'''....''slope'' || '''kia'''....''diagonal'' |- | '''byim'''....''source'' || '''byi'''....''since'' |- | '''byum'''....''destination'' || '''byu'''....''up to'' |- | '''bem'''....''position'' || '''be'''....''at'' |- | '''dem'''....''park'' || '''d(o)-'''....''social'' |- | '''dopekem'''....''battleground'' || '''dopek'''....''battle'' |- | '''melyexem'''....''farm'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''yex'''....''work'' |- | '''goynem'''....''sector'' || '''goyn'''....''cut'' |- | '''ijem'''....''origin'' || '''ij'''....''start'' |- | '''kosem'''....''hideout'' || '''kos-'''....''hide'' |- | '''kyosem'''....''settlement'' || '''kyos-'''....''stay'' |- | '''mem'''....''country'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''mimpuem'''....''dock'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''pu-'''....''arrive'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''ob'''....''off'' + '''dab'''....''government'' |- | '''apem'''....''wharf'' || '''ap-'''....''embark'' |- | '''sexem'''....''construction site'' || '''sex'''....''construction'' |- | '''tojmelukem'''....''cemetery'' || '''toj'''....''death'' + '''mel'''....''soil'' + '''uk'''....''vacuum'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''to-'''....''human'' |- | '''ujem'''....''terminus'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''vobem'''....''planation'' || '''vob'''....''plant'' |- | '''xem'''....''office'' || '''x-'''....''do'' |- | '''yomkiparem'''....''ice skating rink'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' + '''kipar''' +''skate'' |} === Common Places with -am === : These words refer to houses and buildings: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -AM Words |- ! BUILDING !! ROOT |- | '''nam'''....''shop'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''aajasnam'''....''antique store'' || '''aajas'''....''antique'' |- | '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' || '''apelat'''....''bee'' |- | '''apetigpekam'''....''(horse) racetrack'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' + '''ig-'''....''fast'' + '''pek'''....''competition'' |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''bektam'''....''hospice'' || '''bek'''....''treatment'' |- | '''bextam'''....''castle'' || '''bex-'''....''keep'' |- | '''bekilnam'''....''pharmacy'' || '''bekil'''....''medecine'' + '''nam'''....''store'' |- | '''saxam'''....''factory'' || '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''bilunsaxam'''....''dairy'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' + '''-un'''....''product'' + '''sax-'''....''make'' |- | '''datibam'''....''hotel'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''tistam'''....''school'' || '''tis'''....''learn'' |- | '''doyevam'''....''court'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''yev'''....''justice'' |- | '''doptam'''....''barracks'' || '''dop'''....''military'' |- | '''dresam'''....''bureau'' || '''dres-'''....''write'' |- | '''bokam'''....''hospital'' || '''bok'''....''sickness'' |- | '''mamparam'''....''hangar'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' + '''par'''....''vehicle'' |- | '''mogxam'''....''crematorium'' || '''mog'''....''ash'' + '''x-'''....''make'' |- | '''posam'''....''station'' || '''pos-'''....''stop'' |- | '''taolgoblam'''....''butcher shop'' || '''taol'''....''meat'' + '''gobl-'''....''cleave'' |- | '''tilam'''....''bar'' || '''til-'''....''drink'' |- | '''yibdubam'''....''embassy'' || '''yib'''....''far'' + '''dub'''....''minister'' |} === Common Containers and Enclosed Spaces with -yem === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -YEM Words |- ! CONTAINER !! ROOT |- | '''apetyem'''....''corral'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''nyem'''....''box'' || '''n-'''....''commercial'' |- | '''syem'''....''institution'' || '''s-'''....''exist'' |- | '''milpyem'''....''swimming pool'' || '''milp-'''....''swim'' |- | '''nunyem'''....''package'' || '''nun'''....''merchandise'' |- | '''ponyem'''....''suitcase'' || '''po-'''....''travel'' |- | '''tebnyem'''....''skull'' || '''teb'''....''head'' |- | '''tuyabyem'''....''pocket'' || '''tuyab'''....''hand'' |- | '''vabijyem'''....''pod'' || '''vabij'''....''seed'' |- | '''tyem'''....''residence'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''tobijyem'''....''ovary'' || '''tobij'''....''embryo'' |- | '''tojnyem'''....''casket'' || '''toj'''....''death'' |- | '''ukyem'''....''slot'' || '''uk-'''....''empty'' |- | '''myem'''....''plot of ground'' || '''m-'''....''natural things'' |- | '''magilyem'''....''fuel tank'' || '''magil'''....''fuel'' |- | '''koyem'''....''shelter'' || '''ko-'''....''hide'' |} === Common Rooms with -(t)im === : These words describe type of rooms ('''tim'''): :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -IM Words |- ! ROOM !! ROOT |- | '''tim'''....''room'' || '''t-'''....''human'' |- | '''aybmostim'''....''attic'' || '''ayb-'''....''upper'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''oybmostim'''....''basement'' || '''oyb-'''....''lower'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''ebmostim'''....''mezzanine'' || '''eb'''....''between'' + '''mos'''....''floor'' |- | '''avoliim'''....''pantry'' || '''avol'''....''bread'' |- | '''apetim'''....''stall'' || '''apet'''....''horse'' |- | '''beaxim'''....''ward'' || '''beax-'''....''watch'' |- | '''azla bikim'''....''intensive care unit'' || '''azla'''....''intensive'' + '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''belunim'''....''cargo bay'' || '''belun'''....''cargo'' |- | '''biktim'''....''clinic'' || '''bik'''....''care'' |- | '''datibim'''....''lobby'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' + '''ib-'''....''receive'' |- | '''dyezim'''....''screening room'' || '''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''doebdalim'''....''conference room'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''eb'''....''between'' + '''dal-'''....''speak'' |- | '''ebtim'''....''corridor'' || '''eb'''....''between'' |- | '''fyadilim'''....''chapel'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' + '''dil'''....''request'' |- | '''dokebidim'''....''voting booth'' || '''do-'''....''public'' + '''kebi-'''....''choice'' |- | '''fyatim'''....''sanctuary'' || '''fya-'''....''holy'' |- | '''milufim'''....''toilet'' || '''mil'''....''water'' + '''-uf'''....''pipe'' |- | '''movim'''....''smoking den'' || '''mov'''....''smoke'' |- | '''novim'''....''linen closet'' || '''nov'''....''linen'' |- | '''saxim'''....''studio'' || '''sax-'''....''create'' |- | '''sumtim'''....''bedroom'' || '''sum'''....''bed'' |- | '''teexutim'''....''auditorium'' || '''teexut'''....''listener'' |- | '''tulim'''....''dining room'' || '''tul'''....''cuisine'' |- | '''vaobim'''....''hayloft'' || '''vaob'''....''hay'' |- | '''vyakexim'''....''laboratory'' || '''vyakex'''....''test'' |- | '''zatim'''....''antechamber'' || '''za'''....''front'' |- | '''zyutim'''....''rotunda'' || '''zyu-'''....''round'' |- | '''yexim'''....''office'' || '''yex-'''....''work'' |} === Locative Deictic Adverbs === : The locative deictic adverbs (or pro-adverbs) use the '''-m''' suffix of place, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Locative Deictic Adverbs |- | '''duham?'''....''where?'' |- | '''ham hu'''....''the place where, where'' |- | '''hem'''....''somewhere'' |- | '''hom'''....''nowhere'' |- | '''him'''....''here'' |- | '''hiim'''....''the following place'' |- | '''hum'''....''there'' |- | '''huum'''....''such a place'' |- | '''hyom'''....''nowhere at all'' |- | '''hyam'''....''everywhere'' |- | '''hyem'''....''anywhere, wherever'' |- | '''hyim'''¹....''(at) the same place'' |- | '''hyum'''¹....''elsewhere, somewhere else'' |} : Note 1: Also '''gem'''. : Note 2: Also '''ogem'''. == The '''a''' (''One'') '''yan''' (''Together'') Families == : The stems in this family are based on '''a'''....''one'', and '''yan'''....''together'' and their opposites, '''o'''....''zero'' and '''yon'''....''apart''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ A-O Contrasts |- ! SINGLE !! NULL |- | '''a-'''....''one'' || '''o-'''....''zero, un-'' |- | '''awa'''....''one'' || '''owa'''....''zero'' |- | '''an-'''....''uni-, mono-'' || '''on-'''....''non-'' |- | '''yan-'''....''together, con-'' || '''yon-'''....''apart, dis-'' |- | '''hya-'''....''all'' || '''hyo-'''....''none'' |- | '''-aya'''....''-ful'' || '''-oya'''....''-less'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''oy'''....''but'' |} === Collective Nouns === : The suffix '''-yan''' is used to form collective nouns. Here are some examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -YAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''fabyan'''....''forest'' |- | '''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''vyabyan'''....''regimen, system'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''vosyan'''....''bouquet'' |- | '''uzun'''....''ring'' || '''uzunyan'''....''chain'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyan'''....''group'' |- | '''toom'''....''apartment'' || '''toomyan'''....''apartment complex'' |- | '''teyen'''....''idea'' || '''teyenyan'''....''ideology'' |- | '''tyen'''....''technique'' || '''tyenyan'''....''technology'' |- | '''tixut'''....''student'' || '''tixutyan'''....''student body'' |- | '''tit'''....''pupil'' || '''tityan'''....''class'' |- | '''telar'''....''eating utensil'' || '''telaryan'''....''cutlery'' |- | '''sir'''....''machine'' || '''siryan'''....''machinery'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |} : An extension of '''yan''' is '''nyan''', meaning ''stack, pile, accumulation, crowd,'' and so is a bit more intensive: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Nouns with -NYAN |- ! SINGLETON !! COLLECTION |- | '''pet'''....''land animal'' || '''petnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotnyan'''....''crowd'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' |- | '''taib'''....''bone'' || '''taibnyan'''....''skeleton'' |- | '''yaot'''....''public persona'' || '''yaotnyan'''....''commune'' |- | '''dun'''....''word'' || '''dunnyan'''....''list'' |- | '''vaob'''....''hay'' || '''vaobnyan'''....''haystack'' |} : The following confusing terms should be kept distinct: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Collective Words |- ! NOUN !! VERB |- | '''aot'''....''individual, person'' || '''aota'''....''personal'' |- | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''auta'''....''my own'' |- | '''anot'''....''individual'' || '''anota'''....''private'' |- | '''aotnyan'''....''group'' || '''aotnyana'''....''collective'' |- | '''aotyan'''....''people'' || '''aotyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''aotyanin'''....''populism'' || '''aotyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''aotyandab'''....''republic, democracy'' || '''aotyandaba'''....''republican, democratic'' |- | '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' || ''yauta'''....''our own'' |- | '''yaot'''....''constituent, commoner'' || '''yaota'''....''common, collective, public'' |- | '''yaotyan'''....''community, constituency, public'' || '''yaotyana'''....''communitarian'' |- | '''yaotnyan'''....''commune, collective'' || '''yaotnyana'''....''communal, collective'' |- | '''yaotin'''....''communism'' || '''yaotina'''....''communist'' |- | '''dityan'''....''citizenry, population'' || '''dityana'''....''of the citizenry, populational'' |- | '''ditnyan'''....''populace'' || '''ditnyana'''....''popular'' |- | '''ditnyanin'''....''populism'' || '''ditnyanina'''....''populist'' |- | '''yanav'''....''party'' (political) || '''yanava'''....''partisan'' |- | '''yaniv'''....''party'' (fun) || '''yaniva'''....''festive'' |- | '''yanut'''....''associate'' || '''yanuta'''....''general, public'' |- | '''yanutyan'''....''association'' || '''yanutyana'''....''associational'' |} == The '''tob''' (''Human'') Family== : The stem of words in this family begin with the consonant '''t''', designating ''human'', and end in '''b''', meaning ''organism, body, or organ'' or '''p''', having to do with the non-corporeal aspects of man, such as ''mind'' and ''emotion''. === Core Words === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-B Core Words |- ! -B !! -P |- | '''tob'''....''human, man'' || '''top'''....''soul, psyche'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''tap'''....''physique'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tep'''....''mind'' |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tip'''....''sentiment, emotion'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tup'''....''limb'' |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || |} : All the names of the parts of the body are derived from these core words in a hiearchical fashion using stem vowel scalarization, as can be seen from the sample chart below of the body parts relating to ''arm'' and ''leg'' (not the parallelism): ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parts of the Body |- valign=top | '''tub'''<br>arm || '''tuab'''<br> shoulder || '''tueb'''<br> upper arm || '''tuib'''<br> elbow || '''tuub'''<br> forearm || '''tuyob'''<br> '''wrist''' || '''tuyab'''<br> hand || '''tuyeb'''<br> fist || '''tuyib'''<br> palm || '''tuyub'''<br> finger || '''tulob'''<br> fingernail |- | '''tyob'''<br> leg || '''tyoab'''<br> hip || '''tyoeb'''<br> thigh || '''tyoib'''<br> knee || '''tyoub'''<br> tibia || '''tyoyob'''<br> ankle || '''tyoyab'''<br> foot || '''tyoyeb'''<br> heel || '''tyoyib'''<br> sole || '''tyoyub'''<br> toe || tyolob<br> toenail |} === Bodily Functions and Gestures === : The following chart shows how gestural and bodily movements and functions are derived from body parts: ::<table border=1 valign=top cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;"> <tr><th>ORGANISM</th><th>GESTURES, MOVEMENTS, FUNCTIONS</tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tob'''....''human''<br>'''twob'''....''man''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''</td><td align=top>'''tobser'''....''become human'', '''tobxer'''....''humanize'', '''tobtojber'''....''murder''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top>'''tobij'''....''embryo ''</td><td align=top> '''tobijier'''....''conceive'', '''tobijuer'''....''impregnate'', '''tobijer'''....''ovulate'', '''tobijbeler'''....''gestate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tab'''....''body ''</td><td align=top> '''tabazaxer'''....''work out'', '''tabmelukxer'''....''entomb'', '''tabteaxer'''....''autopsy''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayeb'''....''hair ''</td><td align=top> '''tayebarer'''....''comb'', '''tayeboker'''....''go bald'', '''tayefarer'''....''brush'', '''tayeborber'''....''shave'', '''tayelber'''....''shampoo'', '''tayevarer'''....''mop''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tayob'''....''skin ''</td><td align=top> '''tayobiler'''....''sweat'', '''tayobober'''....''flay'', '''tayoboser'''....''itch'', '''tayoser'''....''feel like'', '''tayoter'''....''feel'', '''tayoxer'''....''palpate'', '''tayobdriler'''....''tattoo'', '''tayotyofxer'''....''numb''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teb'''....''head''<br>'''tebabun'''....''scalp''<br>'''tebzan'''....''face ''</td><td align=top> '''tebabunober'''....''scalp'', '''tebbaxer'''....''nod'', '''tebober'''....''decapitate'', '''tebzaner'''....''face''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teab'''....''eye''<br>'''teababun'''....''eyelid''<br>'''teabyeb'''....''eyelash''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear ''</td><td align=top> '''teaser'''....''seem'', '''teater'''....''see'', '''teatyofxer'''....''blind'', '''teaxer'''....''look'', '''teaxuer'''....''show'', '''teazuer'''....''amaze'', '''teabizer'''....''aim'', '''teaper'''....''visit'', '''teabyujiger'''....''blink''<br>'''teababuner'''....''blink''<br>'''teababyexer'''....''bat an eyelash''<br>'''teabiler'''....''tear up''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teeb'''....''ear ''</td><td align=top> '''teeter'''....''hear'', '''teeser'''....''sound like'', '''teeper'''....''attend'', '''teeder'''....''rumor'', '''teeyofxer'''....''deafen'', '''teexer'''....''listen''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teib'''....''nose ''</td><td align=top> '''teiter'''....''smell'', '''teiser'''....''smell like'', '''teitier'''....''take a whiff of'', '''teituer'''....''reek'', '''teixer'''....''smell'', '''teseuxer'''....''snore'', '''teizber'''....''perfume'', '''teipulxer'''....''sneeze'', '''teibalier'''....''sniff'', '''teibalegier'''....''sniffle'', '''teibiler'''....''run at the nose'', '''teibukxer'''....''blow the nose''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teub'''....''mouth''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''teubsin'''....''expression''<br>'''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''toleuz'''....''taste ''<br>'''teuv'''....''mask''<br>'''teuf'''....''muzzle''</td><td align=top> '''teubier'''....''swallow'', '''yijteuber'''....''yawn'', '''teuser'''....''taste like'', '''teuter'''....''taste'', '''teutier'''....''sample'', '''teutuer'''....''offer a taste'', '''teuxer'''....''taste'', '''teuder'''....''shout'', '''ivteuder'''....''laugh'', '''uvteuder'''....''groan'', '''ivteuber'''....''smile'', '''uvteuber'''....''frown'','''vyoivteuder'''....''mock'', '''ufteuber'''....''scowl'', '''uvseuxer'''....''grumble''<br>'''teubiler'''....''salivate'', '''teubiloker'''....''drool'', '''teubilokeger'''....''dribble'', '''teubiloyeber'''....''expectorate'', '''teubilpuxer'''....''spew'', '''teubiluer'''....''spit'', '''teubilier'''....''slurp''<br>'''teubsiner'''....''grimace''<br>'''deuzer'''....''sing'', '''yandeuzer'''....''harmonize'', '''yagdeuzer'''....''chant''<br>'''seuxer'''....''ring seuxder pronounce'', '''voyseuxder'''....''mispronounce''<br>'''zoyteuzer'''....''echo'', '''uvseuzer'''....''sigh''<br>'''teuzuer'''....''vote'', '''teuzier'''....''poll'', '''teuzibarer'''....''telephone''<br>'''toleuser'''....''taste like'', '''toleuter'''....''taste'', '''toleuxer'''....''savor'', '''fitoleuser'''....''taste good'', '''futoleuser'''....''taste bad''<br> '''teuvuer'''....''mask''<br>'''teufuer'''....''muzzle''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubab'''....''tongue ''</td><td align=top> '''teubaxer'''....''wag the tongue'', '''teubabaxer'''....''lick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubib'''....''gum ''</td><td align=top> '''teubixer'''....''chew'', '''teubixeger'''....''ruminate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teupib'''....''tooth ''</td><td align=top> '''teupixer'''....''bite'', '''teupixeger'''....''nibble'', '''yebteupixer'''....''crunch''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teubob'''....''lip ''</td><td align=top> '''teuboxer'''....''kiss'', '''teuboxeger'''....''smooch'', '''teubobaxer'''....''smack the lips''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''teyob'''....''neck ''</td><td align=top> '''teyobabaxer'''....''neck'', '''teyopixer'''....''collar'', '''teyozyober'''....''choke'' , '''teyopyoxer'''....''hang''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tib'''....''trunk ''</td><td align=top> '''tibuzer'''....''bow''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tibuj'''....''tail''<br>'''tibuf'''....''train ''</td><td align=top> '''tibujbarxer'''....''wag''<br>'''tibufer'''....''trail ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tieb'''....''lung''<br>'''tiebal'''....''breath''<br>'''tiebbok'''....''cold ''</td><td align=top> '''tiexer'''....''breath'', '''tiebyujber'''....''suffocate'', '''teibukxer'''....''cough''<br>'''tiebalier'''....''inhale'', '''tiebaluer'''....''exhale'', '''tiebaloker'''....''belch''<br>'''tiebbokier'''....''catch a cold ''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tiib'''....''heart''<br>'''tiibil'''....''blood ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tiibiler'''....''bleed tiibiloker bleed out'', '''tiibilglalser'''....''clot'', '''tiibilier'''....''suck blood'', '''tiibiluer'''....''let blood''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikeb'''....''stomach''<br>'''tikebil'''....''chyme ''</td><td align=top> '''tikebier'''....''digest'', '''tikebukxer'''....''vomit''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyeb'''....''anus''<br>'''tikyebal'''....''flatulence''<br>'''tikyebil'''....''feces ''</td><td align=top><br>'''tikyebaler'''....''fart''<br>'''tikyebiler'''....''defecate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tikyob'''....''bowels ''</td><td align=top> '''tikyobier'''....''ingest'', '''tikyobober'''....''disembowel''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tub'''....''arm ''</td><td align=top> '''yantubier'''....''embrace'', '''tubbaxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyab'''....''hand ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyaxer'''....''handle'', '''tuyaber'''....''handle'', '''tuyabalxer'''....''shake hand'', '''tuyabexer'''....''manipulate'', '''tuyabier'''....''grab'', '''tuyabirer'''....''wrestle'', '''tuyasiuner'''....''wave'', '''tuyabuer'''....''hand out'', '''tuyadrer'''....''write out longhand'', '''tuyapixer'''....''clasp tuyapyexer clap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyeb'''....''fist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyepeker'''....''fistfight'', '''tuyebalxer'''....''shake one''''''s'''....''fist'', '''tuyepyelxuer'''....''pound'', '''tuyepyexer'''....''box''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyib'''....''palm ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyibabaxer'''....''pat'', '''tuyibaber'''....''palm'', '''tuyibuer'''....''palm off'', '''tuyipyexer'''....''slap''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyob'''....''wrist ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyoxer'''....''wave''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tuyub'''....''finger ''</td><td align=top> '''tuyubarxer'''....''wag one''''''s'''....''finger'', '''tuyubifeker'''....''fiddle'', '''tuyubizder'''....''point out'', '''tuyuibeaxer'''....''indicate'', '''tuyugiber'''....''poke'', '''tuyupyexer'''....''tap'', '''tuyuxer'''....''palpate''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tulob'''....''fingernail''<br>'''paltulob'''....''claw ''</td><td align=top> '''tuloxer'''....''scratch'', '''tuloxefer'''....''itch''<br>'''patuloxer'''....''claw'', '''patulober'''....''grip''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoib'''....''knee ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoixer'''....''kneel'', '''tyoiper'''....''crawl''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyab'''....''foot ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyabarer'''....''stomp'', '''tyoyakyeper'''....''hobble'', '''tyoyapyexer'''....''kick''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyeb'''....''heel ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyeber'''....''spurn''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyib'''....''sole ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyiber'''....''supplant''</td></tr> <tr><td align=top> '''tyoyub'''....''toe ''</td><td align=top> '''tyoyubaxeger'''....''wiggle one''''''s'''....''toe'', '''tyoyuzyuper'''....''pirouette''</td></tr> </table> == The '''bak''' (''Health'') Family== : Here are the main words in Mirad dealing with health, illness, and medecine: === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ B-K Words |- valign=top ! NOUNS !! VERBS |- | '''bak'''....''health''<br>'''baak'''....''hygiene'' || '''bakser'''....''heal (intr.)'', '''bakxer'''....''heal (tr.)'' |- | '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''byek'''....''cure'' || '''bekier'''....''get treated'', '''bekuer'''....''treat'', <br>'''byekser'''....''be cured'', '''byekxer'''....''cure'' |- | '''bok'''....''illness''<br>'''book'''....''fatigue'' || '''bokser'''....''get sick'', '''bokxer'''....''sicken''<br>'''bookser'''....''grow tired'', '''bokxer'''....''tire out'' |- | '''bik'''....''care'' || '''bikier'''....''take care'', '''bikuer'''....''care for'' |- | '''buk'''....''injury''<br>'''bruk'''....''mutilation'' || '''bukser'''....''be injured'', '''bukxer'''....''injure''<br>'''brukser'''....''be mutilated'', '''brukxer'''....''mutilate'' |- | '''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''blok'''....''suffering''<br>'''brok'''....''torture'' || '''byoker'''....''ache'', '''byokuer'''....''inflict pain''<br> '''bloker'''....''suffer'', '''blokuer'''....''inflict suffering''<br>'''broker'''....''agonize'', '''brokuer'''....''torture'' |} == The '''tod''' (''Family'') Family== :Stems in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''d''' for ''society'' and have to do with families and family relationships. === Core Words === :: Notice that kinship terms are gender-neutral unless there is a '''w''' before the root syllable vowel (indicating male-specific) or a '''y''' following the root syllable vowel (indicating female-specific). :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-D Words |- ! '''tod'''....''family'' !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''twid'''....''brother'' || '''tiyd'''....''sister'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} === Genealogical Prefixes === : Prefixes or word elements used to modify the above core words: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Genealogical Prefixes |- | '''to-'''....''god-'' (as in ''godson'') |- | '''ta-'''....''-in-law, through marriage'' |- | '''te-'''....''father's'' |- | '''ti-'''....''sibling's'' |- | '''tu-'''....''child's'' |- | '''taj-'''....''birth-, real'' |- | '''otaj-, ifbi-'''....''foster, adopted'' |- | '''ij-'''....''first, original'' |- | '''aj-'''....''ex-, former'' |- | '''ej-'''....''current, step-, half-'' |- | '''oj-'''....''future, -to-be'' |- | '''aa'''....''first'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' |- | '''yiba'''....''distant'' |- | '''aa yiba'''....''first-removed'' |- | '''ea yiba'''....''second-removed'' |- | '''ota-'''....''out-of-wedlock, bastard'' |- | '''oyted-'''....''orphan(ed), without parents'' |- | '''oytad-'''....''unmarried, without spouse'' |- | '''oytud-'''....''childless, without child, barren'' |- | '''tiibil-'''....''blood-'' |} === Kinship Terms === : Kinship Terms Formed from the Above Core Words and Prefixed Elements :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kinship Terms |- valign=top ! GENDER-NEUTRAL !! MALE !! FEMALE |- | '''tad'''....''spouse''<br>'''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse''<br>'''ijtad'''....''first spouse''<br>'''ejtad'''....''current spouse, step spouse''<br>'''ojtad'''....''spouse-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytadat'''....''bachelor'' ||'''twad'''....''husband''<br>'''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband''<br>'''ijtwad'''....''first husband''<br>'''ejtwad'''....''current husband, step husband''<br>'''ojtwad'''....''husband-to-be, fiance''<br>'''oytwadat'''....''bachelor'' || '''tayd'''....''wife''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife''<br>'''ijtayd'''....''first wife''<br>'''ejtayd'''....''current wife, step-wife''<br>'''ojtayd'''....''wife-to-be, fiancee''<br>'''oytadayt'''....''spinster'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent''<br>'''tajted'''....''birth parent''<br>'''ejted'''....''step parent, foster parent''<br>'''ojted'''....''parent-to-be''<br>'''teted'''....''grand-parent''<br>'''teteted'''....''great-grandparent''<br>'''tated'''....''parent-in-law''<br>'''toted'''....''godparent''<br>'''oytedat'''....''orphan''|| '''twed'''....''father''<br>'''tajtwed'''....''birth father''<br>'''ejtwed'''....''step-father, foster father''<br>'''ojtwed'''....''father-to-be''<br>'''tetwed'''....''grand-father''<br>'''tetetwed'''....''great-grandfather''<br>'''tatwed'''....''father-in-law''<br>'''totwed'''....''godfather''<br>'''oytwedat'''....''male orphan''||'''teyd'''....''mother''<br>'''tajteyd'''....''birth mother''<br>'''ejteyd'''....''stepmother, foster mother''<br>'''ojted'''....''mother-to-be''<br>'''teteyd'''....''grandmother''<br>'''teteteyd'''....''great-grandmother''<br>'''tateyd'''....''mother-in-law''<br>'''toteyd'''....''godmother''<br>'''oytedayt'''....''female orphan'' |- | '''tid'''....''sibling''<br>'''ejtid'''....''step-sibling''<br>'''tatid'''....''sibling-in-law''<br>'''tetid'''....''parent's sibling''<br>'''tetetid'''....''great parent's sibling''||'''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''tatwid'''....''brother-in-law''<br>'''tetwid'''....''uncle''<br>'''tetetwid'''....''great uncle''|| '''tiyd'''....''sister''<br>'''ejtiyd'''....''stepsister''<br>'''tatiyd'''....''sister-in-law''<br>'''tetiyd'''....''aunt''<br>'''tetetiyd'''....''great aunt'' |- | '''tud'''....''child''<br>'''tatud'''....''child-in-law''<br>'''ijtud'''....''first-born child''<br> '''ejtud'''....''stepchild''<br>'''otada tud'''....''bastard child''<br>'''titud'''....''sibling's child''<br>'''totud'''....''godchild''<br>'''tutud'''....''grandchild''<br>'''titutud'''....''sibling's grandchild''<br>'''tetitud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitud'''....''first cousin''<br>'''ea tetitud'''....''second cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitud'''....''cousin first removed''||'''twud'''....''son''<br>'''tatwud'''....''son-in-law''<br>'''ijtwud'''....''first-born son''<br> '''ejtwud'''....''stepson''<br>'''otada twud'''....''bastard son''<br>'''titud'''....''nephew''<br>'''totwud'''....''godson''<br>'''tutwud'''....''grandson''<br>'''titutwud'''....''grandnewphew''<br>'''tetitwud'''....''cousin''<br>'''aa tetitwud'''....''first male cousin''<br>'''ea tetitwud'''....''second male cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetitwud'''....''male cousin first removed''||'''tuyd'''....''daughter''<br>'''tatuyd'''....''daughter-in-law''<br>'''ijtuyd'''....''first-born-daughter''<br>'''ejtuyd'''....''stepdaughter''<br>'''otada tuyd'''....''bastard daughter''<br>'''tituyd'''....''niece''<br>'''totuyd'''....''goddaughter''<br>'''tutuyd'''....''granddaughter''<br>'''titutuyd'''....''grandniece''<br>'''tetituyd'''....''(female) cousin''<br>'''aa tetituyd'''....''first female cousin''<br>'''ea tetituyd'''....''second female cousin''<br>'''aa yiba tetituyd'''....''female cousin first removed'' |} : Suffixed '''-if''' gives you affectionate equivalents: ::* '''twadif'''....''hubby'' ::* '''taydif'''....''darling wife, wifey-poo'' ::* '''twedif'''....''daddy, papa'' ::* '''teydif'''....''mommy, mama'' ::* '''twidif'''....''bro'' ::* '''tiydif'''....''sis'' ::* '''twudif'''....''sonny, kid'' ::* '''tuydif'''....''darling daughter'' : Other terms: ::* '''todat'''....''relative, sib'' ::* '''tiibil todat'''....''blood relative'' ::* '''todatan'''....''kinship'' ::* '''todatyan'''....''kinfolk, clan'' ::* '''todeb'''....''pater familias'' ::* '''todeyb'''....''mater familias'' ::* '''otatud'''....''bastard, bastard son, bastard child'' ::* '''otatuyd'''....''bastard daughter'' ::* '''oytetwud'''....''orphan, orphan son'' ::* '''oytetuyd'''....''orphan daughter'' ::* '''oytwadat'''....''bachelor, unmarried man'' ::* '''oytadayt'''....''spinster, unmarried woman, bachelorette'' ::* '''oytudayt'''....''childless woman'' ::* '''glatidat'''....''person with many siblings'' ::* '''oytidat'''....''person with no siblings'' ::* '''tadat'''....''in-law'' ::* '''otajted, ifbited'''....''foster parent, adopting parent'' ::* '''otajtud, ifbitud'''....''foster child, adopted child'' ::* '''otajteder, ifbiteder'''....''foster, adopt'' ::* '''otajtedwa, ifbitedwa'''....''adopted'' ::* '''teder'''....''parent, raise'' ::* '''tadier'''....''get married, take on a spouse'' ::* '''taduer'''....''marry, preside over a marriage'' ::* '''todtun'''....''genealogy'' ::* '''tood'''....''ethnos, tribe, clan, race'' ::* '''toodtun'''....''folklore'' ::* '''tooddin'''....''folk story'' ::* '''toob'''....''gender, sex'' ::* '''hyitoobifa'''....''homosexual'' ::* '''hyutoobifa'''....''heterosexual'' ::* '''entoobifa'''....''bisexual'' ::* '''hyatoobifa'''....''pansexual'' ::* '''hyotoobifa'''....''asexual'' ::* '''hyitooba tadan'''....''same-sex marriage'' ::* '''tadyan'''....''married couple'' ::* '''jwaa tadien'''....''shotgun wedding'' ::* '''tyod'''....''people, folk'' == The '''dot''' (''Society'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d''' for ''society'' and end in '''t''' for ''human''. === Core Words === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-T Core Words |- | '''dot'''....''society'' |- | '''dat'''....''friend''<br>'''dwat'''....''male friend''<br>'''dayt'''....''female friend'' |- | '''det'''....''comrade, mate''<br><big></big>'''dwet'''....''boyfriend''<br><big></big>'''deyt'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' |- | '''dut'''....''gentleperson''<br><big></big>'''dwut'''....''gentleman, sir, lord''<br><big></big>'''duyt'''....''lady, madame'' |- | '''dout'''....''bourgeois''<br>'''duut'''....''lord, master'' |} : The prefix '''do-''' can be used to form words that are public in nature, eg: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ The Do- prefix ! COMBINED FORM !! SUFFIX |- | '''dovyab'''....''law'' || '''vyab'''....''rule'' |- | '''doyev'''....''justice'' || '''yev-'''....''just'' |- | '''doyov'''....''crime'' || '''yov'''....''shame'' |- | '''doyiv'''....''(civil) right'' || '''yiv'''....''license'' |- | '''dobien'''....''coup d'etat'' || '''bien'''....''taking'' |- | '''dodres'''....''bulletin'' || '''dres'''....''document'' |- | '''dokex'''....''(public) inquiry'' || '''kex'''....''search'' |- | '''dovalk'''....''public safety'' || '''valk'''....''safety'' |- | '''dovalkdib'''....''police'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' |- | '''dotojben'''....''execution'' || '''tojben'''....''killing'' |- | '''dosyag'''....''census'' || '''syag'''....''count'' |- | '''dodrur'''....''press'' || '''drur'''....''printer'' |} == The '''tof''' (''Clothes'') and '''nof''' (''Textile'') == : The stems in this family of words begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and end in '''f''' or '''v''', which are reminiscent of '''nof'''....''cloth'' and '''nov'''....''lingerie''. The words have to do with clothing. Post-y-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates to women. Pre-w-gliding the semantic stem vowel produces something that relates specifically to men. : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Forming Words for Clothes |- ! BODY PART !! CLOTHING ITEM !! FOR WOMEN |- | '''tob'''....''man'' || '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''toyf'''....''female outfit'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tayf'''....''dress'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tef'''....''hat''|| '''teyf'''....''woman's hat'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyof'''....''necktie''|| |- | '''tuab'''....''shoulder'' || '''tuaf'''....''shawl''|| |- | '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tif'''....''vest''|| |- | '''zetib'''....''waist'' || '''zetif'''....''belt''|| |- | '''tiab'''....''chest'' || '''tiav'''....''shirt'' || '''tiayv'''....''blouse'' |- | '''tilab'''....''breast'' || || '''tilayv'''....''bra'' |- | '''tiub'''....''belly'' || '''tiuv'''....''undershorts'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''tuyab'''....''hand'' || '''tuyaf'''....''glove''|| |- | '''tyob'''....''leg'' || '''tyof'''....''pants'' || '''tyoyf'''....''skirt'' |- |- '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''tyoyaf'''....''shoe''<br>'''tyoyav'''....''sock''|| '''tyoyayf'''....''high heels''<br>'''tyoyayv'''....''stockings'' |} : The '''nof''' family words begin with '''n''' meaning ''commercial'' and end in '''f''' meaning ''textile''. Here is a summary: <table style="border-collapse: collapse; min-width: 100%; background:light-yellow"><tr><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: lightyellow; width: 130px; padding: 8px;"><div>BASIC WORD</div></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; border: 1px solid rgb(187, 187, 187); background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); width: 353px; padding: 8px;"><div>DERIVATIVES</div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b style="line-height: 1.45;">nof</b> <span style="line-height: 1.45;"><i>textile, tissue</i></span></div><div><span style="line-height: 1.45;"><b>nov</b>....<i>linen</i></span></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nofir</b>....<i>loom</i>, <b>nofxer</b>....<i>weave</i></div><div><b>nofyank</b>....<i>stitch</i>, <b>nofyanker</b>....<i>sew</i>, <b>nofyankut</b>....<i>seamster</i></div><div><b>nofyonk</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonker</b>....<i>rip</i>, <b>nofyonkar</b>....<i>scissors, shears</i></div><div><b>nofyuj</b>....<i>pleat</i>, <b>nofyujber</b>....<i>fold</i></div><div><b>nofzyiar</b>....<i>iron</i>, <b>nofzyiarer</b>....<i>iron</i></div><div><b>novyan</b>....<i>lingerie</i>, <b>novim</b>....<i>linen closet </i></div><div><b>misof</b> curtain, <b>obmasof</b> carpet <b>yebof</b> sack</div><div><b>favof</b>....<i>cotton</i>, <b>favoyf</b>....<i>cotton wool</i></div><div><b>fevof</b>....<i>flax</i></div><div><b>fivof</b>....<i>hemp</i></div><div><b>fuvof</b>....<i>jute</i></div><div><b>tayof</b>....<i>leather</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>naf</b>....<i>material, cloth, fabric</i></div><div><b>naaf</b>....<i>drape</i></div><div><b>naef</b>....<i>canvas</i></div><div><b>naif</b>....<i>velvet</i></div><div><b>nauf</b>....<i>veil</i></div><div><b>nayaf</b>....<i>cordoroy</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><br/></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nef</b>....<i>knit</i></div><div><b>neof</b>....<i>stitch</i></div><div><b>neaf</b>....<i>net, mesh, web</i></div><div><b>neef</b>....<i>lace</i></div><div><b>neif</b>....<i>braid</i></div><div><b>neuf</b>....<i>wicker</i></div><div><b>neyof</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>neyaf</b>....<i>wale</i></div><div><b>neyef</b>....<i>strip, band</i></div><div><b>neyif</b>....<i>plait</i></div><div><b>nayuf</b>....<i>lattice</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nefxer</b>....<i>knit,</i> <b>neofxer</b>....<i>stitch, </i><b>neifxer</b>....<i>braid</i> <b>neyofxer</b>....<i>loop</i></div><div><b>nefar</b>....<i>knitting needle</i></div><div><b>nefiaf</b>....<i>sweater</i></div><div><b>vinef</b>....<i>embroidery</i></div><div><b>yotayef</b>....<i>goat's hair, wool</i></div><div><b>tayef</b>....<i>bristle</i></div><div><b>utayef</b>....<i>wool</i></div><div><b>zyef</b>....<i>pane of glass,</i> <b>zyev</b>....<i>glass</i></div><div><b>nyef </b><i>bag, sack</i></div><div><b>yebeaf</b>....<i>mesh bag</i></div><div><b>yebeuf</b>....<i>wicker basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nif</b>....<i>yarn, fiber</i></div><div><b>niv</b>....<i>thread</i></div><div><b>niyf</b>....<i>filament, string</i></div><div><b>niif</b>....<i>twine</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nifur</b>....<i>spinner</i>, <b>nifxer</b>....<i>spin,</i> <b>nifun</b>....<i>spider's web</i></div><div><b>nifar</b>....<i>needle</i></div><div><b>nivar</b>....<i>pin</i></div><div><b>mugnif</b>....<i>wire</i></div><div><b>apeyetif</b>....<i>silk</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nuf</b> button</div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nufyujber</b> button</div><div><b>nufyijber</b> unbutton</div><div><b>nufzyeg</b> buttonhole</div><div><b>nufag</b>....<i>knob</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyaf</b>....<i>knot</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyafer</b>....<i>tie</i>, <b>onyafer</b>....<i>untie, unravel</i></div><div><b>mugnyaf</b>....<i>clasp, buckle</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyef</b>....<i>bag, sack</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>zotibnyef</b>....<i>backpack</i></div><div><b>tolnyef</b>....<i>grocery bag</i></div><div><b>yignyef</b>....<i>basket</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyif</b>....<i>rope</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>mugnyif</b>....<i>cable</i></div><div><b>nyifog</b>....<i>lace, cord</i></div></td></tr><tr><td style="width: 130px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyuf</b>....<i>package</i></div></td><td style="width: 353px; padding: 8px; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204);"><div><b>nyufag</b>....<i>crate</i></div></td></tr></table> == The '''mos''' (Floor) Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''m''', meaning ''place'' and end in '''s''', meaning ''thing''. The words all have something to do with parts of a building or house, i.e. '''''masonry'''''. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-S Core Words |- ! MASONRY BASE WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''mos'''....''floor''|| '''omos'''....''ground floor''<br>'''amos'''....''first floor''<br>'''abmos'''....''attic''<br>'''ebmos'''....''mezzanine''<br>'''obmos'''....''basement'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall''|| '''abmas'''....''roof''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling''<br>'''obmas'''....''foundation''<br>'''oybmas'''....''floor''<br>'''masof''' ....''carpet''<br>'''abzamas'''....''balcony''<br>'''obzamas'''....''porch''<br>'''ebmas'''....''partition'' |- | '''mes'''....''door'' || '''zames'''....''front door''<br>'''zomes'''....''back door''<br>'''mesnufag'''....''door knob''<br>'''mesyuznad'''....''door frame''<br>'''mestuyar'''....''door handle'' |- | '''mis'''....''window''|| '''miszyef'''....''window pane''<br>'''eymis'''....''shutter''<br>'''misof'''....''curtain'' |- | '''mus'''....''stairs''|| '''musnog'''....''step, stair rung''<br>'''musim'''....''starwell''<br>'''magmus'''....''fire escape''<br>'''musabnod''' ....''climax''<br>'''muys'''....''ladder''<br>'''pasmus'''....''escalator'' |} == The '''som''' (''Furniture'') Family == : The stems in this family begin with '''s''', meaning ''thing'', and end in '''m''', meaning ''place''. The words all have to do with furniture. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ S-M Core Words |- valign=top ! FURNITURE BASE WORD || DERIVATIVES |- | '''som'''....''furniture''|| '''somber'''....''furnish''<br>'''somxut'''....''carpenter''<br>'''milsom'''....''sink''<br>'''milufsom''' ....''toilet''<br>'''maksom'''....''appliance''<br>'''mansom'''....''light fixture''<br>'''somyan'''....''furnishings''<br>'''milamsom'''....''water heater''<br>'''malomsom'''....''air-conditioner'' |- | '''sam'''....''armoire, chest''|| '''telarsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''telsam'''....''cupboard''<br>'''tovsam'''....''chest of drawers''<br>'''samnyem'''....''drawer''<br>'''avolsom'''....''pantry'' |- | '''sem'''....''table''|| '''semof'''....''table cloth''<br>'''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''yagsem'''....''countertop''<br>'''yuzsem'''....''round table''<br>'''dresem'''....''desk''<br>'''dalsem'''....''pulpit''<br>'''tabsem'''....''bier''<br>'''fyasem'''....''altar''<br>'''tularsem'''....''buffet''<br>'''dyedsem'''....''lectern''<br>'''syagsem'''....''counter (cashier stand)'' |- | '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''zaopsim'''....''rocking chair''<br>'''yagyugsim'''....''couch''<br>'''zyupsim'''....''swivel chair''<br>'''eynsim'''....''stool''<br>'''edebsim'''....''throne''<br>'''yagyigsim'''....''bench''<br>'''tobotsim'''....''high chair''<br>'''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''fyadilsim'''....''pew''<br>'''maksim'''.....''electric chair''<br>'''teadutsim'''....''witness box''<br>'''tujyagsim'''....''sleep sofa''<br>'''zopsim'''....''recliner''<br>'''yigsim'''....''hard chair''<br>'''agsim'''....''arm chair''<br>'''simber'''....''to seat''<br>'''simper'''....''to sit'' |- | '''sum'''....''bed''|| '''suam'''....''cushion''<br>'''suaym'''....''pillow''<br>'''suav'''....''pillow case''<br>'''suem'''....''mattress''<br>'''suev'''....''sheet''<br>'''suef'''....''blanket''<br>'''absuef'''....''bedspread''<br>'''obsuev'''....''liner''<br>'''suim'''....''box spring''<br>'''summuf'''....''bedpost''<br>'''eonsum'''....''twin bed''<br>'''eynsum'''....''day bed''<br>'''igsum'''....''cot''<br>'''suym''' ....''couch''<br>'''nyanxwa sum'''....''bunk bed''<br>'''milsum'''....''waterbed''<br>'''tabsum'''....''sleeping bag''<br>'''pyoxwa sum'''....''hammock''<br>'''malsum'''....''airbed''<br>'''summanar'''....''bed lamp''<br>'''sumber'''....''put to bed''<br>'''sumper'''....''go to bed'' |} == The '''sar''' (''Tool'') and '''par''' (''Vehicle'') Family == : The base words having to do with tools, devices, and machines all begin in '''s''' for ''thing'' and end in '''r''' for ''tool''. Vehicles are mobile machines, and therefore their stems begin with '''p''' for ''mobile''. Specific tools and machines are created by appending one of the stub suffixes to the stem of the word that describes what the tool or machine does. For example, '''makijar''', meaning ''electrical switch, starter'' is composed of '''mak''' (''electricity'') and '''ij-''' (''start''). : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Stub Suffixes for Tools and Machines |- ! STANDALONE WORD !! STUB SUFFIX !! MEANING |- | '''sar''' || '''-ar''' || ''instrument, tool, device (default)'' |- | '''sir'''|| '''-ir''' || ''apparatus, hand-driven machine'' |- | '''sor''' || '''-or''' || ''machine, powered machine'' |- | '''sur''' || '''-ur''' || ''motor, engine'' |} : Note: the stub suffixes other than '''-ar''' (the default) are used only to distinguish words like ''bicycle'' and ''motorcycle'' or ''needle'' and ''loom'', etc. === Vehicles === : Vehicle words end in '''par''', where the initial '''p''' signifies ''going'' and the final '''ar''' indicates ''instrument'', unless there is a need for further distinction, in which case, the ending may be '''-ir''', '''-or''', or '''-ur'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles |- ! VEHICLES |- | '''par'''....''cart''<br>'''pir'''....''carriage''<br>'''pur'''....''car'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile, car'' |- | '''mimpar'''....''boat''<br>'''mimpir'''....''motorboat''<br>'''mimpur'''....''ship'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' |- | '''kyinpar'''....''dolly''<br>'''kyinpir'''....''cart, wagon''<br>'''anzyukyinpir'''....''wheelbarrow''<br>'''kyinpur'''....''truck'' |- | '''naadpur'''....''train'' |- | '''yaudpur'''....''bus'' |- | '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle''<br>'''enzyukpir'''....''scooter''<br>'''enzyukpor'''....''motorcycle'' |- | '''inzyukpar'''....''tricycle'' |- | '''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kipir'''....''sled''<br>'''kipur'''....''sleigh'' |} === Tools and Machines === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tools and Machines |- ! TOOLS AND MACHINES |- | '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''drur'''....''printer''<br>'''dodrur'''....''press'' |- | '''syaagar'''....''calculator''<br>'''syaagir'''....''computer'' |- | '''vyixar'''....''brush''<br>'''vyixir'''....''sweeper''<br>'''vyixur'''....''vacuum cleaner'' |} == The '''tol''' (''Food'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''t''' for ''human'' and '''l''' for ''liquid'' or in this case, drinkable or edible substances. The words have to do with food, food preparation, eating and drinking. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ T-L Core Words |- ! WORD !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || '''tolnam'''....''grocery store''<br>'''toltun'''....''dietetics''<br>'''tolvyaab'''....''diet''<br>'''toluer'''....''feed''<br>'''toyl'''....''nutrition''<br>'''toyles'''....''nutrient''<br>'''toyluer'''....''nourish''<br>'''tolsam'''....''food buffet''<br>'''toleus'''....''taste''<br>'''toleusgab'''....''relish''<br>'''tolmek'''....''spice''<br>'''tolsyeb'''....''casserole'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''telier'''....''eat''<br>'''teluer'''....''feed''<br>'''telam'''....''restaurant''<br>'''telar'''....''fork''<br>'''telyeb'''....''plate''<br>'''telefa'''....''hungry''<br>'''telifut'''....''gourmet''<br>'''gratelut'''....''glutton''<br>'''teltun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''oteliwas'''....''leftover'' |- | '''til-'''....''drink'' || '''tilsem'''....''bar''<br>'''tilier'''....''drink''<br>'''tilef'''....''thirst''<br>'''tilgronag'''....''drought''<br>'''gratilut'''....''drunk''<br>'''tilyeb'''....''glass''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon''<br>'''tilarog'''....''teaspoon''<br>'''tilarag'''....''ladle''<br>'''tilsyeb'''....''cup''<br>'''teilsyeb'''....''soup bowl''<br>'''kyitilsyeb'''....''mug, stein'' |- | '''tul'''....''dish'' || '''jatul'''....''appetizer''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''agtul'''....''main dish, entree''<br>'''ogtul'''....''tapa''<br>'''igtul'''....''snack''<br>'''atulyan'''....''first course''<br>'''etulyan'''....''second course''<br>'''tular'''....''dish''<br>'''tularsam'''....''china cabinet''<br>'''tularvyixar'''....''dishwasher''<br>'''tuler'''....''dine''<br>'''tamtuler'''....''dine at home''<br>'''tulur'''....''stove''<br>'''tultuna'''....''culinary''<br>'''tulxeb'''....''chef''<br>'''tulxim'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tulim'''....''dining room''<br>'''tulagim'''....''banquet hall''<br>'''vitultun'''....''gastronomy''<br>'''tuldras'''....''menu''<br>'''tulyuxut'''....''waiter''<br>'''tulyeb'''....''platter'' |- | '''tyal'''....''meal'' || '''atyal'''....''breakfast''<br>'''etyal'''....''lunch''<br>'''ityal'''....''dinner''<br>'''utyal'''....''supper''<br>'''etyalier'''....''have lunch''<br>'''etyaluer'''....''serve lunch''<br>'''tyalag'''....''banquet''<br>'''vabemtyal'''....''picnic''<br>'''yomxwa tyal'''....''frozen dinner'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Drink, Food, Liquids |- valign=top ! STUB !! EXAMPLES |- |'''-il'''....''liquid, drink'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''til'''....''beverage''<br>'''bil'''....''milk''<br>'''mil'''....''water''<br>'''gyalevil'''....''syrup''<br>'''aybil'''....''cream''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter''<br>'''mekil'''....''gruel''<br>'''gyalevabil'''....''pudding''<br>'''taobiil'''....''gravy''<br>'''tuil'''....''sauce''<br>'''tuilyeb'''....''saucer''<br>'''fil'''....''alcohol''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafiltun'''....''oenology''<br>'''grafiliut'''....''alcoholic''<br>'''filxer'''....''ferment''<br>'''filvyunober'''....''distill''<br>'''levafil'''....''liquour''<br>'''teabil'''....''tear''<br>'''teubil'''....''saliva''<br>'''ilyeb'''....''bottle''<br>'''yavil'''....''beer''<br>'''magiler'''....''boil''<br>'''dril'''....''ink''<br>'''ilneyeb'''....''tank, reservoir''<br>'''ilsyeb'''....''carafe, beaker, flask''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''bavuil'''....''ketchup'' |- |'''-yal'''....''juice'' || '''sefyal'''....''coffee''<br>'''safyal'''....''tea''<br>'''vafyal'''....''grape juice'' |- | '''-el'''....''food'' ||'''level'''....''sugar''<br>'''yapel'''....''pork''<br>'''vipel'''....''venison''<br>'''eopel'''....''beef''<br>'''mageler'''....''cook''<br>'''movelwa'''....''smoked''<br>'''ummagelar'''....''oven''<br>'''elsyeb'''....''pot, pan'' |- | '''-yel'''....''gel, oil'' || '''dofyel'''....''chocolate''<br>'''megyel'''....''cement''<br>'''myel'''....''plastic''<br>'''tayel'''....''shampoo''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''magyel'''....''fuel''<br>'''yugyel'''....''rubber''<br>'''fyel'''....''wax''<br>'''magyeler'''....''fry''<br>'''magyelsyeb'''....''frying pan''<br>'''leveyel'''....''jam, confiture''<br>'''yiglevyel'''....''candy''<br>'''kafyel'''....''olive oil''<br>'''gevyel'''....''corn oil''<br>'''tulyel'''....''cooking oil''<br>'''gavyel'''....''sunflower oil'' |- | '''-eil'''....''soup'' || '''teil'''....''soup''<br>'''yagteil'''....''stew'' |- | '''-ol'''....''food'' || '''avol'''....''bread''<br>'''taol'''....''meat''<br>'''umleavol'''....''biscuit''<br>'''sifyol'''....''pepper''<br>'''mimol'''....''salt''<br>'''ovol'''....''bran''<br>'''zyuavol'''....''roll''<br>'''zyiavol'''....''flatbread, pita''<br>'''yuzavol'''....''wrap, gyro, taco''<br>'''uzavol'''....''twist, croissant''<br>'''ebavol'''....''sandwich''<br>'''toleusgabol'''....''condiment''<br>'''leavol'''....''pasta'' |- | '''-ul'''....''substance'' || '''mul'''....''matter''<br>'''bekul'''....''medecine''<br>'''bukul'''....''poison''<br>'''zemul'''....''yolk''<br>'''vemul'''....''neutron''<br>'''vamul'''....''proton''<br>'''vomul'''....''electron''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''vyul'''....''slime''<br>'''zemul'''....''nucleus'' |} == The '''mor''' (''universe'') and '''mom''' (''outer space'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family are characterized by the letter '''m'''....''nature''. The words, thus, have to do with ''nature, the sky, ground, water, planets, etc.'' The stem vowel indicates whether the term applies to the sky, ground, water, etc. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ M-R Core Words |- valign=top | '''mor'''....''universe''|| '''mom'''....''cosmos'' || '''mol'''....''nature''|| '''mop'''....''orbit'' ||'''moj'''....''evening''<br>'''mon'''....''darkness''||'''mof'''....''nebula''<br>'''mov'''....''smoke''||'''mok'''....''dark matter''<br>'''mog'''....''ash''||'''mob'''....''abyss'' |- | '''mar'''....''star''<br>'''maar'''....''sun'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mal'''....''air''|| '''map'''....''wind'' || '''maj'''....''day''<br>'''man'''....''light''||'''maf'''....''cloud''<br>'''mav'''....''flame''||'''mak'''....''electricty''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''|| |- | '''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''meir'''....''earth'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mel'''....''soil''|| '''mep'''....''road'' || ||'''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain''<br>''' '''||'''mek'''....''dust''<br>'''meg'''....''rock''<br>'''mez'''....''gem''||'''meb'''....''mountain'' |- | '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mil'''....''water''||'''mip'''....''river''|| || || || |- | '''mur'''....''satellite''<br>'''muar'''....''moon'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' || '''mul'''....''matter''||'''mup'''....''tunnel''|| || ||'''muk'''....''mineral''<br>'''mug'''....''metal''||'''mub'''....''cave, pit'' |} : A few important derivations: ::* '''ma<u>a</u>r'''....''sun''&nbsp;&nbsp;("number <u>one</u> star") :::* '''maar<u>naap</u>'''....''solar system''&nbsp;&nbsp;(the "sun <u>system</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yap</u>'''....''sunrise''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>rise</u>") :::* '''maar<u>yop</u>'''....''sunset''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>descent</u>") :::* '''maar<u>nad</u>'''....''sunbeam''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>line</u>") :::* '''maar<u>map</u>'''....''solar wind''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>wind</u>") :::* '''maar<u>man</u>'''....''sunlight''&nbsp;&nbsp;("sun <u>light</u>") ::* '''mu<u>a</u>r'''....''moon''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("number <u>one</u> satellite) :::* '''muar<u>ned</u>'''....''lunar surface''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>surface</u>") :::* '''muar<u>moyb</u>'''....''lunar crater''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("moon <u>depression</u>") ::* '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>third</u> planet from the sun" :::* '''meir<u>tun</u>'''....''geology''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth<u>science</u>" :::* '''meir<u>zyunad</u>'''....''earth's axis''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth <u>turn line</u>" :::* '''meir<u>mop</u>'''....''earth's orbit''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("earth's <u>orbit</u>" ::* '''mar<u>maf</u>'''....''galaxy''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>cloud</u>") :::* '''A<u>marmaf</u>'''....''Milky Way''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>number one</u> galaxy, i.e. star cloud") ::* '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>collection</u> of stars") ::* '''mar<u>meg</u>'''....''comet''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("star <u>rock</u>") ::* '''<u>mom</u>meg'''....''meteor''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>space</u> rock") ::* '''<u>mam</u>meg'''....''meteorite''&nbsp;&nbsp; ("<u>sky</u> rock") : The following are vehicles and derivatives that are specific to one of the above physical spheres: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vehicles Specific to Various Spheres |- | '''mompur'''....''spaceship'' || '''momper'''....''travel through space'' || '''momput'''....''cosmonaut, astronaut'' |- | '''mampur'''....''airplane'' || '''mamper'''....''fly''|| '''mamput'''....''flyer, pilot'' |- | '''mempur'''....''automobile'' || '''memper'''....''ride, drive''|| '''memput'''....''rider, driver'' |- | '''mimpur'''....''ship''<br>'''obmimpar'''....''submarine'' || '''mimper'''....''sail, navigate''|| '''mimput'''....''sailor, navigator''<br>'''obmimput'''....''submariner'' |- | '''mumpur'''....''subway'' || '''mumper'''....''tunnel, go by metro''|| '''mumput'''....''metro rider'' |} : Note: '''marpur''' = ''starship'' and '''muarpur''' = ''lunar module'' === Names of the Planets === : Here are the names of the planets in our solar system. Notice that Earth is the "third planet" from the sun. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Planets |- ! mer....planet |- | '''Me<u>a</u>r'''....''Mercury'' |- | '''Me<u>e</u>r'''....''Venus'' |- | '''Me<u>i</u>r'''....''Earth'' ('''i''' = ''three'') |- | '''Me<u>u</u>r'''....''Mars'' |- | '''Me<u>yo</u>r'''....''Jupiter'' |- | '''Me<u>ya</u>r'''....''Saturn'' |- | '''Me<u>ye</u>r'''....''Uranus'' |- | '''Me<u>yi</u>r'''....''Pluto'' |} === Polar Directions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Polar Directions |- ! DIRECTIONS !! '''mer'''....''planet'' !! |- | '''a'''....''up'' || '''amer'''....''north'' || '''amera'''....''northern'' |- | '''o'''....''down'' || '''omer'''....''south'' || '''omera'''....''southern'' |- | '''i'''....''right'' || '''imer'''....''east'' || '''imera'''....''eastern, oriental'' |- | '''u'''....''left'' || '''umer'''....''west'' || '''umera'''....''western, occidental'' |} : Compass points can be hybrids of the above: ::* '''<u>aomera</u> izon'''....''<u>north-south</u> direction'' ::* '''<u>uimera</u> domep'''....''<u>east-west</u> street'' ::* '''<u>aumera</u> zyemep'''....''<u>northwest</u> passage'' ::* '''<u>oimera</u> tez'''....''<u>southeast</u> culture'' : Related terms: ::* '''amernod'''....''north pole'' ('''nod''' = ''point'') ::* '''omernod'''....''south pole'' ::* '''aomernad'''....''longitude'' ('''ao''' = ''north-south'', '''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uimernad'''....''latitude'' ('''ui''' = ''east-west'') ::* '''emernad'''....''equator'' ('''e''' = ''middle'') ::* '''oybemernada'''....''tropical, Torrid'' ('''oyb''' = ''below'') ::* '''merzyun'''....''globe, sphere'' (''planet-ball'') ::* '''eymerzyun'''....''hemisphere'' (''half-planet-ball'') : The same directional prefixes are used in the following words: ::* '''aonab'''....''column'' (''up-down row'', ''y-axis'') ::* '''uinab'''....''row'' (''left-right row'', ''x-axis'') ::* '''aonada'''....''vertical'' ) ('''nad''' = ''line'') ::* '''uinada'''....''horiztonal'' === Types of Clouds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Clouds |- ! '''maf'''....''cloud'' |- | '''maaf'''....''stratus'' |- | '''maef'''....''nimbostratus'' |- | '''maif'''....''cumulus'' |- | '''mauf'''....''cumulonimbus'' |- | '''mayof'''....''stratocumulus'' |- | '''mayaf'''....''allocumulus'' |- | '''mayef'''....''allostratus'' |- | '''mayif'''....''cirrocumulus'' |- | '''mayuf'''....''cirrostratus'' |- | '''malof'''....''cirrus'' |} === Types of Roads and Paths === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Roads |- | '''mep'''....''way, road, route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zeymep'''....''bridge, crossing''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aybmep'''....''overpass, bridge''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oybmep'''....''underpass''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyemep'''....''tunnel, throughway, thoroughfare ''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''kumep'''....''side path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zomep'''....''back way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebmep'''....''aisle''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyamep'''....''sidewalk, walkway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''omep'''....''impasse''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''gunmep'''....''dogleg''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''dinmep'''....''plot''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''pomep'''....''itinerary''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''eynmep'''....''half-way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''homep?'''....''which way?''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yilpmep'''....''escape route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yexmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzmep'''....''circuit''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyenmep'''....''career''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''puxmep'''....''trajectory''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyamep'''....''right way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''vyomep'''....''wrong way''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''musmep'''....''stairway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''izmep'''....''direct route, straight path, vector''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yebmep'''....''entryway, entrance''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''oyebmep'''....''exit, way out''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mummep'''....''subway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mammep'''....''air route''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''elyamep'''....''railroad, railway''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mimmep'''....''sealane'' |- |'''domep'''....''street''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''agdomep'''....''highway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''aagdomep'''....''main street''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyadomep'''....''broadway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''igdomep'''....''expressway''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''uzmep'''....''byway, detour''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''yuzdomep'''....''beltway, loop''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zyudomep'''....''roundabout, circle, rotary''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''ebdomep'''....''alley''<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anizona domep'''....''one-way street'' |- |'''meap'''....''avenue'' |- |'''meep'''....''boulevard'' |- |'''meip'''....''lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zimeip'''....''right lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zumeip'''....''left lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''zemeip'''....''median, middle lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''anmeip'''....''single lane''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''enmeip'''....''double lane'' |- |'''meup'''....''trail''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''mebmeup'''....''mountain trail'' |- |'''meyp'''....''path''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''tyoyameyp'''....''footpath'' |} === Types of Stones, Gems, etc. === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Types of Stones |- ! STONE !! GEM !! OTHER EARTH SUBSTANCES |- | '''meg''' .... stone || '''mez''' .... gem || '''mek''' .... dust |- | '''meag''' .... marble || '''amez''' .... diamond || '''miek''' .... sand |- | '''meeg''' ....slate || '''emez''' .... topaz || '''myek''' .... powder |- | '''meig''' ....gramote || '''imez''' .... ruby || '''mel''' .... soil |- | '''meug''' ....clay || '''vamez''' .... emerald || '''meil''' .... mud |- | '''meyag''' ....chalk || '''yamez''' .... amethyst || '''megil''' .... cement |- | '''meyeg''' ....limestone || '''yomez''' .... sapphire || '''myel''' .... plastic |- | '''meyig''' ....alabaster || || '''mil''' .... water |- | '''meyog''' .... china || || '''mial''' .... vapor |- | '''meyug''' .... gypsum || || '''miil''' .... dew |- | '''melag''' .... adobe || || '''mimol''' .... salt |- | '''meleg''' .... terra cotta || || '''mamil''' .... rain |- | '''melig''' .... marl || || '''mal''' .... air |- | '''melug''' .... kaolin || || '''mayl''' .... gas |- | '''melyag''' .... feldspar || || '''magil''' .... petroleum |- | '''melyeg''' .... petunse || || '''mug''' .... metal |- | '''melyig''' .... silica || || '''muk''' .... mineral |- | '''melyog''' .... pegmatite || || '''mul''' .... matter |- | '''melyug''' .... flint || || '''mag''' .... fire |- | '''mieg''' .... coral || || '''mog''' .... ash |- | || || '''mav''' .... flame |- | || || '''mov''' .... smoke |} === Thermal Conditions === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Thermal Conditions |- | '''am'''....''heat'' || '''ama''' .... hot || '''ayma''' ....''warm'' |- | '''om'''....''cold'' || '''oma''' .... cold || '''oyma''' ....''cool'' |- | '''im'''....''moisture'' || '''ima''' .... wet || '''iyma''' ....''humid'' |- | '''um'''....''draught'' || '''uma''' .... dry || '''uyma''' ....''arid'' |- | '''yom'''....''ice'' || '''yoma''' .... frozen || '''yoyma''' ....''chilly'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yama''' .... burning || '''yayma'''....''fiery'' |} : Note: '''aoma''' = ''lukewarm''. === Weather Phenomena === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weather Phenomena ! '''maalbyen''' ....''weather'' (''atmosphere'' + ''mood'') |- | '''mamil''' ....''rain'' |- | '''mamyom''' ....''sleet'' |- | '''mamyoym''' ....''snow'' |- | '''yoym''' ....''frost'' |- | '''yom''' ....''ice'' |- | '''mial''' ....''steam'' |- | '''miil''' ....''dew'' |- | '''maf''' ....''cloud'' |- | '''miaf''' ....''fog'' |- | '''mapil''' ....''storm'', ''windstorm'' |- | '''xeusmapil''' ....''thunderstorm'' |- | '''mapilag''' ....''tempest'' |- | '''mimuzlun''' ....''hurricane'' |- | '''imera mimuzlun''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''map''' ....''wind''<br>'''maap''' ....''puff''<br>'''maep''' ....''breeze''<br>'''maip''' ....''gust''<br>'''maup''' ....''gale''<br>'''mayop''' ....''typhoon'' |- | '''mapuzlun''' ....''tornado'', ''twister'', ''cyclone'' |- | '''mammanig (or) mammak''' ....''lightning'' |- | '''mamxeus''' ....''thunder'' |- | '''mamiluz''' ....''rainbow'' |- | '''jibim''' ....''monsoon'' |- | '''graim''' ....''flood'', ''deluge'' |} === Atmospheric Layers === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Atmospheric Layers |- ! '''mal''' ....''air'' |- | '''maal''' ....''atmosphere'' |- | '''mael''' ....''troposphere'' |- | '''mail''' ....''stratosphere'' |- | '''maul''' ....''ionosphere'' |- | '''mayol''' ....''exosphere'' |} === Rivers and Streams === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Rivers and Streams |- ! '''mip''' ....''river'' |- | '''miap''' ....''stream'' |- | '''miep''' ....''brook'' |- | '''miip''' ....''rivulet'' |- | '''miup''' ....''tributary'' |- | '''miyop''' ....''creek'' |- | '''miyap''' ....''rill'' |- | '''mipuj''' ....''estuary'' |- | '''mipkum''' ....''river bank'' |} === Bodies of Water === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Bodies of Water |- ! '''mim''' ....''sea'' |- | '''mimag''' ....''ocean'' |- | '''miam''' ....''lake'' |- | '''miem''' ....''lagoon'' |- | '''miim''' ....''pond'' |- | '''mium''' ....''pool, basin'' |- | '''miumog''' ....''puddle'' |- | '''immem''' ....''swamp'' |- | '''ebmim''' ....''strait'' |- | '''zyomip''' ....''canal'' |} === Land Features === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Land Features |- valign=top ! '''mem''' ....''land'' |- | '''meam''' ....''region''<br>'''meem''' ....''territory''<br>'''meim''' ....''countryside''<br>'''meum''' ....''zone, district''<br>'''meyom''' ....''tract, parcel, acre'' |- | '''meb''' ....''mountain''<br>'''meyb''' ....''mount''<br>'''meab''' ....''hill''<br>'''meeb''' ....''knob''<br>'''meib''' ....''mound''<br>'''meub''' ....''ridge''<br>'''meyob''' ....''bump'' |- | '''mimeib''' ... ''cape'' |- | '''yabmimeib''' ....''promontory, headland, bluff'' |- | '''zyimeb''' ....''plateau'' |- | '''magmeb''' ....''volcano'' |- | '''mub''' ....''chasm, precipice, cliff''<br>'''muab''' ....''gulf, gulch''<br>'''mueb''' ....''ravine, valley, dale''<br>'''muib''' ....''cave''<br>'''muyob''' ....''ditch'' |- | '''mimuib''' ....''cove'' |- | '''mimkum''' ....''beach, seaside, coast'' |- | '''uzmimkum''' ....''bay'' |- | '''zyimem''' ....''plain'' |- | '''ummem''' ....''desert'' |- | '''immem''' ....''wetland, swamp'' |- | '''zomem''' ....''hinterland'' |- | '''zyamem''' ....''prairie'' |- | '''memsin''' ....''landscape'' |- | '''yonmel''' ....''island'' |- | '''eynyonmel''' ....''peninsula'' |- | '''yanmel''' ....''continent'' |- | '''zyoebmel''' ....''isthmus'' |- | '''yijmem''' ....''field, meadow'' |} === Different Worlds=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Different Worlds |- ! '''mir''' ....''world, realm, domain'' |- | '''jomir'''....''here-after, after-world, metasphere''<br>'''fyajomir'''....''heaven, paradise''<br>'''ebjomir'''....''limbo''<br>'''zejomir'''....''purgatory''<br>'''fyojomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''yizmir'''....''world beyond, spirit world''<br>'''yizmirat'''....''spirit, sprite'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''sacred world, paradise''<br>'''fyamirat'''....''angel'' |- | '''fyomir'''....''wicked world, hell''<br>'''fyomirat'''....''demon'' |- | '''obmir'''....''nether world'' |- | '''komir'''....''secret realms'' |- ! '''Totmir'''....''Heaven'' |} == The '''pot''' (''Animal'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family begin with the letter '''p''', denoting ''movement'', and end in the letter '''t''', denoting a ''living creature''. Thus, the words have to do with animals. The ordinal vowel indicates the terrain: land, air, water, or a combination of these. If the vowel is pre-y-glided, then the animal is wild or predatory. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Core Words |- | AIR || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''predatory bird''<br>'''piat'''....''aquatic bird'' |- | LAND (WILD) || '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''predatory animal''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic'' |- | LAND (DOMESTIC) || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pelat'''....''flying insect''<br>'''piyet'''....''batrachian''<br>'''payet'''....''flying reptile''<br>'''peyet'''....''worm'' |- | WATER || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''pyit'''....''predatory fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''peit'''....''marine mammal'' |} === Chart of Principal Animals === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Chart of Principal Animals |- ! LAND<br>(WILD)!!LAND<br>(DOMESTIC)!!AIR!!WATER |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''pot'''....''WILD ANIMAL''<br>'''gapot'''....''elephant''<br>'''gepot'''....''rhinoceros''<br>'''gipot'''....''zebra''<br>'''kapot'''....''squirrel''<br>'''kepot'''....''polecat''<br>'''kipot'''....''badger''<br>'''kupot'''....''otter''<br>'''kyapot'''....''beaver''<br>'''kyepot'''....''ermine''<br>'''kyipot'''....''raccoon''<br>'''kyopot'''....''weasel''<br>'''kyupot'''....''ferret''<br>'''klapot'''....''rat''<br>'''sapot'''....''hedgehog''<br>'''sepot'''....''porcupine''<br>'''sipot'''....''mole''<br>'''supot'''....''skunk''<br>'''vapot'''....''hart''<br>'''vepot'''....''reindeer''<br>'''vipot'''....''deer''<br>'''vupot'''....''chamois''<br>'''vyapot'''....''antelope''<br>'''vyepot'''....''gazelle''<br>'''vyipot'''....''elk, moose''<br>'''vyupot'''....''buck''<br>'''yupot'''....''wild rabbit''<br>'''yuapot'''....''hare''<br>'''zapot'''....''tortoise''<hr>'''pyot'''....''PREDATORY ANIMAL''<br>'''apyot'''....''lion''<br>'''epyot'''....''tiger''<br>'''ipyot'''....''leopard''<br>'''iapyot'''....''jaguar''<br>'''iepyot'''....''puma''<br>'''iipyot'''....''panther''<br>'''iupyot'''....''lynx''<br>'''upyot'''....''wolf''<br>'''yopyot'''....''fox''<br>'''yapyot'''....''wild boar''<br>'''yepyot'''....''hyena''<br>'''yeapyot'''....''jackal''<br>'''bepyot'''....''bear''<br>'''dapyot'''....''kangaroo''<br>'''fapyot'''....''orangutan, ape''<br>'''fepyot'''....''monkey''<br>'''fipyot'''....''gorilla''<br>'''fupyot'''....''bonobo''<br>'''fyopyot'''....''chimpanzee''<br>'''fyapyot'''....''gibbon''<br>'''fyepyot'''....''lemur''<br>'''piot'''....''semi-aquatic''<br>'''gapiot'''....''hippopotamus''<br>'''zapiot'''....''turtle'' ||'''pet'''....''DOMESTIC ANIMAL''<br>'''apet'''....''horse''<br>'''epet'''....''bull''<br>'''ipet'''....''ass''<br>'''upet'''....''ram''<br>'''yopet'''....''goat''<br>'''yapet'''....''hog''<br>'''yepet'''....''dog''<br>'''yipet'''....''cat''<br>'''yupet'''....''rabbit''<br>'''fapet'''....''camel''<br>'''fepet'''....''dromedary''<br>'''fipet'''....''giraffe''<br>'''lapet'''....''llama''<br>'''lepet'''....''yak''<br>'''klapet'''....''mouse''<hr>'''pyet'''....''REPTILE''<br>'''apyet'''....''lizard''<br>'''epyet'''....''caiman''<br>'''ipyet'''....''crocodile''<br>'''upyet'''....''aligator''<br>'''yopyet'''....''iguana''<br>'''fapyet'''....''grass snake''<br>'''fepyet'''....''slug''<br>'''fipyet'''....''leech''<br>'''kepyet'''....''gecko''<br>'''lopyet'''....''snake''<br>'''lapyet'''....''boa''<br>'''lepyet'''....''cobra''<br>'''lipyet'''....''viper''<br>'''vapyet'''....''snail''<hr>'''piyet'''....''BATRACHIAN''<br>'''apiyet'''....''toad''<br>'''epiyet'''....''frog''<br>'''ipiyet'''....''tree frog''<hr>'''payet'''....''FLYING REPTILE''<br>'''apayet'''....''bat''<hr>'''peyet'''....''WORM''<br>'''apeyet'''....''silkworm''<br>'''epeyet'''....''flatworm''<br>'''ipeyet'''....''tapeworm''<br>'''upeyet'''....''fluke''<br>'''bapeyet'''....''threadworm''<br>'''bepeyet'''....''roundworm''<br>'''bipeyet'''....''hookworm''<br>'''dapeyet'''....''earthworm''<br>'''depeyet'''....''bristle worm''<hr>'''pelt'''....''INSECT''<br>'''apelt'''....''spider''<br>'''fapelt'''....''ant''<br>'''fepelt'''....''cockroach''<br>'''fipelt'''....''termite''<br>'''gapelt'''....''weevil''<br>'''gepelt'''....''mite''<br>'''kapelt'''....''louse''<br>'''kepelt'''....''flea''<br>'''kipelt'''....''bug''<br>'''kopelt'''....''vermin''<br>'''kupelt'''....''earwig''<br>'''lapelt'''....''scorpion''<br>'''lepelt'''....''caterpillar''<br>'''lipelt'''....''lice''<br>'''lupelt'''....''bedbug''<br>'''rapelt'''....''centipede''<br>'''repelt'''....''millipede'' ||'''pat'''....''BIRD''<br>'''apat'''....''cock''<br>'''epat'''....''duck''<br>'''ipat'''....''turkey''<br>'''upat'''....''goose''<br>'''yapat'''....''pigeon''<br>'''bapat'''....''thrush''<br>'''bepat'''....''warbler''<br>'''bipat'''....''sparrow''<br>'''dapat'''....''parrot''<br>'''depat'''....''parakeet''<br>'''fapat'''....''raven''<br>'''fepat'''....''crow''<br>'''gapat'''....''ostrich''<br>'''gepat'''....''peacock''<br>'''gipat'''....''peafowl''<br>'''fipat'''....''magpie''<br>'''kapat'''....''stork''<br>'''vapat'''....''nightingale''<br>'''vepat'''....''yellow canary''<br>'''vipat'''....''canary''<br>'''vupat'''....''chaffinch''<br>'''vyapat'''....''robin''<br>'''vyepat'''....''bluebird''<br>'''vyopat'''....''blackbird''<br>'''zapat'''....''swallow''<br>'''zepat'''....''swift''<br>'''sapat'''....''partridge''<br>'''sepat'''....''quail''<br>'''sipat'''....''woodcock''<br>'''supat'''....''lark''<br>'''syopat'''....''pheasant''<br>'''syapat'''....''black grouse''<br>'''syepat'''....''woodpecker''<hr>'''pyat'''....''BIRD OF PREY'' bird<br>'''apyat'''....''eagle''<br>'''epyat'''....''vulture''<br>'''ipyat'''....''kite''<br>'''upyat'''....''buzzard''<br>'''yopyat'''....''sparrowhawk''<br>'''yapyat'''....''falcon''<br>'''lapyat'''....''owl''<br>'''lepyat'''....''screech owl''<hr>'''pelat'''....''FLYING INSECT''<br>'''apelat'''....''bee''<br>'''epelat'''....''wasp''<br>'''ipelat'''....''horsefly, gadfly''<br>'''upelat'''....''fly''<br>'''yopelat'''....''mosquito''<br>'''yapelat'''....''gnat''<br>'''gapelat'''....''moth''<br>'''gopelat'''....''butterfly''<br>'''lapelat'''....''may bug''<br>'''lepelat'''....''beetle''<br>'''tapelat'''....''cicada''<br>'''tepelat'''....''cricket''<br>'''tipelat'''....''grasshopper''<br>'''topelat'''....''dragonfly''<br>'''tupelat'''....''firefly''<br>'''vapelat'''....''bumble bee''<br>'''vepelat'''....''sweat bee''<br>'''vipelat'''....''hornet''<hr>'''piat'''....''AQUATIC BIRD''<br>'''japiat'''....''cormorant''<br>'''jepiat'''....''gull''<br>'''kapiat'''....''heron''<br>'''kepiat'''....''crane''<br>'''kipiat'''....''flamingo''<br>'''sapiat'''....''swan''<br>'''tapiat'''....''penguin'' ||'''pit'''....''FISH''<br>'''apit'''....''trout''<br>'''epit'''....''perch''<br>'''ipit'''....''pike''<br>'''upit'''....''carp''<br>'''yopit'''....''tench''<br>'''yapit'''....''gudgeon, stud''<br>'''yepit'''....''stickleback''<br>'''yipit'''....''whiting''<br>'''fapit'''....''shad''<br>'''fepit'''....''bluegill''<br>'''fipit'''....''catfish''<br>'''fupit'''....''bass''<br>'''gapit'''....''minnow''<br>'''gepit'''....''perch''<br>'''lapit'''....''ray, skate''<br>'''lepit'''....''turbot''<br>'''lipit'''....''salmon''<br>'''lupit'''....''sole''<br>'''sapit'''....''herring''<br>'''sepit'''....''barbel''<br>'''sipit'''....''anchovy''<br>'''supit'''....''gilt''-head, sea bream<br>'''syopit'''....''sardine''<br>'''syapit'''....''hake''<br>'''vapit'''....''eel''<br>'''vepit'''....''seahorse'' <hr>'''pyit'''....''PREDATOR SEA CREATURE''<br>'''ipyit'''....''sperm whale''<br>'''yapyit'''....''swordfish''<br>'''yepyit'''....''tuna''<br>'''yipyit'''....''sturgeon''<br>'''yupyit'''....''cod''<br>'''bapyit'''....''jellyfish''<hr>'''piit'''....''CRUSTACEAN''<br>'''apiit'''....''lobster''<br>'''epiit'''....''crayfish''<br>'''ipiit'''....''scampi''<br>'''upiit'''....''craw fish''<br>'''yopiit'''....''prawn''<br>'''yapiit'''....''shrimp''<br>'''lapiit'''....''crab''<br>'''lepiit'''....''squid''<hr>'''peit'''....''MARINE MAMMAL''<br>'''apeit'''....''whale''<br>'''epeit'''....''seal''<br>'''ipeit'''....''sea lion, otary''<br>'''upeit'''....''manatee''<br>'''yopeit'''....''walrus''<br>'''yapeit'''....''platypus''<br>'''yepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''yipeit'''....''vaquita''<br>'''bapeit'''....''shark''<br>'''bepeit'''....''dolphin''<br>'''bipeit'''....''porpoise''<br>'''bupeit'''....''otter''<hr>'''pyeit'''....''MOLLUSK''<br>'''apyeit'''....''oyster''<br>'''epyeit'''....''mussel''<br>'''ipyeit'''....''clam''<br>'''upyeit'''....''octopus'' |} === Animal Sounds === : The animal noise verbs are formed by replacing the final '''t''' of the animal's name to '''der''' (''communicate, utter''), as in the chart below. If the noise is particularly "noisy", the verb '''teuder''' (''scream'') can be used instead of '''der'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Sounds |- ! ANIMAL !! SOUND VERB |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' ||'''apeder'''....''neigh, whinny '' |- | '''epet'''....''bull'' ||'''epeder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''eopetob'''....''veal'' ||'''eopetoder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox''||'''eopeder'''....''low, moo, bellow '' |- | '''epeyt'''....''cow''||'''epeyder'''....''moo '' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' ||'''ipeder'''....''bray, hehaw '' |- | '''lapet'''....''llama'' ||'''lapeder'''....''growl '' |- | '''upet'''....''sheep'' ||'''upeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat''||'''yopeder'''....''bray '' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog''||'''yapeder'''....''grunt, snort, oink '' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' ||'''yepeder'''....''bark '' ('''yepeteuder'''....''yelp'') |- | '''yepyot'''....''wolf'' ||'''yepyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' ||'''yopyoder'''....''yelp '' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' ||'''yipeder'''....''mew, purr, meow '' |- | '''yipyot'''....''tiger'' ||'''yipyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' ||'''yupeder'''....''drum '' |- | '''kapet'''....''squirrel'' ||'''kapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''kyipet'''....''raccoon'' ||'''kyipeder'''....''chitter '' |- | '''klapet'''....''mouse'' ||'''klapeder'''....''squeak '' |- | '''eplet'''....''koala'' ||'''epleder'''....''wail '' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion''||'''rapyoder'''....''roar '' |- | '''yepyot'''....''hyena''||'''yepyoder'''....''laugh '' |- | '''yeapyot'''....''jackal'' ||'''yeapyoder'''....''howl '' |- | '''bapyot'''....''ape'' ||'''tapyoder'''....''gibber '' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear''||'''tepyoder'''....''growl '' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant''||'''gapeder'''....''trumpet '' |- | '''vepot'''....''reindeer''||'''vepoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''vyipot'''....''moose'' ||'''vyipoder'''....''bellow '' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' ||'''fapeder'''....''grunt '' |- | '''fipet'''....''giraffe''||'''fipeder'''....''bleat '' |- | '''kepyet'''....''gecko'' ||'''kepyeder'''....''go to-key, make a gecko noise '' |- | '''lepyet'''....''cobra'' ||'''lepyeder'''....''hiss '' |- | '''apayet'''....''bat''||'''apayeder'''....''screech '' |- | '''epiyet'''....''frog''||'''epiyeder'''....''rivet, make a frog noise '' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' ||'''apelader'''....''buzz '' |- | '''lepelat'''....''beetle''||'''lepelader'''....''drone '' |- | '''tepelat'''....''cricket'' ||'''tepelader'''....''chirp '' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' ||'''pader'''....''chirp, tweet, coo, sing '' |- | '''apat'''....''rooster'' ||'''apader'''....''crow, cockadoodle-doo '' |- | '''apayt'''....''hen'' ||'''apayder'''....''cluck '' |- | '''apatog'''....''chicken'' ||'''apatoder'''....''cheep '' |- | '''epat'''....''duck''||'''epader'''....''quack '' |- | '''ipat'''....''turkey''||'''ipader'''....''gobble '' |- | '''yapat'''....''pigeon'' ||'''yapader'''....''coo '' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' ||'''apyader'''....''squawk '' |- | '''epyat'''....''vulture''||'''epyader'''....''scream '' |- | '''fapat'''....''raven''||'''fapader'''....''croak '' |- | '''fepat'''....''crow''||'''fepader'''....''craw '' |- | '''fipat'''....''chatter''||'''fipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''fupat'''....''hoot''||'''fupader'''....''hoot '' |- | '''fyipat'''....''jay''||'''fyipader'''....''chatter '' |- | '''gapat'''....''ostrich'' ||'''gapader'''....''bleep '' |- | '''sapiat'''....''swan''||'''sapiader'''....''cry '' |- | '''zapat'''....''swallow'' ||'''zapader'''....''squeal '' |- | '''tapat'''....''parrot''||'''tapader'''....''parrot '' |- | '''vapat'''....''nightingale'' ||'''vapader'''....''pipe '' |- | '''fepat'''....''warbler'' ||'''fepader'''....''warble '' |- | '''tapiat'''....''penguin''||'''tapiader'''....''honk '' |- | '''yapeit'''....''platypus''||'''yapeider'''....''chitter '' |- | '''yopeit'''....''walrus'' ||'''yopeider'''....''groan '' |- | '''bipeit'''....''porpoise''||'''bipeider'''....''whistle '' |} === Animal Habitats === : By suffixing the final '''t''' of the animal name with '''tam'''....''house'', you get corresponding animal's living quarters: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Habitats |- ! ANIMAL !! LIVING SPACE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetam'''....''stable'' |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epetam'''....''cowshed'' |- | '''yapet'''....''pig'' || '''yapetam'''....''pigpen, pigsty'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetam'''....''doghouse'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyotam'''....''den, lion&apos;s den'' |- | '''fapelt'''....''ant'' || '''fapeltam'''....''anthill'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatam'''....''beehive'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patam'''....''nest, bird&apos;s nest'' |- | '''apat'''....''hen'' || '''apatam'''....''henhouse, chicken coop'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotam'''....''lair'' |- | '''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pyotam'''....''cage'' |} === Animal Meats === : By changing the final letter of the animal&apos;s name to an '''l''', you get the meat eaten from that animal: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Meats ! ANIMAL !! MEAT |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopel'''....''beef'' |- | '''vipet'''....''deer'' || '''vipel'''....''venison'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapel'''....''pork'' |- | '''yapetyoab'''....''hog's thigh'' || '''yapetyoal'''....''ham'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopel'''....''mutton'' |- | '''eopetob'''....''calf'' || '''eopetol'''....''veal'' |- | '''vapyet'''....''snail'' || '''vapyel'''....''escargot'' |} === Animal Groupings === : By adding '''yan'''....''aggregate'' or '''nyan'''....''crowd'' to the name of an animal, you get the animal grouping: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Groupings ! ANIMAL !! GROUPING |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patyan'''....''flock'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetyan'''....''cattle'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pityan'''....''school'' |- | '''pelt'''....''insect'' || '''peltyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatyan'''....''poultry'' |- | '''pot'''....''animal'' || '''potnyan'''....''herd'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetyan'''....''goatherd'' |} === Animals' Babies and Diminutives === : The baby of an animal ends in '''ud''', which is a stub suffix for '''tud'''....''offspring, child'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animals&apos; Babies ! ANIMAL !! BABY |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetud'''....''foal'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopetud'''....''calf'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetud'''....''pup'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetud'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatud'''....''chick'' |- | '''apyat'''....''eagle'' || '''apyatud'''....''eaglet'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatud'''....''gosling'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upetud'''....''lamb'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopetud'''....''kid'' |} : To create an animal pet name, add the suffix '''if''' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Pet Names ! ANIMAL !! PET |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetif'''....''puppy'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetif'''....''kitten'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apatif'''....''chickadee'' |} : Other size suffixes can be appended as well: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Diminutives and Augmentatives ! ANIMAL !! SIZE-VARIANT |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetog'''....''doggy'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetayg'''....''cur'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepetag'''....''hound'' |- | '''upetud'''....''lamb'' || '''upetotog'''....''lambkin'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapetog'''....''piggy'' |} === Animal-derived Adjectives === : Here is a chart showing the adjectives used to refer to animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Adjectives |- ! ANIMAL NOUN !! ADJECTIVE |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeta'''....''equine'' |- | '''eopet'''....''ox'' || '''eopeta'''....''bovine'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeta'''....''ovine'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeta'''....''porcine'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeta'''....''canine'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipeta'''....''feline'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyota'''....''lupine'' |- | '''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pyeta'''....''reptilian'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pata'''....''avian'' |} : Various Other Words Derived from Animals: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Various Animal Derviations |- ! ANIMAL NAME !! DERIVED WORD |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetsim'''....''saddle''<br>'''apetyoyafut'''....''blacksmith''<br>'''apetyoyaper'''....''trot''<br>'''apetpar'''....''carriage''<br>'''apetapekam'''....''hippodrome''<br>'''fizapetaput'''....''knight''<br>'''dopapetaput'''....''mounted trooper'' |- | '''apelat'''....''bee'' || '''apelatyel'''....''wax''<br>'''apelatil'''....''honey''<br>'''apelatam'''....''hive''<br>'''apelatyan'''....''swarm'' |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patij'''....''egg''<br>'''patam'''....''nest''<br>'''patijber'''....''hatch''<br>'''patijsana'''....''oval'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitpexar'''....''lure''<br>'''pitgrunen'''....''angling''<br>'''pitpixut'''....''fisherman''<br>'''pittun'''....''ichthyology''<br>'''pitsana'''....''pisciform''<br>'''pituil'''....''fish sauce''<br>'''pitub'''....''fin''<br>'''pitaib'''....''fishbone''<br>'''piteab'''....''fisheye''<br>'''piteob'''....''jowl''<br>'''pitieb'''....''gill''<br>'''pitoyb'''....''mermaid'' |} === Animals' Hair === : The hair of an animal ends in '''tayeb'''....''hair'': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Animal Hair ! ANIMAL !! HAIR |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apetayeb'''....''horsehair, mane'' |- | '''yipet'''....''cat'' || '''yipetayeb'''....''fur'' |- | '''fapet'''....''camel'' || '''fapetayeb'''....''camelhair'' |- | '''pit'''....''fish'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' |- | '''upat'''....''goose'' || '''upatayeb'''....''down, goose down'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyotayeb'''....''fuzz'' |- | '''uopet'''....''sheep'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |} === Gendered Counterparts of Animals === : The word for the female counterpart of an animal is created by post-y-glided (i.e. adding a '''y''' to) the ordinal (last) vowel of the male animal's adult name: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Female Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! FEMALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epeyt'''....''cow'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apeyt'''....''mare'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipeyt'''....''she-ass'' |- | '''yopet'''....''goat'' || '''yopeyt'''....''nanny goat'' |- | '''yapet'''....''hog'' || '''yapeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''yepet'''....''dog'' || '''yepeyt'''....''bitch'' |- | '''apyot'''....''lion'' || '''apyoyt'''....''lioness'' |- | '''upyot'''....''wolf'' || '''upyoyt'''....''wolverine'' |- | '''yopyot'''....''fox'' || '''yopyoyt'''....''vixen'' |- | '''gapot'''....''elephant'' || '''gapoyt'''....''cow elephant'' |- | '''vipot'''....''buck'' || '''vipeyt'''....''deer'' |- | '''apat'''....''cock'' || '''apayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupeyt'''....''doe rabbit'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''upeyt'''....''ewe'' |} : To form the male-specific gender of an animal, place a '''w''' before the ordinal vowel: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Male Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''ox'' || '''epwet'''....''bull'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''apwet'''....''stallion'' |- | '''apet'''....''cock'' || '''apwet'''....''rooster'' |- | '''yupet'''....''rabbit'' || '''yupwet'''....''buck rabbit'' |- | '''ipet'''....''ass'' || '''ipwet'''....''(he-)mule'' |- | '''bepyot'''....''bear'' || '''bepyowt^*'''....''papa bear'' |} : ¹ If the animal name ends in '''-pyot''', '''-pyat''', '''-pyit''', or '''pyet''', post-w-glide the final vowel. : To form the gelded or neutered form of an animal, place an '''o''' before the '''p''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Gelded Counterparts of Animals ! ANIMAL !! MALE |- | '''epet'''....''bovine'' || '''eopet'''....''steer'' |- | '''apet'''....''horse'' || '''aopet'''....''gelding'' |- | '''upet'''....''ram'' || '''uopet'''....''sheep'' |} === Interesting Parallels in Animal Vocabulary === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Parallels in Animal Vocabulary |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''pateub'''....''beak, bill'' || '''poteub'''....''mug'' || '''mimeub'''....''bay'' || || || |- | '''teib'''....''nose'' || '''poteib'''....''snout'' || '''gapeteib'''....''elephant trunk'' || '''meib'''....''promontory'' || '''tilabeib'''....''nipple'' || '''fapemeib'''....''camel hump''|| '''seib'''....''marquee, ledge'' |- | '''tayeb'''....''hair'' || '''patayeb'''....''feather'' || '''pitayeb'''....''scale'' || '''petayeb'''....''fur'' || '''fayeb'''....''leaf'' || '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' || '''uopetayeb'''....''wool, fleece'' |- | '''tulob'''....''nail'' || '''patulob'''....''claw'' || '''apelatulob'''....''stinger'' || '''defulob'''....''pine needle'' || '''fulob'''....''prick'' || '''vulob'''....''thorn'' || '''yomulob'''....''icicle'' |- | '''tyoyab'''....''foot'' || '''apetyoyab'''....''hoof'' || '''potyoyab'''....''paw'' || '''meboyab'''....''foothills'' || '''fyoyab'''....''stump'' || '''vyoyab'''....''stub''|| |- | '''tayob'''....''skin'' || '''potayob'''....''hide'' || '''piitayob'''....''shell'' || '''mayob'''....''crust'' || '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''peel''|| '''patijayob'''....''eggshell'' |- | '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''patub'''....''wing'' || '''pitub'''....''fin'' || '''potub'''....''paw'' || '''mapatub'''....''fan'' || '''zyupatub'''....''propeller'' || |} == The '''fob''' (''Vegetation''), '''vob''' (''Crop''), and '''vol''' (''Vegetable'') Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''f''' for ''vegetation'' or '''v''' for ''plant'' and end in '''b''' for ''organism''. These words have to do with trees, fruits, nuts, vegetables, plants, grasses, and grains, as shown in this chart: === Vegetation and Plant Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Vegetation and Plant Parts |- style="vertical-align: top" ! VEGETATION !! PLANT !! VEGETABLE |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vob'''....''plant'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''vol'''...''vegetable'' |- style="vertical-align: top" |'''fab'''....''tree''<br>'''fabyan'''....''forest''<br>'''fabyanes'''....''woods''<br>'''fayb'''....''shrub, vine''<br>'''faybes'''....''bush''<br>'''faybyan'''....''thicket''<br>'''faybyanes'''....''brush'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''feb'''....''fruit, nut''<br>'''feyb'''....''berry'' || style="vertical-align: top" |'''veb'''....''tuft, ear''<br>'''veeb'''....''seed''<br>'''veeyb'''....''grain''|| style="vertical-align: top" |'''veel'''....''legume'' |- | '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''vib'''....''stem''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fub'''....''branch'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vub'''....''twig''<br>'''vulob'''....''thorn''|| |- | '''faob'''....''wood'' || '''vaob'''....''flesh''|| |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''fayeb'''....''leaf''<br>'''fayebyan'''....''foliage'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vayeb'''....''bud''|| |- | '''fayob'''....''bark'' || '''vayob'''....''rind''|| |- | '''fyob'''....''root'' || '''vyob'''....''tendril''|| |} === Trees and Fruits === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Trees/Bushes/Vines and Their Fruits/Nuts/Berries |- ! TREE !! FRUIT/NUT !! JUICE |- | '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''...''fruit'' || '''fel'''....''fruit juice'' |- | '''afab'''....''apple tree'' || '''afeb'''....''apple''|| '''afel'''....''apple juice'' |- | '''efab'''....''pear tree'' || '''efeb'''....''pear''|| '''efel'''....''pear juice'' |- | '''ifab'''....''cherry tree'' || '''ifeb'''....''cherry''|| '''ifel'''....''cherry juice'' |- | '''ufab'''....''prune tree'' || '''ufeb'''....''prune''|| '''ufel'''....''prune juice'' |- | '''yofab'''....''apricot tree'' || '''yofeb'''....''apricot''|| '''yofel'''....''apricot juice'' |- | '''yafab'''....''peach tree'' || '''yafeb'''....''peach''|| '''yafel'''....''peach juice'' |- | '''yefab'''....''quince tree'' || '''yefeb'''....''quince''|| |- | '''yifab'''....''walnut tree'' || '''yifeb'''....''walnut''|| |- | '''yufab'''....''hazel tree'' || '''yufeb'''....''hazel nut'' || |- | '''alofab'''....''mulberry tree'' || '''alofeb'''....''mulberry'' || |- | '''dofab'''....''evergreen tree'' || '''dofeb'''....''cone''|| |- | '''dafab'''....''fir tree'' || '''dafeb'''....''fir cone''|| |- | '''defab'''....''pine tree'' || '''defeb'''....''pine cone''|| |- | '''difab'''....''yew'' || '''difeb'''....''aril''|| |- | '''dyofab'''....''cacao tree'' ||'''dyofeb'''....''cacao, cocoa bean''||'''dyofel'''....''chocolate'' |- | '''dyafab'''....''cedar tree'' || '''dyafeb'''....''pollen cone''|| |- | '''fafab'''....''palm tree'' || '''fafeb'''....''drupe''|| |- | '''fefab'''....''date tree'' || '''fefeb'''....''date''|| |- | '''fifab'''....''banana tree'' || '''fifeb'''....''banana''|| '''fifel'''....''banana juice'' |- | '''fufab'''....''coconut tree'' || '''fufeb'''....''coconut''|| '''fufel'''....''coconut juice'' |- | '''fyofab'''....''pomegranate tree'' || '''fyofeb'''....''pomegranate''|| '''fyofel'''....''pomegranate juice'' |- | '''fyafab'''....''fig tree'' || '''fyafeb'''....''fig''|| '''fyafel'''....''fig juice'' |- | '''kafab'''....''olive tree'' || '''kafeb'''....''olive''|| '''kafyel'''....''olive oil'' |- | '''lofab'''....''citrus tree'' || '''lofeb'''....''citrus fruit'' || '''lofel'''....''citrus juice'' |- | '''lafab'''....''orange tree'' || '''lafeb'''....''orange''|| '''lafel'''....''orange juice'' |- | '''lefab'''....''mandarine tree'' || '''lefeb'''....''mandarin''|| '''lefel'''....''mandarine juice'' |- | '''lifab'''....''lemon tree'' || '''lifeb'''....''lemon''|| '''lifel'''....''lemon juice'' |- | '''lufab'''....''grapefruit tree'' || '''lufeb'''....''grapefruit''|| '''afel'''....''grapefruit juice'' |- | '''lyofob'''....''lime plant'' || '''lyofeb'''....''lime''|| '''lyofel'''....''lime juice'' |- | '''rafab'''....''oak tree'' || '''rafeb'''....''acorn''|| |- | '''refab'''....''beech tree'' || '''refeb'''....''beechnut''|| |- | '''rifab'''....''chestnut tree'' || '''rifeb'''....''chestnut''|| |- | '''rufab'''....''plane tree'' || || |- | '''ryofab'''....''poplar tree'' ||'''ryofeb'''....''catlin'' || |- | '''ryafab'''....''birch tree'' || '''ryafeb'''....''calyx'' || |- | '''ryefab'''....''acacia tree'' || || |- | '''ryifab'''....''sweet chestnut tree'' || '''ryifeb'''....''sweet chestnut''|| |- | '''ryufab'''....''willow tree'' || || |- | '''ryuafab'''....''weeping willow tree'' || || |- | '''ralofab'''....''elm tree'' || || |- | '''ralafab'''....''linden tree'' || || |- | '''ralefab'''....''maple tree'' || || '''ralefyel'''....''maple syrup'' |- | '''ralifab'''....''sycamore tree'' || || |- | '''ralufab'''....''almond tree'' || '''ralufeb'''....''almond'' || |- | '''ralyofab'''....''cashew tree'' || '''ralyofeb'''....''cashew'' || |- ! BUSH/VINE !! BERRY/BEAN !! JUICE |- | '''afayb'''....''tea'' || '''afayeb'''....''tea leaf''|| '''afayel'''....''tea'' |- | '''efayb'''....''coffee plant'' || '''efeyb'''....''coffee bean''|| '''efeyl'''....''coffee'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''ufayb'''....''strawberry bush'' || '''ufeyb'''....''strawberry'' || '''ufeyl'''....''strawberry juice'' |- | '''ifayb'''....''blackcurrant bush'' || '''ifeyb'''....''blackcurrant'' || '''ifeyl'''....''cassis'' |- | '''sifayb'''....''pepper vine'' || '''sifeyb'''....''peppercorn''||'''sifol'''....''pepper'' |- style="vertical-align: top" | '''vafayb'''....''grapevine'' || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyb'''....''grape''|| style="vertical-align: top"|'''vafeyl'''....''grape juice''<br>'''vafil'''....''wine''<br>'''vafyel'''....''grape jelly'' |- | || style="vertical-align: top"|'''vefayeb'''....''ivy (leaf)'' || |- | '''vifayb'''....''red current bush'' || '''vifeyb'''....''red current'' || '''vifeyl'''....''red current juice'' |- | '''vufayb'''....''blackberry vine'' || '''vufeyb'''....''blackberry'' || '''vufyeyl'''....''blackberry jam'' |} === Crops === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Crops |- ! CROP !! DERIVATIVES |- | '''ovob'''....''cereal'' || '''ovul'''....''gruel, meal'' |- | '''avob'''....''wheat'' || '''avul'''....''bread''<br>'''leavul'''....''pasta'' |- | '''evob'''....''rye'' || |- | '''ivob'''....''barley'' || |- | '''uvob'''....''buckwheat'' || |- | '''yovob'''....''millet'' || |- | '''yavob'''....''hop'' || '''yavil'''....''beer'' |- | '''yevob'''....''rape seed, colza'' || |- | '''yivob'''....''rice'' || '''yivil'''....''sake'' |- | '''yuvob'''....''oat'' || '''yuvyeil'''....''oatmeal'' |- | '''favob'''....''cotton'' || |- | '''fevob'''....''flax, linen'' || |- | '''fivob'''....''hemp'' || '''fivof'''....''hemp'' |- | '''fuvob'''....''jute, canvas'' || '''fuvof'''....''canvas'' |- | '''gavob'''....''sunflower'' || |- | '''gevob'''....''corn, maize'' || '''gevobyeil'''....''corn pudding'' |- | '''givob'''....''tobacco'' || '''givobil'''....''nicotine'' |- | '''guvob'''....''brome grass''|| |- | '''lavob'''....''bamboo''|| |- | '''levob'''....''sugarcane''|| '''level'''....''sugar'' |- | '''livob'''....''lemongrass''|| |- | '''luvob'''....''reed, thatch''|| '''luvobwa'''....''thatched'' |- | '''pavob'''....''sorghum'' || |- | '''savob'''....''fern, mushroom''|| |- | '''sevob'''....''thistle''|| |- | '''sivob'''....''nettle''|| |- | '''zavob'''....''strawberry'' || |- | '''zevob'''....''basil''|| |- | '''zivob'''....''thyme''|| |- | '''zuvob'''....''rosemary''|| |} === Vegetables ('''vol''') === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Vegetables and Legumes |- | '''vol'''....''vegetable'' |- | '''avol'''....''green bean'' |- | '''ivol'''....''pea'' |- | '''uvol'''....''wax bean'' |- | '''bavol'''....''tomato'' |- | '''bevol'''....''eggplant'' |- | '''bivol'''....''gourde'' |- | '''buvol'''....''cucumber'' |- | '''byovol'''....''gerkin'' |- | '''byavol'''....''artichoke'' |- | '''favol'''....''leek'' |- | '''fevol'''....''onion'' |- | '''fivol'''....''shallot'' |- | '''fuvol'''....''garlic'' |- | '''gavol'''....''pumpkin'' |- | '''gevol'''....''melon'' |- | '''givol'''....''watermelon'' |- | '''lavol'''....''potato'' |- | '''levol'''....''beet'' |- | '''livol'''....''radish'' |- | '''luvol'''....''carrot'' |- | '''lyovol'''....''turnip'' |- | '''lyavol'''....''Jerusalem artichoke'' |- | '''lyevol'''....''rutabaga'' |- | '''povol'''....''leafy vegetable, greens'' |- | '''pavol'''....''cabbage'' |- | '''pevol'''....''cauliflower'' |- | '''pivol'''....''kale'' |- | '''puvol'''....''lettuce'' |- | '''pyovol'''....''spinach'' |- | '''pyavol'''....''sorrel'' |- | '''pyevol'''....''dandelion'' |- | '''pyivol'''....''chicory, endive'' |- | '''pyuvol'''....''watercress'' |- | '''palavol'''....''collard greens'' |- | '''palevol'''....''mustard greens'' |- | '''palivol'''....''spring greens'' |- | '''zavol'''....''parsley'' |- | '''zevol'''....''basil'' |- | '''zivol'''....''thyme'' |- | '''zuvol'''....''rosemary'' |} === Legumes and Dry Seeds === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Legumes and Dry Seeds ! LEGUME/DRY SEED |- | '''veel'''....''legume, pulse'' |- | '''eveel'''....''lentil'' |- | '''iveel'''....''garden pea'' |- | '''uveel'''....''protein pea'' |- | '''yuveel'''....''dried bean'' |- | '''yoveel'''....''chickpea, garbanzo'' |- | '''kaveel'''....''peanut'' |- | '''keveel'''....''soybean'' |- | '''kiveel'''....''lupin'' |- | '''kuveel'''....''carob'' |- | '''kyoveel'''....''tamarind'' |- | '''kyaveel'''....''alfalfa'' |- | '''kyeveel'''....''clover'' |- | '''raveel'''....''kidney bean'' |- | '''reveel'''....''navy been'' |- | '''riveel'''....''pinto bean'' |- | '''ruveel'''....''haricot bean'' |- | '''ryoveel'''....''lima bean, butter bean'' |- | '''saveel'''....''horse bean'' |- | '''seveel'''....''broad bean'' |- | '''siveel'''....''field bean'' |- | '''suveel'''....''black-eyed pea'' |- | '''syoveel'''....''vetch'' |- | '''zaveel'''....''hyacinthe bean'' |- | '''zeveel'''....''jack bean'' |- | '''ziveel'''....''winged bean'' |- | '''zuveel'''....''velvet bean, cowitch'' |- | '''vyoveel'''....''yam bean'' |} == The '''vos''' (''Flower''), and '''volz''' (''Color'' Family== : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Flowers and Colors |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''volz'''....''color'' |- | '''voylz'''....''tint, shade, hue'' |} === Flower Parts === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Flower Parts |- ! FLOWER PART |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''vosayob'''....''sepal'' |- | '''vosayeb'''....''petal'' |- | '''vosib'''....''receptacle'' |- | '''veeybpexus'''....''stigma'' |- | '''vosij'''....''bud, flower bud'' |- | '''tooygon'''....''pistil'' |- | '''veeybyan'''....''pollen'' |- | '''twoogon'''....''stamen'' |- | '''twoogonyif'''....''filament'' |- | '''veeybyem'''....''anther'' |- | '''vosyob'''....''peduncle'' |} === Flower Words === :* '''vosa'''....''floral'' :* '''vosyan'''....''flora'' :* '''vosog'''....''floret'' :* '''vosut, vosnamut'''....''florist'' :* '''vosnam'''....''florist shop'' :* '''vostyen'''....''floristry'' :* '''vosyem'''....''flower bed'' :* '''vosdeym'''....''flower garden'' :* '''vosyeb'''....''flower pot'' :* '''voseeyber'''....''pollinate'' :* '''voser'''....''bloom, blossom'' :* '''vosea'''....''florescent, abloom'' :* '''vosber'''....''deck out with flowers, put down flowers'' :* '''vosier'''....''flourish, flower'' :* '''vosuer'''....''cause to flourish'' :* '''vosij'''....''flower bud, bloom'' :* '''vosnyan'''....''bouquet'' :* '''vostebuz'''....''wreath'' :* '''vosyena'''....''florid'' :* '''vosika'''....''flowery'' :* '''vosyel'''....''attar'' :* '''vosyex'''....''horticulture'' :* '''vosmelyex'''....''floriculture'' === Types of Flowers === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Types of Flowers |- ! FLOWER |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' |- | '''avos'''....''lily'' |- | '''evos'''....''narcissus'' |- | '''ivos'''....''poppy'' |- | '''uvos'''....''rose'' |- | '''yovos'''....''cornflower, blueberry'' |- | '''yavos'''....''hydrangea'' |- | '''yevos'''....''lilac'' |- | '''yivos'''....''violet'' |- | '''yuvos'''....''carnation''<br>'''Hinda yuvos'''....''French marigold'' |- | '''lovos'''....''daisy, marguerite'' |- | '''lavos'''....''lily of the valley''<br>'''elavos'''....''iris'' |- | '''levos'''....''jonquil''<br>'''elevos'''....''primrose'' |- | '''livos'''....''geranium''<br>'''elivos'''....''chrysanthemum'' |- | '''luvos'''....''forget-me-not'' |- | '''lyovos'''....''hyacinth'' |- | '''lyavos'''....''tulip'' |- | '''lyevos'''....''dahlia'' |- | '''lyivos'''....''pansy'' |} === Colors === : The word for ''color'' in Mirad is '''volz''', which is mnemonically related to the word for ''flower'' ('''vos'''). The diminutive of ''color'' is '''voylz''', meaning ''tint, shade, hue''. : The names of common color adjectives in Mirad are based pretty much on a scale relating to the natural spectrum, with the first part of the word being the a number representing the spectrum order and the last half being the stub '''-lza'''. The last historically-defined divisions of the spectrum are called ''indigo'' and ''violet'', but even scientists themselves admit that the human eye does not distinguish these shades very well, and so Mirad divides the last two as ''purple'' and ''pink'' for convenience. :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Basic Color Words |- ! 1 - RED !!2 - ORANGE !!3 - YELLOW !!4 - GREEN !! 5 - BLUE !! 6 - PURPLE !! 7 - PINK |- |bgcolor="#d30000" | <br><br><br>||bgcolor="#fc6600"| ||bgcolor="#fff200"| ||bgcolor="#3bb143"| ||bgcolor="#0018f9"| || bgcolor="#b200ed"| || bgcolor="#fc0fc0"| |- | '''alza''' || '''elza''' || '''ilza''' || '''ulza''' || '''yolza''' || '''yalza''' || '''yelza''' |} : There are four other basic colors: :: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Basic Color Words |- |bgcolor="white"|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || '''malza'''....''white'' ||(Associated with '''man''' (''light'') |- |bgcolor="#7c4700"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|| '''melza'''....''brown'' ||(Associated with '''mel''' (''soil'') |- |bgcolor="#222021"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''molza'''....''black'' ||(Associated with '''mon''' (''dark'') |- |bgcolor="#828282"| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||'''maolza'''....''gray'' ||(A blend of '''malza''' and '''molza''') |} : Plus: ::* '''olza'''....''of no color, blank, clear'' : All other colors are formed by prefixing a word or mnemonic word stub (usually flowers or fruits) to the basic color. For example: ::* '''rafafulza'''....''lime green'' from '''rafaf(eb)'''....''lime fruit'' + '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''mim yalza'''....''aquamarine'' from '''mim'''....''sea'' + '''yalza'''....''blue'' ::* '''lifilza'''....''lemon yellow'' from '''lif(eb)'''....''lemon'' + '''ilza'''....''yellow'' : Shaded variants of color terms can be achieved in the following manner: ::# A "light" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''ylza''': '''uylza'''....''light green'' ::# A "-ish" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzyena''': '''ulzyena'''....''greenish'' ::# A "bright" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzayna''': '''ulzayna'''....''bright green'' ::# A "dark" shade by changing '''lza''' to '''lzoyna''': '''ulzoyna'''....''dark green'' : Some in-between colors can be created by mixing the ordinal vowel: ::* '''maolza'''....''gray'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''molza'''....''black'' ::* '''yaulza'''....''blue-green, cyan'' from '''yalza'''....''blue'' and '''ulza'''....''green'' ::* '''maelza'''....''beige'' from '''malza'''....''white'' and '''melza'''....''brown'' : Colors can be made into nouns by dropping the adjectival suffix '''-a''': ::* '''<u>Ulz</u> se via voz.'''....''<u>Green</u> is a beautiful color.'' ::* '''At gafe <u>yalzayn</u>.'''....''I prefer <u>dark blue</u>.'' : Colors can also be used to form verbs: ::* '''Iyta teobi <u>alzasa</u>.'''....''Her cheeks <u>turned red</u>.'' ::* '''His se fia <u>teubip malzaxus</u>.'''....''This is a good <u>teeth whitener</u>.'' ::* '''Eta teubipi <u>ilzaseye</u>.'''....''Your teeth are <u>yellowing</u>.'' === Rarely Used Colors === : The more exotic or rare colors can be expressed by the RAL number / 10 in the [[w:List_of_RAL_colors|Wikipedia Chart of RAL Colors]] expressed in Mirad + '''-lz'''. For example, the color ''golden yellow'' has the RAL number 1004. Divided by 10 yields the number 104 ('''ase''', in Mirad), thus, the color is named '''aselz'''. The adjectival form of this color is '''aselza'''. One advantage of this system is that the colors are grouped by nine classic colors represented by the thousands unit, then subdivided by up to 999 shades of those classic colors, although in practice, the number of shades belonging to each classic color is under 40. For that reason, the thousands unit is reduced to a hundreds unit in the formation of Mirad color names. === Skin colors === : When a color refers specifically to skin tone, the prefix '''tayo(b)-''' is used. The final '''-b''' of '''tayob''' is dropped before a consonant. The word for ''skin-color'' itself is '''tayovolz'''. Thus: ::* '''(tayo-)molzat'''....''black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)malzat'''....''white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)melzat'''....''brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omalzat'''....''non-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omolzat'''....''non-black(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)omelzat'''....''non-brown(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymolzat'''....''half-black(skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayob)eymalzat'''....''half-white(-skinned) person'' ::* '''(tayo-)maolzat'''....''mulatto, mixed-skinned person'' ::* '''(tayob)olzat'''....''albino'' ::* '''hyetayovolza'''....''of any skin-tone'' ::* '''hyatayovolzati'''....''people of all colors'' ::* '''Iyt se duhatayovolza?'''....''What skin color is she?'' === Hair Colors === : Hair colors are produced by suffixing the color to the word for hair, '''tayeb'''. The final '''-b''' of '''tayeb''' is dropped before a consonant (other than y). The word for ''hair color'' is '''tayevolz'''. ::* '''tayebalza'''....''red-headed, auburn'' ::** '''tayebalzayt'''....''an auburn female'' ::* '''tayemolza'''....''brunette'' ::* '''tayemelza'''....''brown-haired'' ::* '''tayebiylza'''....''blond'' ::* '''tayemaolza'''....''gray, gray-haired'' :::* '''It gwa tayemaolzaso.'''....''He will go gray early.'' === Eye Colors === : Eye colors are expressed by the prefix '''tea(b)''' followed by the color. The word for ''eye color'' is '''teavolv'''. Examples: ::* '''teabyolza'''....''blue-eyed'' ::* '''teabulza'''....''green-eyed'' ::* '''teamelza'''....''brown-eyed'' :::* '''teamelzat'''....''brown-eyed person'' ::* '''teamolz'''....''a black eye'' ::* '''teamalz'''....''the white of the eye'' == The '''tuz''' (''Art'') Family== : This family includes words having to do with the arts, such as theater, sculpture, music, poetry, etc. Word stems ending in '''-z''' refer to something that is precious or artful. Stems with '''eu''' are mnemonic for '''teub'''....''mouth'' and refer to sound, singing, noises, etc. : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Artsy Words |- ! ART || PIECE || PERSON |- | '''tuz'''....''art'' || '''tuzun'''....''art object'' || '''tuzut'''....''artist'' |- |'''taz'''....''portraiture'' || '''tazun'''....''portrait'' || '''tazut'''....''portrait artist'' |- |'''tez'''....''culture'' || '''tezun'''....''more'' || |- |'''tyez'''....''magic''<br>'''fyatyez'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyez'''...''sorcery'' || '''tyezun'''....''magic act''<br>'''fyatyezun'''....''charm''<br>'''fyotyezun'''....''spell'' || '''tyezut'''....''magician''<br>'''fyatyezut'''....''hieromancer''<br>'''fyotyezut'''....''sorcerer'' |- |'''teyz'''....''cult''<br>'''fyateyz'''....''religion'' || '''teyzun'''....''cult service''<br>'''fyateyzun'''....''religious service'' || '''teyzut'''....''cultist''<br>'''fyateyzut'''....''priest'' |- |'''tuyz'''....''artisanship'' || '''tuyzun'''....''artisanal piece'' || '''tuyzut'''....''artisan'' |- |'''tyen'''....''craft, skill'' || '''tyenun'''....''piece of craftsmanship'' || '''tyenut'''....''craftsman'' |- |'''teaz'''....''spectacle, showmanship''<br>'''fyateaz'''....''miracle-working'' || '''teazun'''....''show''<br>'''fyateazun'''....''miracle'' || '''teazut'''....''showman''<br>'''fyateazut'''....''miracle-worker'' |- | '''siz'''....''painting'' || '''sizun'''....''a painting'' || '''sizut'''....''painter'' |- | '''dresiz'''....''engravure'' || '''dresizun'''....''an engraving'' || '''dresizut'''....''engraver'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture''<br>'''mansin'''....''photo''<br>'''pansin'''...''motion picture'' || || '''sindrut'''....''illustrator''<br>'''mansinut'''....''photographer''<br>'''pansinut'''....''movie-maker'' |- | '''dresin'''....''design'' || '''dresin'''....''a design'' || '''dresinut'''....''designer'' |- | '''sindren'''....''drawing'' || '''sindras'''....''a drawing'' || '''sindrut'''....''draftsman'' |- |'''saz'''....''sculpture'' || '''sazun'''....''piece of sculpture, statue'' || '''sazut'''....''sculptor'' |- |'''suz'''....''display art'' || '''suzun'''....''artifact'' || '''suzyanamut'''....''museum director'' |- |'''volz'''....''color'' || || |- | '''daz'''....''dance''|| '''dazun'''....''a dance''|| '''dazut'''....''dancer'' |- | '''dyaz'''....''ballet'' || '''dyazun'''....''ballet performance'' || '''dyazut'''....''danseur''<br>'''dyazuyt'''....''ballerina'' |- |'''dez'''....''theater, performance art''<br>'''aztosdez'''....''melodrama''<br>'''vyamdez'''....''drama''<br>'''ivdez'''....''comedy''<br>'''uvdez'''....''tragedy''||'''dezun'''....''play''||'''dezut'''....''actor, performer'' |- | '''diz'''....''comedy''|| '''dizun'''....''comedy act'' || '''dizut'''....''comedian'' |- | '''podiz'''....''circus performing'' || '''podizun'''....''circus act'' || '''podizut'''....''clown'' |- |'''duz'''....''music'' || '''duzun'''....''music piece'' <br>'''duzdin'''....''operetta''<br>'''duzdinag'''....''opera''|| '''duzut'''....''musician'' |- |'''dyez'''....''cinema''||'''dyezun'''....''movie'' || '''dyezut'''....''film actor'' |- |'''drez'''....''poetry'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' || '''drezut'''....''poet'' |- |'''vidrenyan'''....''literature, belles lettres'' || '''vidras'''....''piece of literature'' ||'''drut'''....''writer'' |- |'''teuz'''....''voice'' || || |- |'''deuz'''....''singing''||'''deuzun'''....''song'' || '''deuzut'''....''singer'' |- |'''seux'''....''sound'' || || |- |'''xeus'''....''noise'' || || |- |'''seuz'''....''tone'' || || |} == The '''dob''' (''State'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family start with '''d''' for ''society'' and end with '''b''' for ''organization''. Comparable words starting with '''x''' for ''doing'', related to a non-political working hierarchy. : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-B Core Words |- | '''dob'''....''state, regime''<small><br> '''doob'''....''nation''<br> '''doab'''....''fatherland''<br> '''doeb'''....''province/state''<br> '''doib'''....''country/shire''|| '''xob'''....''organization''</small> |- | '''dab'''....''government''|| '''xab'''....''staff'' |- | '''deb'''....''leader, regent'' || '''xeb'''....''boss'' |- | '''dib'''....''administration''<br>'''dibut'''....''administrator'' || '''xib'''....''office, department''<br>'''xibut'''....''official'' |- | '''diyb'''....''agency''<br>'''diybut'''....''manager'' || |- | '''dub'''....''minister''<br>'''duban'''....''ministry'' || '''xub'''....''branch, affiliate'' |} === Regimes and Rulers=== :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regimes and Rulers |- ! REGIME=dob !! GENDER-NEUTRAL RULER=deb !! MALE RULER=dweb !! FEMALE RULER=deyb |- | '''adob'''....''empire'' || '''adeb'''....''emperor'' || '''adweb'''....''emperor'' || '''adeyb'''....''empress'' |- | '''edob'''....''kingdom'' || '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''idob'''....''principality'' || '''ideb'''....''prince'' || '''idweb'''....''prince'' || '''ideyb'''....''princess'' |- | '''udob'''....''duchy'' || '''udeb'''....''duke'' || '''udweb'''....''duke'' || '''udeyb'''....''duchess'' |- | '''yodob'''....''marquisate'' || '''yodeb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodweb'''....''marquis'' || '''yodeyb'''....''marquise'' |- | '''yadob'''....''count'' || '''yadeb'''....''count'' || '''yadweb'''....''count'' || '''yadeyb'''....''countess'' |- | '''yedob'''....''domain'' || '''yedeb'''....''lord'' || '''yedweb'''....''lord'' || '''yedeyb'''....''lady, dominatrix'' |- | '''yidob'''....''barony'' || '''yideb'''....''baron'' || '''yidweb'''....''baron'' || '''yideyb'''....''baroness'' |- | '''alodob'''....''tribe, chiefdom, clan'' || '''alodeb'''....''chief, tribal chief, chieftain'' || '''alodweb'''....''male chief'' || '''alodeyb'''....''chieftaine'' |- | '''obdobem'''....''colony'' || '''obdeb'''....''governor'' || '''obdweb'''....''governor'' || '''obdeyb'''....''governess'' |} === City Entitites === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ City Entities |- | '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''debdom'''....''capital''<br>'''mimdom'''....''port''<br>'''domab'''....''municipality''<br>'''domeb'''....''mayor''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''dommas'''....''city wall''<br>'''yizdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''odom'''....''countryside''<br>'''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''domgon'''....''district''<br>'''domep'''....''street''<br>'''domyem'''....''plaza''<br>'''domunkun'''....''city block'' |- | '''dam'''....''airfield'' |- | '''dem'''....''park''<br>'''deym'''....''garden''<br>'''domdeym'''....''square'' |- | '''dim'''....''fountain'' |} === Governments and Leaders === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Governments and Leaders |- ! GOVERNMENT=dab !! LEADER=deb |- | '''ditdab'''....''republic'' || '''ditdeb'''....''president'' |- | '''tyodab'''....''democracy'' || '''tyodeb'''....''president'' |- | '''andab'''....''autocracy'' || '''andeb'''....''autocrat'' |- | '''anadab'''....''dictatorship'' || '''anadeb'''....''dictator'' |- | '''nyazdab'''....''plutocracy'' || '''nyazdeb'''....''plutocrat'' |- | '''yabdab'''....''aristocracy'' || '''yabdeb'''....''aristocrat'' |- | '''totdab'''....''theocracy'' || '''totdeb'''....''theocrat'' |- | '''abdab'''....''dominion'' || '''abdeb'''....''overlord, master'' |- | '''obdab'''....''protectorate, subject state'' || '''obdeb'''....''protector, subjugator'' |- | '''obdabem'''....''colony'' || '''obdabemeb'''....''colonial governor'' |- | '''yibdab'''....''colony'' || '''yibdeb'''....''colonial master'' |- | '''memyuvdab'''....''fiefdom'' || '''memyuvdeb'''....''feudal lord'' |} === Regional Administrations === :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Regional Administrations |- ! REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION |- | '''doob'''....''nation'' |- | '''doab'''....''fatherland'' |- | '''doeb'''....''state, Bund'' |- | '''doib'''....''county'' |- | '''domem'''....''province, state'' |- | '''domeam'''....''department, county, prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeem'''....''sub-prefecture'' |-'' | '''domeim'''....''canton'' |- | '''domeum'''....''commune, district'' |- | '''domgon'''....''distict, quarter, quadrant'' |- | '''yuzdomgon'''....''arrondissement'' |} == The '''nas''' (''Money'') Family== : The stems of the words in this family all begin with '''n''' for ''merchandise''. All the words have to do with money, business, trade, and merchandise. : Summary: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Money Core Words |- valign=top ! MONEY/WEALTH !! SAVING/ACCUMULATING !! SPENDING/WASTING !! EARNING/ORDERING !! PAYING/SHIPPING |- |valign=top| '''nas'''....''money''<br>'''nax'''....''price''<br>'''nayx'''....''cost''<br>'''naz'''....''value, worth''<br>'''nasyig'''....''cash''<br>'''nasmug'''....''coin''<br>'''nases'''....''change''<br>'''nasgon'''....''stock''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''donastun'''....''economy''<br>'''nasyan'''....''capital''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''paper money''<br>'''nasdref'''....''check''<br>'''nasam'''....''bank''<br>'''nasak'''....''profit''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nam'''....''store''<br>'''namyan'''....''shopping center''<br>'''nasdiybut'''....''bursar''<br>'''nasdrev'''....''backnote''<br>'''nasebkyax'''....''money exchange''<br>'''nasefa'''....''poor''<br>'''nasgab'''....''surplus''<br>'''nasok'''....''deficit''<br>'''nasokya'''....''bankrupt''<br>'''nastun'''....''finance''<br>'''naxer'''....''cost''<br>'''nasbuer'''....''allocate''<br>'''nasaker'''....''profit''<br>'''naseker'''....''gamble''<br>'''nasyefer'''....''owe''<br>'''nasyefier'''<br>'''nasboler'''....''underwrite''<br>''''nasyefier''''....''borrow''<br>'''nasyefuer'''....''lend''<br>'''naxter'''....''appreciate''<br>'''nazer'''....''be worth''<br>'''nazder'''....''assess''<br>'''nazbuer'''....''reward''<br>'''nasyiguer'''....''cash''<br>'''nasbyokuer'''....''fine''<br>'''nasdier'''....''panhandle''<br>'''nasgonuer'''....''invest''<br>'''nasvelkier'''....''gamble'' |valign=top|'''nex'''....''savings''<br>'''nexak'''....''interest''<br>'''nextun'''....''economy''<br>'''nexyea'''....''thrifty''<br>'''nexer'''....''save''<br>'''neuner'''....''reserve'' |valign=top| '''nox'''....''expense''<br>'''noxun'''....''expenditure''<br>'''finox'''....''thrift''<br>'''noz'''....''jewelry''<br>'''noxufa'''...,''stingy''<br>'''noxer'''....''spend''<br>'''funoxer'''....''waste''<br>'''noxuer'''....''charge'' |valign=top| '''nix'''....''income, revenue''<br>'''yexnix'''....''salary''<br>'''tutnix'''....''honorarium''<br>'''jonix'''....''debt''<br>'''nixak'''....''profit''<br>'''dobnix'''....''pension''<br>'''dotnix'''....''welfare''<br>'''jabnix'''....''annuity''<br>'''nixgab'''....''dividend''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixer'''....''earn''<br>'''nizer'''....''deserve''<br>'''nier'''....''consume''<br>'''nixbuer'''....''sell''<br>'''jobnier'''....''rent''<br>'''nixbuer'''...''sell'' |valign=top| '''nux'''....''payment, outlay''<br>'''yovnux'''....''penalty''<br>'''nuxyef'''....''duty''<br>'''jonux'''....''credit''<br>'''yufnux'''....''blackmail''<br>'''dobnux'''....''tax''<br>'''nuz'''....''award''<br>'''nuxgax'''....''pay raise'' <br>'''nuxer'''....''pay''<br>'''nuzuer'''....''award''<br>'''nuer'''....''supply''<br>'''jobnuxer'''....''lease''<br>'''nuxbier'''....''buy''<br>'''nun'''....''product''<br>'''nunyan'''....''merchandise''<br>'''nunsag'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunek'''....''negotiation''<br>'''nundel'''....''ad''<br>'''nundyun'''....''brand''<br>'''nunem'''....''market''<br>'''n(un)am'''....''shop''<br>'''nunut'''....''merchant''<br>'''nunyeb'''....''package''<br>'''nuneker'''....''deal''<br>'''nunier'''....''buy''<br>'''nunuer'''....''sell''<br>'''nunuier'''....''trade''<br>'''namper'''....''shop''<br>'''nundeler'''....''advertise''<br>'''nunsager'''....''inventory''<br>'''nunyember'''....''package'' |- |valign=top| '''nyan'''....''stack''<br>'''nyandras'''....''list''<br>'''nyaz'''....''wealth''<br> '''nyaser'''....''accumulate''<br>'''nyaxer'''....''stack'' |valign=top|'''nyen'''....''stores, stock''<br>'''nyeb'''....''container''<br>'''nyem'''....''box, case''<br>'''nyef'''....''bag, sack''<br>'''nyeyf'''....''purse''<br>'''yignyef'''....''basket'' <br> '''nyexer'''....''stock''<br>'''nyember'''....''box up'' | valign=top|'''nyox'''....''waste''<br>'''nyoz'''....''penury''<br> '''nyoxer'''....''waste'' |valign=top| '''nyix'''....''order, demand''<br>'''nyixdref'''....''order form''<br>'''nyixut'''....''client, customer'' <br>'''nyuix'''....''supply and demand''<br>'''nyixer'''....''demand, order'' |valign=top|'''nyux'''....''delivery''<br>'''nyun'''....''cargo, freight, shipment''<br>'''nyuxdref'''....''receipt''<br>'''nyuxpur'''....''delivery truck'' <br>'''nyuer'''....''pour, produce''<br> '''nyuxer'''....''supply, deliver, ship''<br>'''nyuf'''....''package'' |} </small> == The '''dop''' (Military) Family == : The stems of the words in this family begin with '''d'''....''social'' and end in '''p'''....''mobile'' and have to do with the military and war. : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ D-P Words |- valign=top ! MILITARY !! SOME DERIVATIONS |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dopeb'''....''commander of the armed forces''<small><br>'''dopof'''....''uniform''<br>'''dopnab'''....''military rank''<br>'''dopbier'''....''conquer''<br>'''dopizper'''....''march''<br>'''dopyaf'''....''military power''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparobel'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopek'''....''combat''<br>'''dopekem'''....''battleground''<br>'''dopekut'''....''combat soldier''<br>'''odopeker'''....''defend''<br>'''dopembier'''....''deploy''<br>'''dopektof'''....''battle attire''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''dropekut'''....''warrier''<br>'''dropekpos'''....''armistice''<br>'''dopteud'''....''battle cry''<br>'''dopdeuz'''....''battle hymn''<br>'''dopnad'''....''battle line''<br>'''dopepem'''....''battle station''<br>'''dopzanad'''....''battlefront''<br>'''ditdoyp'''....''militia''<br>'''dopyena'''....''militant''</small> |- | '''dap'''....''air force''||'''dapeb'''....''air force commander''<small><br>'''dapat'''....''airman''<br>'''dapur'''....''fighter jet''</small> |- | '''dep'''....''ground force, army''||'''depeb'''....''army commander''<small><br>'''depet'''....''enlisted soldier''<br>'''depur'''....''tank''</small> |- | '''dip'''....''navy''|| '''dipeb'''....''navy commander''<small><br>'''dipat'''....''ensign''<br>'''oybdipur'''....''submarine''<br>'''dipur'''....''battleship''<br>'''adipur'''....''aircraft carrier''<br>'''edipur'''....''dreadnaught''<br>'''idipur'''....''frigate''<br>'''udipur'''....''destroyer''<br>'''yadipur'''....''corvette''<br>'''yedipur'''....''gunboat''<br>'''yodipur'''....''cruiser''<br>''' '''</small> |- | '''diep'''....''marine''||'''diepeb'''....''marine commander''<small><br>'''diepat'''....''marine soldier''<br>'''dieput'''....''ambphibious warship''</small> |- |} === Weapons === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Weapons |- ! WEAPONS |- | '''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''doparier'''....''take up arms''<br>'''doparuer'''....''arm'' |- | '''adopar'''....''gun''<br>'''tuyab adopar'''....''handgun, pistol''<br>'''zyup adopar'''....''revolver'' |- |'''edopar'''....''rifle'' |- |'''idopar'''....''shotgun'' |- |'''udopar'''....''musket'' |- |'''dopir'''....''artillery'' |- |'''adopir'''....''cannon'' |- |'''edopir'''....''bazooka'' |- |'''idopir'''....''howitzer'' |- |'''dopur'''....''machine gun'' |- |'''dopyonar'''....''bayonet''<br>'''zyidopyonar'''....''sword''<br>'''mimdopyonar'''....''cutlass''<br>'''zyadopyonar'''....''battle-ax'' |- |'''dopuz-izmuf'''....''bow-and-arrow'' |} === Ranks === ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Military Ranks |- ! ARMY<br>'''dep''' !! NAVY<br>'''dip''' !! AIR FORCE<br>'''dap''' !! MARINE FORCE<br>'''diep''' |- | '''depat'''....''soldier'' || '''dipat'''....''ensign'' || '''dapat'''....''airman'' || '''diepat'''....''private'' |- | '''adepat'''....''private'' || '''adipat'''....''seaman recruit'' || '''adapat'''....''airman basic'' || '''adiepat'''....''private'' |- | '''edepat'''....''private 2'' || '''edipat'''....''seaman apprentice'' || '''edapat'''....''airman'' || '''ediepat'''....''private 1st class'' |- | '''idepat'''....''private first class'' || '''idipat'''....''seaman'' || '''idapat'''....''airman first class'' || '''idiepat'''....''lance corporal'' |- | '''udepat'''....''army specialist'' || '''udipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''udapat'''....''senior airman'' || '''udiepat'''....''corporal'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yodipat'''....''petty officer 2nd class'' || '''yodapat'''....''staff sergeant'' || '''yodiepat'''....''sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yadipat'''....''petty officer 3rd class'' || '''yadapat'''....''technical sergeant'' || '''yadiepat'''....''staff sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yedipat'''....''chief petty officer'' || '''obyedapat'''....''master sergeant'' || '''yediepat'''....''gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyedapat'''....''master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''yidipat'''....''senior chief petty officer'' || '''obyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant'' || '''yidiepat'''....''master sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''abyidapat'''....''senior master sergeant with diamond'' || '''....''' '' '' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''obyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer'' || '''obyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant'' || '''yudiepat'''....''first sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''ebyudipat'''....''fleet master chief petty officer'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''alodiepat'''....''master gunnery sergeant'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''abyudipat'''....''master chief petty officer of the navy'' || '''abyudapat'''....''chief master sergeant with diamond'' || '''aladiepat'''....''sergeant major'' |- | '''adeplat'''....''warrant officer'' || '''adiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''adaplat'''....''2nd lieutenant'' || '''adieplat'''....''warrant officer'' |- | '''edeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' || '''ediplat'''....''lieutenant junior grade'' || '''edaplat'''....''1st lieutenant'' || '''edieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 2'' |- | '''ideplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' || '''idiplat'''....''lieutenant'' || '''idaplat'''....''captain'' || '''idieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 3'' |- | '''udeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' || '''udiplat'''....''lieutenant commander'' || '''udaplat'''....''major'' || '''udieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 4'' |- | '''yodeplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' || '''yodiplat'''....''commander'' || '''yodaplat'''....''lieutenant colonel'' || '''yodieplat'''....''chief warrant officer 5'' |- | '''yadeplat'''....''second lieutenant'' || '''yadiplat'''....''captain'' || '''yadaplat'''....''colonel'' || '''yadieplat'''....''second lieutenant'' |- | '''yedeplat'''....''first lieutenant'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yedieplat'''....''first lieutenant'' |- | '''yideplat'''....''captain'' || '''yidiplat'''....''ensign'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yidieplat'''....''captain'' |- | '''yudeplat'''....''major'' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yudieplat'''....''major'' |- | '''adeprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adiprat'''....''rear admiral lower half'' || '''adaprat'''....''brigadier general'' || '''adieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''edeprat'''....''major general'' || '''ediprat'''....''rear admiral upper half'' || '''edaprat'''....''major general'' || '''edieprat'''....''colonel'' |- | '''ideprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idiprat'''....''vice admiral'' || '''idaprat'''....''lieutenant general'' || '''idieprat'''....''brigadier general'' |- | '''udeprat'''....''4 star general'' || '''udiprat'''....''commandant'' || '''udaprat'''....''general air force chief of staff'' || '''udieprat'''....''major general'' |- | '''yodeprat'''....''5-star general'' || '''yodiprat'''....''fleet admiral'' || '''yodaprat'''....''general of the AF'' || '''yodieprat'''....''lieutenant general'' |- | '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''....''' '' '' || '''yadieprat'''....''general'' |} == The '''ab''' (''On''), '''yab''' (''Up'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AB Family |- valign=top | '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''aber'''....''put on''<br>'''aper'''....''get on''<br>'''aba'''....''superior''<br>'''abem'''....''top''<br>'''ayb'''....''above'' || '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eber'''....''block''<br>'''eper'''....''intervene''<br>'''eba'''....''in-between''<br>'''ebem'''....''interval''<br>'''eyb'''....''among'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ober'''....''remove''<br>'''oper'''....''get off''<br>'''oba'''....''inferior''<br>'''obem'''....''bottom''<br>'''oyb'''....''below'' |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaber'''....''raise''<br>'''yaper'''....''rise''<br>'''yaba'''....''high''<br>'''yabaga'''....''tall''<br>'''yaboga'''....''short''<br>'''yabem'''....''upstairs'' ||'''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeber'''....''put in''<br>'''yeper'''....''get in''<br>'''yeba'''....''inner''<br>'''yebaga'''....''deep inside''<br>'''yeboga'''....''a little way in''<br>'''yebem'''....''interior'' || '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yober'''....''lower''<br>'''yoper'''....''descend''<br>'''yoba'''....''low''<br>'''yobaga'''....''deep''<br>'''yoboga'''....''shallow''<br>'''yobem'''....''downstairs'' |- | ||'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeber'''....''put out''<br>'''oyeper'''....''get out''<br>'''oyeba'''....''outer''<br>'''oyebem'''....''exterior'' |} == The '''af''' (''Permission''), '''yaf''' (''Ability'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AF Family |- valign=top ! '''af'''....''permission !! '''ef'''....''need/necessity'' !! '''of'''....''prohibition'' |- | '''afer'''....''may''<br>'''afa'''....''allowed''<br>'''afwa'''....''permissable''<br>'''afxer'''....''allow'' || '''efer'''....''need''<br>'''efa'''....''in need of''<br>'''efwa'''....''necessary''<br>'''efxer'''....''necessitate'' || '''ofer'''....''be prohibited''<br>'''ofa'''....''not allowed''<br>'''ofwa'''....''prohibited''<br>'''ofxer'''....''prohibit'' |- ! '''yaf'''....''ability'' !! '''yef'''....''duty'' !! '''yof'''....''inability'' |- | '''yafer'''....''can''<br>'''yafa'''....''able''<br>'''yafwa'''....''possible''<br>'''yafxer'''....''enable'' || '''yefer'''....''must''<br>'''yefa'''....''obliged''<br>'''yefwa'''....''obligatory''<br>'''yefxer'''....''oblige'' || '''yofer'''....''cannot''<br>'''yofa'''....''unable''<br>'''yofwa'''....''impossible''<br>'''yofxer'''....''incapacite'' |} : These words can be suffixed to verb roots to form many modal verbs, adjectives, and nouns: ::* '''teater'''....''to see'' :::* '''teatyofa'''....''blind'' :::* '''teatyofwa'''....''invisible'' ::* '''tiler'''....''to drink :::* '''tilefa'''....''thirsty'' ::* '''doteuder'''....''to vote'' :::* '''doteudafxer'''....''to franchise'' :::* '''doteudofxwati'''....''the disenfranchised'' ::* '''tester'''....''to understand'' :::* '''testyafwan'''....''comprehensibility'' ::* '''fider'''....''to praise'' :::* '''fidyefwa'''....''praiseworthy'' == The '''aga''' (''Big''), '''yaga''' (''Long'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AGA/YAGA Family |- | valign= top | '''aga'''....''big''<br>'''agan'''....''size''<br>'''agaxer'''....''magnify''<br>'''agser'''....''grow''<br>'''aaga'''....''main''<br>'''agla'''....''huge''<br>'''agra'''....''gigantic''<br>'''agsa'''....''adult''<br>'''agta'''....''great''<br>'''agala'''....''major''|| valign=top|'''ega'''....''normal''<br>'''egan'''....''normalcy''<br>'''egaxer'''....''normalize''<br>&nbsp; || valign=top|'''oga'''....''little''<br>'''ogan'''....''smallness''<br>'''ogaxer'''....''minimize''<br>'''ogser'''....''shrink''<br>'''ooga'''....''minor''<br>'''ogla'''....''tiny''<br>'''ogra'''....''microscopic''<br>'''ogala'''...''minor'' |- | valign=top|'''yaga'''....''long''<br>'''yagan'''....''length''<br>'''yagaxer'''....''lengthen''<br>'''yagser'''....''stretch'' || valign=top|'''yeg-'''....''re-, again'' ||valign=top| '''yoga'''....''short''<br>'''yogan'''....''shortness''<br>'''yogaxer'''....''abbreviate''<br>'''yogser'''....''contract'' |} == The '''aj''' (''Past''), '''taj''' (''Birth'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AJ/TAJ Family |- | '''aj'''....''past''<br>'''ajna'''....''old''<br>'''ajyena'''....''old-fashioned'' || '''ej'''....''present''<br>'''ejna'''....''new''<br>'''ejyena'''....''modern'' || '''oj'''....''future''<br>'''ojna'''....''to-be''<br>'''ojyena'''....''futuristic'' |- | '''taj'''....''birth''<br>'''tajer'''....''be born''<br>'''tajber'''....''give birth''<br>'''taja'''....''natal'' || '''tej'''....''life''<br>'''tejer'''....''live''<br>'''tejber'''....''bring to life''<br>'''teja'''....''vital'' || '''toj'''....''death''<br>'''tojer'''....''die''<br>'''tojber'''....''kill''<br>'''toja'''....''mortal'' |} == The '''ak-''' (''Win''), '''yak-''' (''Expect'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AK/YAK Family |- valign=top | valign=top|'''aker'''....''win''<br>'''akut'''....''winner''<br>'''akun'''....''win''<br>'''akler'''....''defeat''<br>'''akrer'''....''triumph''<br>'''akuj'''....''success''<br>'''akbun'''....''award''<br>'''nasak'''....''windfall''<br>'''aknas'''....''profit'' || valign=top|'''eker'''....''play, risk''<br>'''ekut'''....''player''<br>'''ekun'''....''game''<br>'''ifek'''....''play''<br>'''dopek'''....''battle''<br>'''dropek'''....''war''<br>'''tapek'''....''sport''<br>'''nasek'''....''gamble''<br>'''yanek'''....''competition''<br>'''ovek'''....''contest''<br>'''dalovek'''....''debate''<br>'''dunek'''....''pun'' ||valign=top| '''oker'''....''lose''<br>'''okut'''....''loser''<br>'''okun'''....''loss''<br>'''okuj'''....''failure''<br>'''tejok'''....''loss of life''<br>'''nasok'''....''bankrupty''<br>'''oknas'''....''deficit'' |- | valign=top|'''yaker'''....''expect''<br>'''fiyak'''....''hope''<br>'''fuyak'''....''despair''<br>'''fiyakuer'''....''inspire''<br>'''fuyakuer'''....''discourage'' || valign=top|'''yeker'''....''try''<br>'''finyeker'''....''test''<br>'''aayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''yekuer'''....''challenge''<br>'''fuyekuer'''....''tempt''<br>'''yekun'''....''goal''<br>'''doyevyek'''....''trial'' || valign=top|'''yoker'''....''be surprised''<br>'''yokdun'''....''exclamation''<br>'''yokxeus'''....''sudden noise, boom''<br>'''yoktoj'''....''sudden death''<br>'''yokay'''....''unexpectedly'' |} == The '''av''' (''For''), '''yav-''' (''Innocent'') Family == : Summary: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AV/YAV Family |- | valign=top|'''av'''....''for''<br>'''ava'''....''favorable''<br>'''avan'''....''behalf, behest''<br>'''avon'''....''asset, advantage''<br>'''avun'''....''favor, benefit''<br>'''avder'''....''advocate''<br>'''avejter'''....''represent''<br>'''yanav'''....''party'' || valign=top|'''eva'''....''neutral''<br>'''evan'''....''neutrality''<br>'''evder'''....''equivocate''<br>'''evxer'''....''neutralize'' || valign=top|'''ov'''....''against''<br>'''ova'''....''contrary''<br>'''ovon'''....''liability, handicap, disadvantage''<br>'''ovun'''....''obstacle''<br>'''yanov'''....''opposition'' |- | valign=top|'''yava'''....''innocent''<br>'''yavder'''....''acquit''<br>'''yavla'''....''proud'' || valign=top|'''yeva'''....''fair''<br>'''yevder'''....''judge''<br>'''doyevan'''....''justice''<br>'''doyevon'''....''court case''<br>'''doyevam'''....''court''<br>'''finyevut'''....''critic'' || valign=top|'''yova'''....''guilty''<br>'''yovder'''....''indict, accuse''<br>'''yovla'''....''ashamed''<br>'''vayovder'''....''convict''<br>'''doyov'''....''crime''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''penalty''<br>'''yovbyokam'''....''prison''<br>'''yovober'''....''pardon'' |} == The '''az-''' (''Strong''), '''yaz-''' (''Convex'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AZ Family |- | valign=top |'''aza'''....''strong''<br>'''azla'''....''intense''<br>'''azra'''....''violent''<br>'''azaxer'''....''strenghten''<br>'''azon'''....''power'' || valign=top| '''eza'''....''moderate''<br>'''ezaxer'''....''moderate'' ||valign=top| '''oza'''....''weak''<br>'''ozta'''....''tired''<br>'''ozaxer'''....''weaken'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YAZ Family |- | '''yaza'''....''convex'' || valign=top| '''yeza'''....''flush'' || '''yoza'''....''concave'' |- | valign=top |'''yaz'''....''mound''<br>'''memyaz'''...''bluff''<br>'''mimyaz'''....''surf''<br>'''milyaz'''....''wave''<br>'''mimolyaz'''....''saltdome''<br>'''nedyaz'''....''bump''<br>'''yagyaz'''....''ridge''<br>'''tayeyaz'''....''pimple''<br>'''melyaz'''....''tomb''<br>'''tayobyaz'''....''tumor'' || valign=top|'''yez'''....''along, flush with''<br>'''memyez'''....''plain''<br>'''mimolyez'''....''salt flat''<br>'''obyez'''....''platform'' ||valign=top| '''yoz'''....''depression''<br>'''memyoz'''....''valley''<br>'''nedyoz'''....''dip''<br>'''yagyoz'''....''groove''<br>'''kuyoz'''....''cave''<br>'''melyoz'''....''pit'' |} == The '''fya-''' (''Holy'') Family == : Summary: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ FYA Family |- | '''fyaa'''....''holy'' || '''fyea'''....''fantastical, mythological, magical'' || '''fyoa'''....''profane'' |- | '''fyamir'''....''heaven'' || '''fyemir'''....''fantasia'' || '''fyomir'''....''hell'' |- | '''fyax'''....''sacrament'' || '''fyex'''....''magic'' || '''fyox'''....''sacrilege'' |- | '''fyaz'''....''grace'' || '''fyez'''....''charm'' || '''fyoz'''....''disgrace'' |- | '''fyaxin'''....''religion'' || '''fyexin'''....''wizardry'' || '''fyoxin'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyaxel'''....''mass'' || '''fyexel'''....''ritual'' || '''fyoxel'''....''occult ceremony'' |- | '''fyaxam'''....''church'' || || |- | '''fyadab'''....''church hierarchy'' || || |- | '''fyadeb'''....''church elder, clergyman'' || '''fyedeb'''....''wizard'' || '''fyodeb'''....''occult leader'' |- | '''afyadeb'''....''pope'' || || |- | '''efyadeb'''....''cardinal'' || || |- | '''ifyadeb'''....''archbishop'' || || |- | '''obifyadeb'''....''bishop'' || || |- | '''ufyadeb'''....''parish priest'' || || |- | '''obufydeb'''....''deacon'' || || |- | '''fyatob'''....''saint'' || '''fyetob'''....''ghost'' || '''fyotob'''....''demon'' |- | '''fyatop'''....''holy spirit'' || '''fyetop'''....''fairy, sprite, phantom'' || '''fyotop'''....''evil spirit, fiend, ghoul'' |- | '''fyat'''....''angel, seraph, cherub'' || '''fyet'''....''elf, pixy'' || '''fyot'''....''gremlin, imp, goblin, troll, ogre'' |- | '''fyavyad'''....''oath'' || || |- | '''fyavatex'''....''faith'' || || |- | '''fyatez'''....''hieromancy'' || '''fyetez'''....''magic'' || '''fyotez'''....''witchcraft'' |- | '''fyatezmuv'''....''miter''|| '''fyetezmuv'''....''magic wand'' || '''fyetezmuv'''....''jinx'' |- | '''fyadresiyn'''....''hieroglyph'' || || |- | '''fyatead'''....''testament'' || |- | '''fyad'''....''blessing''|| '''fyed'''....''bewitchment, incantation'' || '''fyod'''....''curse, evil eye'' |- | '''fyasin'''....''icon'' || '''fyesin'''....''charm'' || '''fyosin'''....''evil eye'' |- | '''fyasyun'''....''idol'' || '''fyesyun'''....''talisman'' || '''fyosyun'''....''fetish'' |- | '''fyaifrer'''....''worship'' || || |- | '''fyadil'''....''prayer'' || '''fyedil'''....''spell'' || '''fyodil'''....''curse'' |- | '''fyapop'''....''crusade'' || || |- | '''fyamilber'''....''baptize'' || || |- | '''fyaojdut'''....''prophet'' || || |- | '''fyaxyel'''....''holy unction'' || || |- | '''fyamil'''....''holy water'' || || |- | '''fyateaz'''....''miracle'' || '''fyeteaz'''....''wonderment'' || '''fyoteaz'''....''pox'' |- | '''fyasem'''....''altar'' || || |- | '''fyasim'''....''throne''|| || |- | '''fyakosin'''....''mysticism''|| || |- | '''fyakosut'''....''hermit''|| || |- | '''fyajub'''....''feast day''|| || |- | '''fyadyes'''....''bible''|| || |- | '''fyadrenyan'''....''scriptures''|| || |- | '''fyadin'''....''gospel'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, legend, fable'' || |- | '''fyadinyan'''...''testament'' || '''fyedinyan'''....''mythology'' || |- | '''fyadun'''....''benediction''|| '''fyedun'''....''magic word''||'''fyodun'''....''curse word'' |- | '''fyadot'''....''religious order''|| '''fyedot'''....''mystical cult'' || '''occult society'' |- | '''fyaantinat'''....''monk''|| || |- | '''fyabuler'''....''consecrate''|| || |- | '''fyabyena'''....''moral''|| || |- | '''fyadal'''....''sermon''|| || |- | '''fyadalsem'''....''pulpit''|| || |- | '''fyadalzyabin'''....''evangelism''|| || |} == The '''fi-''' (''Good''), '''fyi-''' (''Useful'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FI Family" |- | valign=top|'''fia'''....''good''<br>'''fila'''....''delightful''<br>'''fira'''....''excellent''<br>'''fika'''.....''perfect''<br>'''fiva''' ....''ok''<br>'''fiza'''....''honorable''<br>'''fizta'''....''noble''<br>'''fizda'''....''honest'<br>'''flia'''....''superb''<br>'''fria'''....''glorious'' ||valign=top| '''fua'''....''bad''<br>'''fusa'''....''flawed''<br>'''fula'''....''malignant''<br>'''fura'''....''rotten''<br>'''fuza'''....''dishonorable''<br>'''fuzta'''....''ignoble''<br>'''fuzda'''....''dishonest''<br>'''flua'''....''terrible''<br>'''frua'''...''despicable'' |- | valign=top|'''fin'''....''virtue''<br>'''dofin'''....''morality''||'''fun'''....''vice''<br>'''dofun'''....''crime'' |- | valign=top|'''fider'''....''praise''||'''fuder'''....''malign'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ "FYI Family" |- |valign=top| '''fyia'''....''useful''<br>'''fyin'''....''value''<br>'''fyiz'''....''award''<br>'''fyiyz'''....''reward''<br>'''fyis'''....''benefit''<br>'''fyixer'''....''utilize''<br>'''fyider'''....''complement''<br>'''fyidaluer'''....''advise'' ||valign=top| '''fyua'''....''harmful''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''fyuz'''....''punishment''<br>'''fyuyz'''....''penalty''<br>'''fyus'''....''waste''<br>'''fyuxer'''....''ruin, abuse''<br>'''fyuder'''....''insult''<br>'''fyudaluer'''....''misadvise''<br>'''fyul'''....''toxin'' |} == The '''ga''' (''More'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GA Family |- | valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gay'''....''also''<br>'''gaj'''....''still''<br>'''gaxer'''....''increase''<br>'''gab'''....''plus''<br>'''gal'''....''times, multiplied by''<br>'''gar'''....''exponentiated by''<br>'''gan'''....''whole'' || '''ge'''....''as''<br>'''gey'''....''even''<br>'''gel'''....''as''<br>'''gexer'''....''equalize''<br>'''geber'''....''equate''<br>'''gedrer'''....''copy''<br>'''gegon'''....''equity''<br>'''geder'''....''quote''<br>'''gelder'''....''echo''<br>'''gelxer'''....''imitate''<br>'''geltxer'''....''identify''<br>'''geyla'''....''similar'' || valign=top|'''go'''....''less''<br>'''goy'''....''except''<br>'''goj'''....''no longer''<br>'''goxer'''....''decrease''<br>'''gob'''....''minus, subtracted by''<br>'''gol'''....''divided by''<br>'''gor'''....''to the minus root of''<br>'''gon'''....''part''<br>'''gos'''....''piece''<br>'''gobler'''....''cut'' |- | valign=top |'''gla'''....''much, many, very''<br>'''glan'''....''quantity''<br>'''glagon'''....''plurality''<br>'''glal'''....''cluster''<br>'''glatwa'''....''famous''<br>'''duhagla?'''....''how much?'' ||valign=top| '''gle'''....''some, rather'' ||valign=top| '''glo'''....''little, few, slightly''<br>'''glon'''....''paucity''<br>'''glogon'''....''minority'' |- | valign=top | '''gra'''....''too much, too''<br>'''gran'''....''excess'' || valign=top|'''gre'''....''enough''<br>'''gren'''....''quorum'' || valign=top|'''gro'''....''too little, not enough''<br>'''gron'''....''shortage'' |- | valign=top|'''gwa'''....''most''<br>'''gwafua'''....''worst''<br>'''gwaika'''....''perfect''<br>'''gwaifer'''...''prefer''<br>'''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' ||valign=top| '''gwe'''....''just'' || valign=top|'''gwo'''....''least''<br>'''gwomul'''....''atom''<br>'''gwos'''....''particle''<br>'''gwosteaxar'''....''microscope'' |} == The '''gi-''' (''Sharp''), '''gyi-''' (''Solid'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GI-/GU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gia'''....''sharp''<br>'''gin'''....''point''<br>'''grin'''....''blade''<br>'''giber'''....''poke''<br>'''ginod'''....''peak''<br>'''gixer'''....''sharpen''<br>'''ogia'''....''dull'' || valign=top|'''gua'''....''angular''<br>'''gun'''....''angle''<br>'''grun'''....''hook''<br>'''gum'''....''corner''<br>'''ungun'''....''quadrangle''<br>'''ingun'''....''triangle''<br>'''unizgun'''....''rectangle''<br>'''ungekun'''....''square''<br>'''yagunid'''....''cube''<br>'''mepgun'''....''fork in the road'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ GYI-/GYU- Family |- | valign=top|'''gyia'''....''solid''<br>'''gyila'''....''firm''<br>'''gyita'''....''robust''<br>'''gyitef'''....''helmet''<br>'''gyitepa'''....''tough-minded''<br>'''gyixer'''...''solidify''|| valign=top|'''gyua'''....''fragile''<br>'''gyula'''....''supple''<br>'''gyusa'''....''delicate''<br>'''gyuta'''....''frail''<br>'''gyubyen'''....''comfort''<br>'''gyutelam'''....''delicatessen'' |} == The '''if''' (''Pleasure''), '''yif''' (''Courage'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IF/UF Family |- | valign=top| '''ifer'''....''love''<br>'''iyfer'''....''like''<br>'''ifler'''....''be affectionate for''<br>'''ifrer'''....''worship''<br>'''ifon'''....''love''<br>'''ifwa'''....''beloved''<br>'''doabifa'''....''patriotic'' || valign=top|'''ufer'''....''hate''<br>'''uyfer'''....''dislike''<br>'''ufler'''...''loath''<br>'''ufrer'''....''despise''<br>'''ufon'''....''hate''<br>'''ufwa'''....''odious''<br>'''toybufa'''....''misogynous'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIF/YUF Family |- | valign=top|'''yifa'''....''brave''<br>'''yiflan'''....''valor''<br>'''yifran'''....''heroism''<br>'''yifer'''....''dare'' ||valign=top| '''yufa'''....''afraid''<br>'''yuyfa'''....''timid''<br>'''yuflan'''....''horror''<br>'''yufran'''....''terror''<br>'''yufer'''....''fear''<br>'''milyufa'''....''hydrophobic'' |} : Note that the suffixes '''-if''' and '''-uf''' are used to translate words in English meaning ''-philia'' and ''-phobia'', respectively, eg. '''tiibilif'''....''hemophilia'' and '''hyutuf'''....''xenophobia''. Also, words with the prefix ''miso-'' meaning ''hatred of'' use the Mirad suffix '''-uf'' ('''toybuf'''....''misogyny''). == The '''ig-''' (''Fast''), '''yig-''' (''Hard'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IG-/UG- Family |- | '''iga'''....''fast''<br>'''igar'''....''accelerator''<br>'''igper'''....''run'' || '''uga'''....''slow''<br>'''ugar'''....''brake''<br>'''ugper'''....''amble'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIG-/YUG- Family |- | '''yiga'''....''hard''<br>'''yigla'''....''rude''<br>'''yigra'''....''violent''<br>'''yigta'''....''tense''<br>'''yigza'''....''sharp, sour''<br>'''yigsa'''....''rigid''<br>'''yigfa'''....''rough''<br>'''yigaza'''....''bitter''<br>'''bilyig'''....''cheese'' || '''yuga'''....''soft''<br>'''yugla'''....''polite''<br>'''yugra'''....''gentle''<br>'''yugta'''....''lax''<br>'''yugza'''....''mild, sweet''<br>'''yugsa'''....''supple, flexible''<br>'''yugfa'''....''smooth''<br>'''yugsra'''....''elastic''<br>'''bilyug'''....''butter'' |} == The '''ij''' (''Beginning''), '''yij''' (''Opening''), '''tij''' (''Awakening'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ IJ Family |- | '''ijer'''....''begin''|| '''ujer'''....''end, finish'' |- |'''ijper'''....''start up''||'''ujper'''....''come to an end'' |- |'''ijber'''....''start up''|| '''ujber'''....''bring to an end'' |- |'''ijna'''....''initial'' || '''ujna'''....''final'' |- |'''ijar'''....''on switch''|| '''ujar'''....''off switch'' |- |'''ijem'''....''origin''|| '''ujem'''....''endpoint'' |- |'''vabij'''....''seed'' || '''kyeuj'''....''fate'' |- |'''tabij'''....''embryo'' || '''dinuj'''....''denouement'' |- |'''patij'''....''egg'' || '''mepuj'''....''deadend'' |- |'''texij'''....''concept'' || '''jobuj'''....''eternity'' |- |'''milij'''....''spring''||'''tibuj'''....''tail'' |- |'''manij'''....''glimmer''||'''byuuj'''....''goal'' |- |'''majij'''....''dawn''|| '''fibuj'''....''tree stump'' |- |'''mojij'''....''dusk'' || '''fiuj'''....''success'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ YIJ Family |- | '''yijer'''....''open''<br>'''yijper'''....''come open''<br>'''yijber'''....''open up''<br>'''yijar'''....''key''<br>'''yuijar'''....''valve'' || '''yujer'''....''close''<br>'''yujper'''....''come to a close''<br>'''yujber'''....''bring to a close''<br>'''yujar'''....''lock'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; valign:top" |+ TIJ Family |- | '''tijer'''....''be awake''<br>'''tijper'''....''wake up''<br>'''tijber'''....''waken''<br>'''tijtepa'''....''conscious'' || '''tujer'''....''sleep''<br>'''tujper'''....''fall asleep''<br>'''tujber'''....''put to sleep''<br>'''tujtepa'''....''unconscious'' |} == The '''ik-''' (''Full''), '''yik-''' (''Difficult'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IK Family |- | valign=top| '''ika'''....''full''<br>'''iliker'''....''flood''<br>'''ikber'''....''fill''<br>'''ikxer'''....''complete''<br>'''melik'''....''dirt pile''<br>'''ikza'''....''rich''<br>'''ikla'''....''crowded''<br>'''ikra'''....''saturated''||'''uka'''....''empty''<br>'''iluker'''....''drain''<br>'''ukber'''....''empty''<br>'''ukxer'''....''void''<br>'''meluk'''....''hole''<br>'''uknig'''....''vacuum''<br>'''ukun'''....''gap''<br>'''ukla'''....''hollow''<br>'''uktoser'''....''miss''<br>'''ukza'''....''poor''<br>'''ukyem'''....''blank'' |} : The prefixes '''-ika''' (''-ful'') and '''-uka''' (''-less'') can form many adjectives, such as: ::* '''tejika'''....''lively'' ::* '''tuilika'''....''saucy'' ::* '''tesika'''....''meaningful'' ::* '''tezuka'''....''cultureless'' ::* '''tayebuka'''....''hairless'' ::* '''maruka'''....''starless'' :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIK Family |- | '''yika'''....''difficult''<br>'''yikla'''....''complicated''<br>'''yikom'''....''hardship''<br>'''yikson'''....''problem''<br>'''yikun'''....''hindrance'' || '''yuka'''....''easy''<br>'''yukla'''....''simple''<br>'''yukom'''....''comfort''<br>'''yukson'''....''easy matter''<br>'''yukun'''....''convenience'' |} : Forms of '''-yik-''' and '''-yuk-''' can be suffixed to verb stems as a modal meaning ''hard to'' and ''easy to'', respectively: ::* '''testyikwa'''....''hard to understand'' ::* '''teetyika'''....''hard of hearing'' ::* '''dudyikwa'''....''hard to answer, enigmatic'' ::* '''teatyiker'''....''have a hard time seeing'' ::* '''pesyuka'''....''patient (easy to wait)'' ::* '''vatexyuka'''....''gullible (easy to believe)'' ::* '''testyukwa'''....''comprehensible (easy to understand)'' ::* '''datxyuker'''....''find it easy to make friends'' == The '''iv-''' (''Happy''), '''yiv-''' (''Free'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IV Family |- valign=top | '''iva'''....''happy''<br>'''ivla'''....''glad, content''<br>'''ivra'''....''excited, thrilled''<br>'''iv'''....''fun''<br>'''ivtax'''....''gratitude''<br>'''ivder'''....''cheer''<br>'''ivteuber'''....''smile''<br>'''ivdeuxer'''....''laugh''<br>'''ivseuz'''....''sigh of relief''<br>'''yaniv'''....''party''<br>'''yanivtosder'''....''congratulate''<br>'''ivek'''....''game, play''<br>'''ivuj'''....''happy ending''||'''uva'''....''sad''<br>'''uvla'''....''disappointed''<br>'''uvra'''....''morose, dejected''<br>'''uv'''....''sorrow''<br>'''uvtax'''....''regret''<br>'''uvder'''....''complain''<br>'''uvteuber'''....''frown''<br>'''uvdeuxer'''....''moan''<br>'''uvseuz'''....''sigh of sorrow''<br>'''yanuv'''....''dirge''<br>'''yanuvtosder'''....''commiserate''<br>'''uvdin'''....''tragedy''<br>'''uvuj'''....''sad ending'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIV Family |- | valign=top |'''yiva'''....''free''<br>'''yivina'''....''liberal''<br>'''yivtexa'''....''libertarian''<br>'''doyiv'''....''right''<br>'''yivdras'''....''license'' ||valign=top| '''yuva'''....''bound, captive''<br>'''yuvla'''....''subject''<br>'''yuvrat'''....''slave''<br>'''doyuv'''....''duty''<br>'''yuv'''....''bond''<br>'''nasyuv'''....''debt''<br>'''oyuvan'''....''independence''<br>'''yuvar'''....''chain'' |} == The '''iz''' (''Straight''), '''yiz''' (''Beyond'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IZ Family |- | valign=top|'''iza'''....''straight''<br>'''izber'''....''direct, steer''<br>'''izper'''....''go straight, head for''<br>'''izmep'''....''straight shot, beeline''<br>'''izon'''....''direction''<br>'''iznad'''....''vector straight line''<br>'''iznod'''....''target''<br>'''izteser'''....''denote'' <br>'''iztex'''....''logic''<br>'''iztesten'''....''intuition''<br>'''izgun'''....''right angle''<br>'''izeaxer'''....''indicate, point out''<br>'''izyen'''....''maneuver''<br>'''iztin'''....''orthodoxy''<br>'''izbeb'''....''pilot, driver''<br>'''izbex'''....''control''||valign=top| '''uza'''....''curved''....<br>'''uzber'''....''turn''<br>'''uzper'''....''deviate, curve''<br>'''uzmep'''....''detour''<br>'''uznad'''....''curve''<br>'''uznod'''....''turning point''<br>'''uzteser'''....''connote''<br>'''uztex'''....''irrationality''<br>'''uzun'''....''ring''<br>'''uzyus'''....''spriral, coil''<br>'''uzabmas'''....''arch''<br>'''uzmem'''....''bay''<br>'''ulz'''....''twist''<br>'''mapulz'''....''tornado''<br>'''uzfuv'''....''screw''<br>'''tuyobuz'''....''bracelet''<br>'''tuyubuz'''....''ring''<br>'''teebuz'''....''earing''<br>'''teibuz'''....''nosering''<br>'''teyobuz'''....''necklace''<br>'''tiabuz'''....''broche''<br>'''tilabuz'''....''tit ring, nipple ring''<br>'''eybtuabuz'''....''epaulette''<br>'''mamiluz'''....''rainbow ''<br>'''dopuz'''....''bow, arch, bow-and-arrow'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ YIZ Family |- | valign=top|'''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''yiza'''....''ulterior''<br>'''yizper'''....''surpass''<br>'''yiznod'''....''extremity''<br>'''yiztapa'''....''metaphysical''<br>'''yizmola'''....''supernatural''<br>'''yizoga'''....''ultra-small''<br>'''yizyivyalza'''....''ultraviolet''<br>'''yiztoba'''....''superhuman''<br>'''yizmeira'''....''extra-terrestrial'' ||valign=top| '''yuz'''....''around''<br>'''yuza'''....''circular''<br>'''yuzper'''....''circulate''<br>'''yuzmep'''....''periphery''<br>'''sinyuz'''....''frame''<br>'''nidyuz'''....''envelope''<br>'''yuznad'''....''border''<br>'''yuzmas'''....''fence''<br>'''yuznag'''....''girth''<br>'''yuzmimper'''....''circumnavigate''<br>'''yuzkof'''....''blanket, wrap''<br>'''yuznof'''....''bandage''<br>'''yuzdom'''....''suburb''<br>'''yuzem'''....''environment''<br>'''yuzbexer'''....''hug'' |} == The '''ja''' (''Before''), '''jwa''' (''Early'') Family == : Summary: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JA-JE-JO Family |- | valign=top|'''ja'''....''before''<br>'''jaa'''....''anterior''<br>'''jana'''....''previous''<br>'''jater'''....''presage''<br>'''japer'''....''precede''<br>'''jader'''....''predict''<br>'''jafyunder'''....''warn''<br>'''jaovber'''....''prevent''<br>'''jaxer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jatuer'''....''train''<br>'''jabikier'''....''take precautions''<br>'''jaexdrer'''....''plan''<br>'''jateaxer'''....''preview''<br>'''jateaser'''....''foresee''<br>'''janapder'''....''preordain''<br>'''janap'''....''priority''<br>'''jay'''....''already''<br>'''jatex'''....''forethought'' || valign=top|'''je'''....''during''<br>'''jea'''....''on-going''<br>'''jena'''....''current''<br>'''jes'''....''course''<br>'''jeser'''....''continue''<br>'''jey'''....''on and on, forth'' ||valign=top| '''jo'''....''after''<br>'''joa'''....''posterior''<br>'''jona'''....''next''<br>'''joxwas'''....''aftermath''<br>'''joper'''....''follow''<br>'''joteaxer'''....''review''<br>'''joiber'''....''inherit''<br>'''joigper'''....''pursue''<br>'''jouper'''....''succeed''<br>'''joy'''....''afterwards, then, next''<br>'''jois'''....''after-effect''<br>'''jotul'''....''dessert''<br>'''jotej'''....''afterlife''<br>'''jotex'''....''afterthought''<br>||valign=top|'''ji'''....''since''<br>'''ji huj'''....''since then''||valign=top|'''ju'''....''until''<br>'''ju hij'''....''until now'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Family |- | valign=top|'''jwa'''....''early''<br>'''jwaa'''....''pre-mature''<br>'''jwapuer'''....''arrive early''<br>'''jwaxer'''....''preempt''<br>'''jwaber'''....''prepare''<br>'''jwatuer'''....''warn''<br>'''jwayeker'''....''experiment''<br>'''jwadrer'''....''draft''<br>'''jwayivxer'''....''parole'' ||valign=top| '''jwe'''....''on time''<br>'''jwea'''....''ready, timely, ripe''<br>'''jwepuer'''....''arrive on time''<br>'''jwexer'''....''prepare''<br>'''jweder'''....''prompt'' ||valign=top| '''jwo'''....''late''<br>'''jwoa'''....''tardy, mature, stale''<br>'''jwopuer'''....''arrive late''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''delay''<br>'''jwovosut'''....''late-bloomer''<br>'''jwoxer'''....''retard'' |} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ JWA-JWE-JWO Parallels |- | '''jwa'''....''early''|| '''jwe'''....''in time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' |- | '''jwata'''....''underaged'' || '''jweta'''....''pubescent'' || '''jwota'''....''mature, adult'' |- | '''jwafa'''....''green, unripe'' ||'''jwefa'''....''fresh'' || '''jwofa'''....''stale'' |- | '''jwaja'''....''ancient'' || '''jweja'''....''contemporary'' || '''jwoja'''....''modern, latter-day'' |- | '''jwasa'''....''premature'' || '''jwesa'''....''new'' || '''jwosa'''....''mature'' |} == The '''ka-''' (''Find''), '''kya-''' (''Change'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KA-KE-KO Family |- |valign=top| '''kaxer'''....''find''<br>'''kaxun'''....''trove''<br>'''kaxon'''....''solution''<br>'''kader'''....''reveal''<br>'''kater'''....''realize''<br>'''kap'''....''adventure''<br>'''ijkaxer'''....''invent''<br>'''kyekaxer'''....''discover, stumble on''<br>'''katepa'''....''conscious''||valign=top|'''kexer'''....''seek''<br>'''kexun'''....''goal''<br>'''kexon'''....''quest''<br>'''keder'''....''question''<br>'''keter'''....''wonder, be curious about''<br>'''kep'''.....''mission''<br>'''kexbier'''....''choose''<br>'''kexbider'''....''vote''<br>'''tunkexer'''....''research''<br>'''zyakexer'''....''search''<br>'''keteaxer'''....''scan''<br>'''pokexut'''....''hunter''<br>'''nazkexut'''....''treasure hunter''<br>'''kyeojkexut'''....''fortune-seeker''||valign=top| '''koxer'''....''hide''<br>'''koxun'''....''stash''<br>'''koxon'''....''problem, quandary''<br>'''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koter'''....''belie''<br>'''kop'''....''going into hiding''<br>'''kobier'''....''steal''<br>'''koem'''....''hideaway''<br>'''koembier'''....''take refuge''<br>'''koembuer'''....''provide shelter''<br>'''kof'''....''cover''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''kodyun'''....''coverword''<br>'''kodin'''....''myth''<br>'''kodrentun'''....''cryptography''<br>'''teabkof'''....''blindfold''<br>'''koxof'''....''cloak''<br>'''koxov'''....''veil''<br>'''koifer'''....''covet''<br>'''kopier'''....''elope''<br>'''kopuer'''....''sneak up to''<br>'''kotepa'''....''subconscious'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYA-KYE-KYO Family |- |valign=top| '''kyaa'''....''variable''<br>'''kyaser'''....''vary''<br>'''kyadun'''....''variable''<br>'''kyasun'''....''variant''<br>'''kyasea'''....''variant''<br>'''kyayukwa'''....''versatile''<br>'''kyaxer'''....''change''<br>'''ebkyaxer'''....''exchange''<br>'''kyaper'''....''fluctuate, slide''<br>'''kyasanier'''....''mutate''<br>'''tepkyaxer'''....''persuade, motivate'' ||valign=top|'''kyea'''....''haphazard''<br>'''kyeser'''....''happen''<br>'''kyes'''....''event, happening, incident''<br>'''kyeoj'''....''fate, destiny''<br>'''kyen'''....''luck, chance''<br>'''fikyen'''....''good luck''<br>'''fukyen'''....''bad luck''<br>'''fukyes'''....''accident''<br>'''kyenek'''....''game of chance''<br>'''kyenekam'''....''casino''<br>'''kyenekar'''....''gaming machine''<br>'''kyeson'''....''circumstance''<br>'''yankyeson'''....''coincidence''<br>'''kyeper'''....''waver''<br>'''kyebuk'''....''danger''<br>'''kyeteaser'''....''notice''<br>'''kyeyanuper'''....''happen to meet''<br>'''kyeon'''....''case''<br>'''kyexej'''....''adventure''<br>'''fukyeoj'''....''misfortune''<br>'''fikyeoj'''....''good fortune'' ||valign=top| '''kyoa'''....''fixed, static, still''<br>'''kyoser'''....''stay, stand''<br>'''kyos'''....''status, state''<br>'''kyosa'''....''static''<br>'''kyoejea'''....''constant, permanent''<br>'''kyoaxer'''....''stabilize''<br>'''kyoxer'''....''fix, park''<br>'''purkyoxam'''....''parking garage''<br>'''kyoteaxer'''....''stare''<br>'''kyotepier'''....''pay attention''<br>'''kyotexer'''....''obsess'' |} == The '''ki-''' (''Slant''), '''kyi-''' (''Heavy'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KI-KU Family |- |valign=top| '''kia'''....''oblique''<br>'''kim'''....''slope''<br>'''kin'''....''slant'' <br>'''kixer'''....''bend''<br>'''kipar'''....''skate''<br>'''kitex'''....''bias''<br>'''kinad'''....''diagonal''<br>'''kisyen'''....''trend''<br>'''kiper'''....''slide''||valign=top| '''kua'''....''lateral''<br>'''kum'''....''side''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kumas'''....''embankment''<br>'''kuder'''....''remark''<br>'''kuber'''....''set aside''<br>'''kugon'''....''flank''<br>'''kumep'''....''sidewalk'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ KYI-KYU Family |- |valign=top| '''kyia'''....''heavy''<br>'''kyiper'''....''gravitate''<br>'''kyisona'''....''grave'' <br>'''kyid'''....''emphasis''<br>'''kyin'''....''burden''<br>'''kyitipa'''....''solemn''<br>'''kyitexer'''....''ponder''<br>'''kyitesa'''....''serious''<br>'''kyibal'''....''stress''||valign=top| '''kyua'''....''light''<br>'''kyuper'''....''levitate''<br>'''kyusona'''....''trivial''<br>'''kyutipa'''....''silly''<br>'''kyutebseer'''....''swoon''<br>'''kyun'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyutesa'''....''frivolous''<br>'''kyuper'''....''float'' |} == The '''va''' (''Yes''), '''vya-''' (''True'') Family == :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VA-VE-VO Family |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' |- | '''vaa'''....''affirmative'' || '''vea'''....''possible'' || '''voa'''....''negative'' |- | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''possibly'' || '''voy'''....''not'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether, if'' || '''von'''....''don&apos;t'' |- | '''vaka'''....''safe'' || '''veka'''....''at risk'' || '''voka'''....''in danger'' |- | '''vara'''....''certain'' || '''vera'''....''probable'' || '''vora'''....''doubtful'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYA-VYE-VYO Family |- | '''vyaa'''....''true''<br>'''vyan'''....''truth''<br>'''vyaama'''....''virtual''<br>'''vyaba'''....''regular''<br>'''vyadea'''....''honest''<br>'''vyafa'''....''precise''<br>'''vyala'''....''authentic''<br>'''vyalma'''....''objective''<br>'''vyalva'''....''proper''<br>'''vyama'''....''real''<br>'''vyamsa'''....''substantial''<br>'''vyaka'''....''correct''<br>'''vyava'''....''exact''<br>'''vyayaba'''....''systematic''<br>'''vyasauna'''....''genuine''<br>'''vyasma'''....''concrete''<br>'''vyayma'''....''effective''<br>'''vyayuxea'''....''faithful''<br>'''vyatepa'''....''rational''<br>'''vyatesa'''....''reasonable''<br>'''vyatexa'''....''logical''<br>'''vyatina'''....''orthodox''<br>'''vyatipa'''....''loyal''<br>'''vyanaba'''....''adjusted''<br>'''vyaotea'''....''wise''<br>'''vyantina'''....''dogmatic''<br>'''vyayuva'''....''trusty''<br>'''vyankexer'''....''investigate''<br>'''vyanyeker'''....''prove''<br>'''vyantixer'''....''research''<br>'''vyatexer'''....''believe''<br>'''vyayab'''....''system''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law''<br>'''vyavader'''....''determine''<br>'''vyatisika'''....''sagacious''<br>'''vyateja'''....''true-to-life''<br>'''vyao'''...''right or wrong'' ||valign=top| '''vyea'''....''relative''<br>'''vyean'''....''relativity''<br>'''vyenaz'''....''coefficient''<br>'''vyenxer'''...''relate''<br>'''vyesag'''....''ratio''<br>'''vyeson'''....''subject''<br>'''vyel'''....''relative to, than''<br>'''vyesun'''....''object''<br>'''vyet'''...''kin''<br>'''vyetepa'''....''subjective''<br>'''vyetexer'''....''consider''<br>'''vyexeon'''....''circumstance''<br>'''vyexer'''....''correlate''||valign=top| '''vyoa'''....''false''<br>'''vyoka'''....''wrong''<br>'''vyom'''....''fiction''<br>'''vyomdin'''....''fairy tale''<br>'''vyomeper'''....''err''<br>'''vyomepxer'''....''misroute''<br>'''vyomsin'''....''illusion''<br>'''vyomvatex'''....''superstition''<br>'''vyon'''...''fault''<br>'''vyonap'''...''disorder''<br>'''vyonder'''....''lie''<br>'''vyonober'''....''excuse''<br>'''vyons'''....''failure''<br>'''vyonxer'''...''transgress''<br>'''vyosauna'''....''counterfeit''<br>'''vyosyen'''....''artifice''<br>'''vyotepa'''....''foolish''<br>'''vyotesier'''....''misinterpret''<br>'''vyotester'''....''misunderstand''<br>'''vyotex'''....''fallacy''<br>'''vyotipan'''....''treason''<br>'''vyoxler'''....''traffic''<br>'''vyoyeker'''...''debunk''<br>'''vyoyixler'''....''betray'' |} : There is also the hybrid truth particle '''vyao''', meaning ''true or false'', eg.: '''Et tojba hua twob. Vyao?'''....''You killed that man. True or false?'' : Factive adverbs: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Adverbs |- ! FACTIVE ADVERB !! EXAMPLE |- |'''vay'''....''indeed, really, do/does ''||'''Aat <u>vay</u> tide et.'''....''We <u>really do</u> understand you.'' <br>'''<u>Vay</u> upu gajod.'''....''<u>Do</u> come again.'' |- |'''vey'''....''may, maybe, perhaps, might ''||'''<u>Vey</u> mamilo.'''....''It <u>may</u> rain.'' |- |'''voy'''....''not ''||'''Et <u>voy</u> se ata xeb.'''....''You are <u>not</u> my boss.'' |} : Factive Responses :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Factive Responses |- ! FACTIVE RESPONSE !! EXAMPLE |- |'''va'''....''yes''||'''<u>Va</u>, at tide.'''....''<u>Yes</u>, I understand.'' |- |'''ve'''....''maybe, perhaps''||'''<u>Ve</u>. At voy te.'''....''<u>Maybe</u>, I don't know.'' |- |'''vo'''....''no''||'''<u>Vo.</u> Et yofe ayser has.'''....''<u>No</u>. You can't have it.'' |- |'''vao'''....''yes or no''||'''Et se tadxwa, vao?''''....''You are married, <u>right or wrong</u>?'' |} : Complementizers :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Complementizers |- ! COMPLEMENTIZER !! EXAMPLE |- |'''van'''....''that''||'''At ta <u>van</u> et upo.'''....''I knew (<u>that</u>) you would come.''<br>'''<u>Van</u> yat fyadilu.'''....''<u>Let's</u> pray.'' |- |'''ven'''....''if, whether''||'''<u>Ven</u> et peso, at pio.'''....''<u>If</u> you stay, I will leave.''<br>'''<u>Ven</u> at su et, at peso.'''....''If I were you, I'd stay.''<br>'''At voy te <u>ve</u>n mamilo.'''....''I don't know <u>whether</u> it will rain.'' |- |'''von'''....''lest, that...not, don&apos;t''|| '''At yufa <u>von</u> it toju.'''....''I feared <u>lest</u> he die.''<br>'''At ojfe <u>von</u> et piu.'''....''I wish you wouldn't (=<u>that</u> you <u>not</u>)go.''<br>'''<u>Von</u> su huyen!'''....''<u>Don't</u> be that way!'' |- |'''duven'''....''Do...?, Say whether...?''||'''<u>Duven</u> et tre huyt?'''....''<u>Do</u> you know her?'' |} : Correlative conjunctions: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Correlative Conjunctions |- ! CONJUNCTION !! EXAMPLE |- |'''ay'''....''and ''||'''Et <u>ay</u> at po hum.'''....''You <u>and</u> I will go there.'' |- |'''ey'''....''or ''||'''Yat yake mamil <u>ey</u> mamyoym.'''....''We expect rain <u>or</u> snow.'' |- |'''oy'''....''but ''||'''At po <u>oy</u> at voy beso glaj.'''....''I will go <u>but</u> I won't stay long.'' |- |'''ay/ey'''....''and/or''||'''Ha duzun yebio X <u>ay/ey</u> Y.'''....''The concert will include X <u>and/or</u> Y.'' |- |'''hyaewa...ay'''....''both...and ''||'''<u>Hyaewa</u> et <u>ay</u> at voduda.'''....''<u>Both</u> you <u>and</u> I answered no.''<br>'''<u>Hyaewati</u> voduda.'''....''Both answered no.'' |- |'''Hyeawa...ey'''....''either...or ''||'''<u>Hyeawa</u> et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Either</u> you <u>or</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyeawat</u> ako.'''....''Either will win.'' |- |'''Hyoewa...ey'''....''neither...nor ''||'''Hyoewa et <u>ey</u> at ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> you <u>nor</u> I will win.''<br>'''<u>Hyoewat</u> (bi ha ewati) ako.'''....''<u>Neither</u> (of the two) will win.'' |} : Some derivatives of '''va''', '''ve''', and '''vo''': ::*'''vader'''....''affirm, assent, say yes, approve, ratify, vouch '' ::*'''vaduder'''....''answer yes, reply affirmatively '' ::*'''vaa'''....''positive, affirmative '' ::*'''vaka'''....''safe'' ::*'''vara'''....''sure, certain'' ::*'''vakder'''....''assure, certify'' ::*'''vakuer'''....''save, rescue'' ::*'''vatin'''....''optimism'' ::*'''vatexer'''....''think so, believe, trust'' ::*'''vafer'''....''hope, anticipate'' ::*'''varder'''....''assure, promise'' ::*'''veder'''....''hesitate, say maybe, suppose, guess '' ::*'''vea'''....''possible '' ::*'''vera'''....''probable'' ::*'''vek'''....''risk'' ::*'''vekier'''....''bet, wager, take a risk'' ::*'''vekder'''....''bet, guess'' ::*'''vetin'''....''skepticism '' ::*'''vetexer'''....''wonder, be skeptical, hedge '' ::*'''vefer'''....''have qualms about, vacillate '' ::*'''veduder'''....''equivocate, reply neither yes or no, answer maybe '' ::*'''voder'''....''deny, negate, veto, say no, decline '' ::*'''voa'''....''negative '' ::*'''vok'''....''danger, peril'' ::*'''vora'''....''improbable'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vokder'''....''warn, threaten'' ::*'''vokuer'''....''endanger'' ::*'''vofer'''....''reject, despair '' ::*'''votin'''....''pessimism '' ::*'''votexer'''....''doubt, think not, disbelieve '' ::*'''voduder'''....''answer no, reply negatively '' == The '''vi-''' (''Beautiful''), '''vyi-''' (''Clean'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VI-VU Family |- | '''via'''....''beautiful'' || '''vua'''....''ugly'' |- | '''viya'''....''pretty'' || '''vuya'''....''nasty'' |- | '''vila'''....''magnificent'' || |- | '''vira'''....''marvelous'' || |- | '''vria'''....''glamorous'' || |- | '''vifa'''....''elegant'' || '''vufa'''....''vulgar'' |- | '''vita'''....''classy'' || '''vuta'''....''wretched'' |- | '''vioga'''....''cute'' || |- | '''viaga'''....''sumptuous'' || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ VYI-VYU Family |- | '''vyia'''....''clean'' || '''vyua'''....''dirty'' |- | '''vyida'''....''clear'' || '''vyuda'''....''muddled'' |- | '''vyina'''....''pure'' || '''vyuna'''....''stained'' |- | '''vyita'''....''chaste'' || '''vyuta'''....''sleazy'' |- | '''vyiya'''....''neat'' || '''vyuya'''....''foul'' |} == The '''am-''' (''hot''), '''im-''' (''wet'') Family == : Summary: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ AM-OM Family |- | '''ama'''....''hot'' || '''oma'''....''cold'' |- | '''ayma'''....''warm'' || '''oyma'''....''cool'' |- | '''aman'''....''heat'' || '''oman'''....''cold'' |- | '''amxer'''....''to heat'' || '''omxer'''....''refrigerate'' |- | '''yam'''....''fire'' || '''yom'''....''ice'' |- | '''yamxer'''....''to burn'' || '''yomxer'''....''to freeze'' |- | '''amar'''....''heater'' || '''omar'''....''refrigerator'' |- | '''yamar'''....''stove'' || '''yomar'''....''icebox, freezer'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ IM-UM Family |- | '''ima'''....''wet'' || '''uma'''....''dry'' |- | '''iyma'''....''humid'' || '''uyma'''....''dryish'' |- | '''yim'''....''flood'' || '''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''iman'''....''wetness'' || '''uman'''....''dryness'' |- | '''imxer'''....''to wet'' || '''umxer'''....''to dry'' |} == Chart of Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivatives == : Here is chart showing all of the group 2 base words in Mirad: <small> {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 2 Base Words and Principal Derivations |- ! POSITIVE !! INTERMEDIATE !! NEGATIVE !! POSITIVE !! OPPOSITE |- |valign=top| '''ab'''....''on''<br>'''ayb'''....''over''<br>'''ab'''er....''put on'' ||valign=top| '''eb'''....''between''<br>'''eyb'''....''among''<br>'''eb'''er....''prevent'' || '''ob'''....''off''<br>'''oyb'''....''under''<br>'''ob'''er....''remove'' ||valign=top|'''ib'''....''away from''<br>'''ib'''er....''receive'' ||valign=top| '''ub'''....''toward''<br>'''ub'''er....''send'' |- |valign=top| '''ap'''er....''get on'' ||valign=top| '''ep'''er....''intervene'' ||valign=top| '''op'''er....''get off'' ||valign=top| '''ip'''er....''leave'' ||valign=top| '''up'''er....''come'' |- |valign=top| '''ba'''er....''lean''<br>'''bal'''er....''press''<br>'''bar'''er....''crush''<br>'''bas'''er....''make a stir''<br>'''bax'''er....''stroke, rub''<br>'''byas'''er....''stand''<br>'''byax'''er....''erect''<br>'''basl'''er....''fidget''<br>'''baxl'''er....''rustle''<br>'''basr'''er....''shake''<br>'''baxr'''er....''shake'' ||valign=top| '''be'''....''at''<br>'''be'''r....''put''<br>'''be'''er....''have''<br>'''bel'''er....''carry''<br>'''bes'''er....''stay''<br>'''bex'''er....''hold''<br>'''byes'''er....''behave''<br>'''byex'''er....''knock''<br>'''bexl'''er....''keep''<br>'''bexr'''er....''restrain'' ||valign=top| '''bo'''er....''support''<br>'''bol'''er....''prop up''<br>'''bos'''er....''be still''<br>'''box'''er....''calm down''<br>'''byos'''er....''droop''<br>'''byox'''er....''hang''||valign=top| '''bi'''....''from''<br>'''bi'''er....''take''<br>'''bix'''er....''pull''<br>'''bixl'''er....''yank''<br>'''bixr'''er....''uproot''<br>'''byi'''....''starting with''<br>'''byis'''er....''originate''<br>'''byix'''er....''derive''||valign=top| '''bu'''....''to''<br>'''bu'''er....''give''<br>'''bux'''er....''push''<br>'''buxl'''er....''shove''<br>'''buxr'''er....''kick''<br>'''byu'''....''up to''<br>'''byus'''er....''encounter''<br>'''byux'''er....''touch'' |- |valign=top| '''bay'''....''with'' ||valign=top| '''bey'''....''by'' ||valign=top| '''boy'''....''without'' || || |- | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yab'''er....''raise''<br>'''yabl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yabr'''....''upheave''|| '''yeb'''....''in''<br>'''yeb'''er....''insert''<br>'''yebr'''er....''lock up''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''oyeb'''er....''take out''<br>'''oyebl'''er....''oust''|| '''yob'''....''down''<br>'''yob'''er....''lower''<br>'''yobl'''er....''dunk''<br>'''yobr'''er....''knock down'' || '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''yib'''er....''remove'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yub'''er....''bring'' |- | '''yap'''er.... ''rise''<br>'''yapl'''er....''elevate''<br>'''yapr'''er....''climb'' || '''yep'''er.... ''enter''<br>'''yepl'''er....''invade''<br>'''yepr'''er....''infringe''<br>'''oyep'''er....''exit'' || '''yop'''er.... ''descend''<br>'''yopl'''er....''sink''<br>'''yopr'''er....''plunge'' || '''yip'''er.... ''flee''<br>'''yipl'''....''escape'' || '''yup'''er.... ''approach'' |- |valign=top| '''pas'''er.... ''move''<br>'''pya'''er.... ''hover''<br>'''pyas'''er....''surge''<br>'''pyax'''er....''shoot''<br>'''paxl'''er....''shake, wipe''<br>'''paxr'''er....''brush''<br>'''pap'''er....''fly'' ||valign=top| '''p'''er.... ''go''<br>'''pes'''er.... ''wait''<br>'''pex'''er....''trap''<br>'''pyex'''er....''strike''<br>'''pyexl'''er....''beat''<br>'''pyexr'''er....''crash''<br>'''pep'''er....''ride'' ||valign=top| '''pos'''er....''stop''<br>'''pox'''er....''stop''<br>'''pyos'''er.... ''fall''<br>'''pyox'''er....''drop''<br>'''pyoxl'''er....''sink''<br>'''pyoxr'''er....''drown''<br>'''pop'''er....''travel'' ||valign=top| '''pi'''er....''depart''<br>'''pix'''er....''catch''<br>'''pyi'''er.... ''originate''<br>'''pix'''er....''capture''<br>'''pixr'''er....''rape''<br>'''pip'''er....''sail'' ||valign=top| '''pu'''er.... ''arrive''<br>'''pus'''er....''jump''<br>'''pux'''er....''throw''<br>'''pyu'''er.... ''reach''<br>'''pyux'''er....''impact''<br>'''pyuxl'''er....''thrust''<br>'''pyuxr'''er....''shoot''<br>'''pup'''er....''tunnel'' |- | '''af'''er....''permit'' || '''ef'''er....''need''<br>'''efl'''a....''urgent''<br>'''efr'''a....''dire'' || '''of'''er....''prohibit'' || '''if'''er....''love''<br>'''ifl'''er....''be fond of''<br>'''ifr'''er....''adore'' || '''uf'''er....''hate''<br>'''ufl'''er....''loathe''<br>'''ufr'''er....''despise'' |- | || '''f'''er....''want'' || || '''fi'''a.... ''good''<br>'''fli'''a....''wonderful''<br>'''fri'''a....''fantastic'' || '''fu'''a.... ''bad''<br>'''flu'''a....''awful''<br>'''fru'''a....''atrocious'' |- | '''fya'''a....''holy'' ||'''fye'''a....''mythical'' || '''fyo'''a....''profane'' || '''fyi'''a....''useful'' || '''fyu'''a....''harmful'' |- | '''yaf'''er....''can'' || '''yef'''er....''must'' || '''yof'''er....''cannot'' || '''yif'''er....''dare''<br>'''yifl'''a....''bold''<br>'''yifr'''a....''heroic''|| '''yuf'''er....''fear''<br>'''yufl'''er....''dread''<br>'''yufr'''er....''cringe'' |- |valign=top| '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gab'''er....''add''<br>'''gal'''er....''multiply''<br>'''gal'''er....''exponentiate''<br>'''gax'''er....''increase'' ||valign=top| '''ge'''er....''equal'' ||valign=top| '''go'''....''less''<br>'''gob'''er....''subtract''<br>'''gol'''er....''divide''<br>'''gorer'''....''get the root of''<br>'''gox'''er....''decrease'' ||valign=top| '''gi'''n.... ''point'' || '''gu'''n.... ''angle'' |- | '''gwa'''.... ''most'' || '''gwe'''.... ''just'' || '''gwo'''.... ''least'' || || |- | '''gya'''a.... ''fat'' || || '''gyo'''a.... ''thin'' || '''gyi'''a.... ''solid''|| '''gyu'''a....''fragile'' |- | '''gla'''.... ''much'' || '''gle'''.... ''rather'' || '''glo'''.... ''few'' || || |- | '''gra'''.... ''too'' || '''gre'''.... ''enough'' || '''gro'''.... ''too little'' || || |- | '''ag'''a.... ''big'' || '''eg'''a.... ''normal'' || '''og'''a.... ''small'' || '''ig'''a.... ''fast'' || '''ug'''a.... ''slow'' |- | '''yag'''a.... ''long'' || || '''yog'''a.... ''short'' || '''yig'''a.... ''hard'' || '''yug'''a.... ''soft'' |- | '''ja'''....''before'' || '''je'''....''during'' || '''jo'''....''after'' || '''ji'''....''since'' || '''ju'''....''until'' |- | '''jwa'''....''early'' || '''jwe'''....''on time'' || '''jwo'''....''late'' || || |- | '''aj'''....''past'' || '''ej'''....''present'' || '''oj'''....''future'' || '''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''uj'''....''end'' |- | '''taj'''er*....''be born'' || '''tej'''er*....''live'' || '''toj'''er*....''die'' || '''tij'''er*....''be awake'' || '''tuj'''er*....''sleep'' |- | || || || '''yij'''er....''open'' || '''yuj'''er....''close'' |- | '''ka'''xer.... ''find'' || '''ke'''xer.... ''seek'' || '''ko'''xer.... ''hide'' || '''ki'''a.... ''oblique'' || '''ku'''a.... ''lateral'' |- | '''kya'''a.... ''mobile'' || '''kye'''a.... ''haphazard'' || '''kyo'''a.... ''fixed'' || '''kyi'''a.... ''heavy'' || '''kyu'''a.... ''light'' |- | '''ak'''er.... ''win'' || '''ek'''er.... ''play, risk'' || '''ok'''er....''lose'' || '''ik'''a.... ''full'' || '''uk'''a.... ''empty'' |- | '''yak'''er.... ''expect'' || '''yek'''er.... ''try'' || '''yok'''er.... ''be surprised'' || '''yik'''a.... ''difficult'' || '''yuk'''a.... ''easy'' |- | '''va'''....''yes'' || '''ve'''....''maybe'' || '''vo'''....''no'' || '''vi'''a.... ''beautiful'' || '''vu'''a.... ''ugly'' |- | '''vya'''a....''true'' || '''vye'''a.... ''relative'' || '''vyo'''a.... ''false'' || '''vyi'''a.... ''clean'' || '''vyu'''a.... ''dirty'' |- | '''av'''....''for'' || '''ev'''a....''neutral'' || '''ov'''....''against'' || '''iv'''a.... ''happy'' || '''uv'''a.... ''sad'' |- | '''yav'''a....''innocent''<br>'''yavl'''a....''proud'' || '''yev'''a....''fair'' || '''yov'''a....''guilty''<br>'''yovl'''a....''ashamed'' || '''yiv'''a....''free'' || '''yuv'''a....''captive'' |- | '''yaz'''a....''convex'' || '''yez'''....''along'' || '''yoz'''a....''concave'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond'' || '''yuz'''....''around'' |- | '''za'''....''front'' || '''ze'''....''middle'' || '''zo'''....''behind'' || '''zi'''....''right'' || '''zu'''....''left'' |- | '''zya'''a....''wide'' || '''zye'''....''through'' || '''zyo'''a....''narrow'' || '''zyi'''a....''flat'' || '''zyu'''a....''round'' |- | '''zay'''....''forward'' || '''zey'''....''across'' || '''zoy'''....''back'' || || |- | '''az'''a....''strong'' || '''ez'''a....''moderate'' || '''oz'''a....''weak'' || '''iz'''a....''straight'' || '''uz'''a....''curved'' |- | '''ha'''....''the'' || '''he'''a....''some'' || '''ho'''a....''no'' || '''hi'''a....''this'' || '''hu'''a....''that'' |- | '''hya'''....''every'' || '''hye'''a....''any'' || '''hyo'''a....''not at all'' || '''hyi'''a....''same'' || '''hyu'''a....''other'' |- | '''van'''....''that'' || '''ven'''....''whether'' || '''von'''....''lest'' || || |- | '''hay'''....''hello''<br>'''hyay'''....''cheers''<br>'''hway'''....''thanks'' || '''hey'''....''hey''<br>'''hyey'''....''oh, well''<br>'''hwey'''....''you&apos;re welcome'' || '''hoy'''....''goodbye''<br>'''hyoy'''....''boo''<br>'''hwoy'''....''sorry'' || '''hiy'''....''voici'' || '''huy'''....''voila'' |- | '''ya(n)'''....''together'' || || '''yo(n)'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''am'''a....''hot''<br>'''yam'''....''fire'' || || '''om'''a....''cold''<br>'''yom'''.... ''ice'' || '''im'''a....''wet''<br>'''yim'''....''flood'' || '''um'''a....''dry''<br>'''yum'''....''drought'' |- | '''a(n)'''....''one'' || '''e(n)'''....''two'' || '''o(n)'''....''zero''<br>'''lo'''-....''un-, de-'' ||'''i(n)'''....''three'' || '''u(n)'''....''four'' |- | '''ya(on)'''....''six'' || '''ye(on)'''....''seven'' || '''yo(on)'''....''five'' ||'''yi(on)'''....''eight'' || '''yu(on)'''....''nine'' |- | '''ay'''....''and'' || '''ey'''....''or'' || '''oy'''....''but'' || || |} </small> :: *<small>Really, a hybrid of Group 1 and 2.</small> == Chart of Group 1 Scaled Base Words == : These group 1 base words are mostly hierarchical in nature with the zeroth element being at the top of the scale: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group 1 Scaled Base Words |- | '''dob'''....''state'' || '''dab'''....''government'' || '''deb'''....''leader'' || '''dib'''....''administration'' || '''dub'''....''minister''|| || || || || |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''dam'''....''metropolis'' || '''dem'''....''park'' ||'''dim'''....''fountain'' || || || || || || |- | '''dot'''....''society'' || '''dat'''....''friend'' || '''det'''....''mate'' || '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dut'''....''sir''|| || || || || |- | '''fob'''....''vegetation'' || '''fab'''....''tree'' || '''feb'''....''fruit'' || '''fib'''....''trunk'' || '''fub'''....''branch'' || '''fyob'''....''root'' || || || || |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''jab'''....''year'' || '''jeb'''....''season'' || '''jib'''....''month'' || '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jwob'''....''hour'' || '''jwab'''....''minute'' || '''jweb'''....''second'' || || |- | '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''mar'''....''star'' || '''mer'''....''planet'' || '''mir'''....''world'' || '''mur'''....''moon'' || || || || || |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''mineral'' || || || || || |- | '''mos'''....''floor'' || '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mes'''....''door'' || '''mis'''....''window'' || '''mus'''....''stairs'' || || || || || |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' || || || || || |- | '''nod'''....''point'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''ned'''....''plane'' || '''nid'''....''volume'' || '''nud'''....''column''|| || || || || |- | '''nof'''....''cloth'' || '''naf'''....''material'' || '''nef'''....''stitch,knit'' || '''nif'''....''fiber,thread'' || '''nuf'''....''button'' || || '''nyaf'''....''knot'' || '''nyef'''....''bag'' || '''nyif'''....''rope'' || '''nyuf'''....''package'' |- | '''nog'''....''degree'' || '''nag'''....''measure'' || '''neg'''....''level'' || '''nig'''....''space''|| || || || || || |- | '''som'''....''furniture'' || '''sam'''....''armoire'' || '''sem'''....''table'' || '''sim'''....''chair'' || '''sum'''....''bed''|| || || || || |- | '''tob'''....''human'' || '''tab'''....''body'' || '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tib'''....''trunk'' || '''tub'''....''arm'' || '''tyob'''....''leg''|| || || || |- | '''tod'''....''family'' || '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''tid'''....''sibling'' || '''tud'''....''child'' || '''tyod'''....''people, folk''|| || '''tyed'''....''relative'' || || |- | '''tof'''....''clothing'' || '''taf'''....''suit'' || '''tef'''....''hat'' || '''tif'''....''vest'' || '''tuf'''....''sleeve'' ||'''tyof'''....''pants'' || || || || |- | '''tov'''....''lingerie'' || '''tav'''....''robe'' || '''tev'''....''scarf'' || '''tiv'''....''shirt'' || ||'''tyov'''....''underpants'' || || || || |- | '''tol'''....''nutrition'' || || '''tel'''....''food'' || '''til'''....''drink'' || '''tul'''....''dish''|| || '''tyal'''....''meal'' || || || |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tam'''....''house'' || '''tem'''....''hall'' || '''tim'''....''room'' || '''tum'''....''cell''|| || || || || |- | '''vob'''....''plant'' || '''vab'''....''grass'' || '''veb'''....''seed'' || '''vib'''....''stem'' || '''vub'''....''blade'' || '''vyob'''....''root'' || || || || |} == Chart of Group 1 Geo-physically Scaled Words == : These group 1 words have a vowel that indicates something about the position in the world or its geo-physical nature: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Group I Geo-physically Scaled Words |- ! BASE WORD !! SKY !! LAND !! WATER !! UNDERGROUND |- | '''mol'''....''nature'' || '''mal'''....''air'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''mil'''....''water'' || '''mul'''....''matter'' |- | '''mom'''....''outer space'' || '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''mem'''....''land'' || '''mim'''....''sea'' || '''mum'''....''underground'' |- | '''mop'''....''orbit'' || '''map'''....''wind'' || '''mep'''....''road'' || '''mip'''....''river'' || '''mup'''....''tunnel'' |- | '''mob'''....''chasm'' || || '''meb'''....''mountain'' || || '''mub'''....''cave'' |- | '''mog'''....''ash'' || '''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mak'''....''electricity'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''mek'''....''dust'' || ||'''mug'''....''metal''<br>'''muk'''....''mineral'' |- | '''mov'''....''smoke'' || '''mav'''....''flame''<br>'''maf'''....''cloud'' || '''mef'''....''brick''<br>'''mev'''....''porcelain'' || || '''muf'''....''pole''<br>'''muv'''....''stick'' |- | '''moj'''....''night'' || '''maj'''....''day'' || || || |- | '''mon'''....''dark'' || '''man'''....''light'' || || || |- | '''pot'''....''animal''<br>'''pyot'''....''wild animal'' || '''pat'''....''bird''<br>'''pyat'''....''bird of prey''<br>'''piat'''....''water fowl'' || '''pet'''....''land animal''<br>'''pelt'''....''insect''<br>'''pyet'''....''reptile'' || '''pit'''....''fish''<br>'''piit'''....''crustacean''<br>'''peit'''....''sea mammal''<br>'''pyeit'''....''mollusk''<br>'''pyit'''....''predator fish''|| |- | '''dop'''....''military'' || '''dap'''....''air force'' || '''dep'''....''army'' || '''dip'''....''navy''<br>'''diep'''....''marines'' || |} == Charts of Words Showing Mnemonic Parallelism == : The words in the following charts share some commonality, which is evident in their similar phonetics: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tob !! tab !! teb !! tib !! tub !! tyob !! tayob !! tayeb |- | ''man'' || body || ''head'' || ''trunk'' || ''arm'' || ''leg'' || ''skin'' || ''hair'' |- ! fob !! fab !! feb !! fib !! fub !! fyob !! fayob !! fayeb |- | ''plant'' || ''tree'' || ''fruit'' || ''trunk'' || ''branch'' || ''root'' || ''bark'' || ''leaf'' |- ! vob !! veb !! veb !! vib !! vub !! vyob !! vayob !! vayeb |- | ''vegetable'' || ''seed'' || ''tuft'' || ''stem'' || ''twig'' || ''root'' || ''peel'' || ''bud'' |- ! !! !! !! !! patub !! !! !! patayeb |- | || || || || ''wing'' || || || ''feather'' |- ! pit !! !! piteb !! !! pitub !! !! !! pitayeb |- | ''fish'' || || ''fishhead'' || || ''fin'' || || || ''scale'' |- ! dob !! dab !! deb !! dib !! dub !! !! !! |- | ''state'' || government || ''leader'' || ''administration'' || ''minister'' || || || |- ! '''xob''' || '''xab''' !! '''xeb''' !! !! '''xub''' !! '''xyob''' || || |- |''organization'' || ''staff'' ||''boss'' || || ''subdidiary'' || ''base'' || || |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eub Mnemonic Parallels |- ! teub !! teus !! teud !! seux !! xeus !! deuz !! seuz !! xeuz |- | ''mouth'' || ''voice'' || ''shout'' || ''sound'' || ''noise'' || ''song'' || ''tone'' || ''tune'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -ayob Mnemonic Parallels |- ! tayob !! fayob !! vayob !! tayof !! |- | ''skin'' || ''bark'' || ''peel'' || ''leather'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Tub Mnemonic Parallels |- |- ! tub !! fub !! vub !! fuf !! muf !! tiibuf !! movuf !! gimuf !! manuf !! fauf |- | arm || branch || twig || pipe || rod || artery || (smoking) pipe || skewer || candle || log |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -eab Mnemonic Parallels |- ! '''teab''' !! ''eye'' |- | '''teater''' || ''see'' |- | '''teaxer''' || ''look'' |- | '''teaser''' || ''seem'' |- | '''teaper''' || ''visit'' |- | '''yegteaper''' || ''revisit'' |- | '''teader''' || ''witness'' |- | '''teazer''' || ''notice'' |- | '''teatier''' || ''perceive'' |- | '''teatuer''' || ''show'' |- | '''beaxer''' || ''watch'' |- | '''neaxer''' || ''aim'' |- | '''vyateaxer''' || ''examine'' |- | '''vyabeaxer''' || ''inspect'' |- | '''vyaleaxer''' || ''check'' |- | '''izteader''' || ''indicate'' |- | '''izteatuer''' || ''point out'' |- | '''izteaxer''' || ''focus'' |- | '''abteaxer''' || ''survey'' |- | '''yagteaxer''' || ''stare'' |- | '''igteaxer''' || ''glance'' |- | '''egteaser''' || ''reappear'' |- | '''yozteatuer''' || ''display, expose'' |- | '''jateater''' || ''foresee'' |- | '''jateaxer''' || ''preview'' |- | '''yonteater''' || ''distinguish'' |- | '''oteaser''' || ''disappear'' |- | '''vyateatuer''' || ''prove'' |- | '''zyeteaxer''' || ''peek'' |- | '''zyoteaxer''' || ''peer'' |- | '''ugteaxer''' || ''gaze'' |- | '''yuzteaxer''' || ''look around'' |- | '''yubteaxer''' || ''scrutinize'' |- | '''kyoteaxer''' || ''glare'' |- | '''yogteaxer''' || ''glimpse'' |- | '''joteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''zoyteaxer''' || ''look back'' |- | '''zayteaxer''' || ''look ahead'' |- | '''ojteader''' || ''warn'' |- | '''tepteatier''' || ''consider'' |- | '''kuteaxer''' || ''observe'' |- | '''ejeatuer''' || ''present'' |- | '''ejeaser''' || ''show up, appear'' |- | '''utejeaser''' || ''represent'' |- | '''ajteaxer''' || ''review'' |- | '''ojteaxer''' || ''expect, envisage'' |- | '''yoveater''' || ''suspect'' |- | '''kiteaxer''' || ''look askance'' |- | '''yizteaxer''' || ''look beyond'' |- | '''zeyteaxer''' || ''look across'' |- | '''fyateater''' || ''respect'' |- | '''vyoteas''' || ''illusion'' |- | '''vyamteaser''' || ''seem true'' |- | '''koteaxer''' || ''sneak a peek'' |- | '''ziteaxer''' || ''look right'' |- | '''zuteaxer''' || ''look left'' |- | '''eyteaxer''' || ''squint'' |- | '''zyateaxer''' || ''peruse, scan'' |- | '''fateaber''' || ''blink'' |- | '''teabigyujer''' || ''wink'' |- | '''teabiler''' || ''weep, tear up'' |} :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -z Mnemonic Parallels" |- ! nas !! teb !! tuyub !! tilab !! tuyob !! tun !! tab !! teub !! sin !! teeb !! nas !! teib !! vos !! drer !! ten |- | ''money'' || ''head'' || ''finger'' || ''breast'' || ''wrist'' || ''science'' || ''body'' || ''mouth'' || ''image'' || ''ear'' || ''money'' || ''nose'' || ''flower'' || ''write'' || ''knowledge'' |- ! noz !! tebuz !! tuyuz !! tilaz !! tuyoz !! tuz !! taz !! deuz !! siz !! teebuz !! naz!! teiz !! voz !! drez !! tez |- | ''jewel'' || ''crown'' || ''ring'' || ''broche'' || ''bracelet'' || ''art'' || ''statue'' || ''song'' || ''painting'' || ''earring'' || ''value'' || ''perfume'' || ''color'' || ''poetry'' || ''culture'' |} == Geographic Proper Names == : As in English, Geograpic names are capitalized, including languages (cf. French, where languages are lower cased). === Continents and Their Inhabitants === {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Continents |- ! PLACE !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Asyam'''....''Asia'' || '''Asyama'''....''Asian'' || '''Asyat'''....''Asian'' |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' |- | '''Omera Amerikam'''....''South America'' || '''Omera Amerikama'''....''South American'' || '''Omera Amerikat'''....''South American'' |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' |- | '''Antarktikam'''....''Antarctica'' || '''Antarktika'''....''Antarctic'' || '''Antarktikat'''....''Antarctic'' |- | '''Australyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' || '''Australyama'''....''Australian'' |} === Directional and Other Specifiers in Geographic Names === : Many geographic names are preceded with directional or other specifiers: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Geographic Specifiers |- ! SPECIFIER |- | '''Amera'''....''North(ern)'' |- | '''Omira'''....''South(ern)'' |- | '''Imera'''....''East(ern)'' |- | '''Umera'''....''West(ern)'' |- | '''Zea'''....''Central, Middle'' |- | '''Yeba'''....''Inner'' |- | '''Oyeba'''....''Outer'' |- | '''Ejna'''....''New'' |- | '''Ajna'''....''Old'' |- | '''Yuba'''....''Near'' |- | '''Yiba'''....''Far'' |} : For example: :* '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' :* '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' :* '''Oyeba Mongolyam'''....''Outer Mongolia'' :* '''Yiba Imir'''....''Far East'' :* '''Ejna Englam'''....''New England'' === Countries, Inhabitants, and Languages === <small> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow" |- ! COUNTRY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT !! LANGUAGE |- ! '''-am''' !! '''-a / -ama''' !! '''-at''' !! '''-ad''' |- | '''Afganam'''....''Afghanistan'' || '''Afgana &nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Afganama'''....''Afghani'' || '''Afganat'''....''Afghan'' || -- |- | '''Afrikam'''....''Africa'' || '''Afrika / Afrikama'''....''African'' || '''Afrikat'''....''African'' || -- |- | '''Albanam'''....''Albania'' || '''Albana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Albanama'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanat'''....''Albanian'' || '''Albanad'''....''Albanian'' |- | '''Algeryam'''....''Algeria'' || '''Algerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Algeryama'''....''Algerian'' || '''Algeryat'''....''Alergian'' || -- |- | '''Amerikam'''....''America'' || '''Amerika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Amerikama'''....''American'' || '''Amerikat'''....''American'' || -- |- | '''Andoram'''....''Andorra'' || '''Andora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Andorama'''....''Andorran'' || '''Andorat'''....''Andoran'' || -- |- | '''Angolam'''....''Angola'' || '''Angola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Angolama'''....''Angolan'' || '''Angolat'''....''Angolan'' || -- |- | '''Anxwa Araba Islamidabi (AAI)'''....''United Arabic Emirates (UAE)''|| || || |- | '''Anxwa Doebi bi Amerikam (ADA)'''....''United States (of America)'' || '''ADAa'''....''U.S.'' || '''ADAt'''....''U.S.citizen''|| -- |- | '''Anxwa Edab (AE)'''....''United Kingdom'' || '''Anxwa Edaba (AEa)'''....''of the UK''|| '''Anxwa Edabat'''....''UK national'' || -- |- | '''Arabam'''....''Arabia'' || '''Araba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Arabama'''....''Arabian'' || '''Arabat'''....''Arab'' || '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' |- | '''Argentinam'''....''Argentina'' || '''Argentina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Argentinama'''....''Argentin'' || '''Argentinat'''....''Argentinian'' || -- |- |- | '''Azerbaijam'''....''Azeram'' || '''Azera'''&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;....Azerama''|| '''Azerat'''....''Azeri'' || '''Azerad'''....''Azeri'' |- | '''Awstralyam'''....''Australia'' || '''Awstralya'''....''Australian'' || '''Awstralyat'''....''Australian'' || -- |- | '''Awstriyam'''....''Austria'' || '''Awstriya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Awstriyama'''....''Austrian'' || '''Awstriyat'''....''Austrian'' || -- |- | '''Bangladexam'''....''Bangladesh'' || '''Bangladexa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bangladexama'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bangladexat'''....''Bangladeshi'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bengalam'''....''Bengal'' || '''Bengala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bengalama'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalat'''....''Bengalese'' || '''Bengalad'''....''Bengali'' |- | '''Bahraynam'''....''Bahrain'' || '''Bahrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bahraynama'''....''Bahraini'' || '''Bahraynat'''....''Bahraini'' || -- |- | '''Belgam'''....''Belgium'' || '''Belga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Belgama'''....''Belgian'' || '''Belgat'''....''Belgian'' || -- |- | '''Bolivyam'''....''Bolivia'' || '''Bolivya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bolivyama'''....''Bolivian'' || '''Bolivyat'''....''Bolivian'' || -- |- | '''Botswanam'''....''Botswana'' || '''Botswana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Botswanama'''....''Botswanian'' || '''Botswanat'''....''Botswanian'' || -- |- | '''Brazilam'''....''Brazil'' || '''Brazila&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Brazilama'''....''Brazilian'' || '''Brazilat'''....''Brazilian'' || -- |- | '''Bretanyam'''....''Britain'' || '''Bretanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bretanyama'''....''British'' || '''Bretanyat'''....''Brit'' || -- |- | '''Bruneyam'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bruneyama'''....''Brunei'' || '''Bruneyat'''....''Bruneian'' || -- |- | '''Bulgaryam'''....''Bulgaria'' || '''Bulgarya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Bulgaryama'''....''Bulgarian'' || '''Bulgaryat'''....''Bulagian'' || '''Bulgaryad'''....''Bulgarian'' |- | '''Burmam'''....''Burma'' || '''Burmama'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmat'''....''Burmese'' || '''Burmad'''....''Burmese'' |- |'''Butanam'''....''Bhutan'' || '''Butana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Butanama'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanat'''....''Bhutanese'' || '''Butanad'''....''Bhutanese Tibetan'' |- | '''Cadam'''....''Chad'' || '''Cada&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cadama'''....''Chadean'' || '''Cadat'''....''Chadean'' || -- |- | '''Cekyam'''....''Czechia'' || '''Cekya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cekyama'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyat'''....''Czech'' || '''Cekyad'''....''Czech'' |- | '''Cileam'''....''Chile'' || '''Cilea&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cileama'''....''Chilean'' || '''Cileat'''....''Chilean'' || -- |- | '''Cinam'''....''China'' || '''Cina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Cinama'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinat'''....''Chinese'' || '''Cinad'''....''Chinese'' |- | '''Cipram'''....''Cyprus'' || '''Cipra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ciprama'''....''Cypriot'' || '''Ciprat'''....''Cypriot'' || -- |- | '''Danyam'''....''Denmark'' || '''Danya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Danyama'''....''Danish'' || '''Danyat'''....''Dane'' || '''Danyad'''....''Danish'' |- | '''Dominikam'''....''Dominica'' || '''Dominikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Dominika Ditdob'''....''Dominican Republic'' || '''Dominika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Domenikama'''....''Dominican'' || '''Dominikat'''....''Dominican'' || -- |- | '''Egiptam'''....''Egypt'' || '''Egipta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Egiptama'''....''Egyptian'' || '''Egiptat'''....''Egyptian'' || -- |- | '''Ekwadoram'''....''Equador'' || '''Ekwadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ekwadorama'''....''Equadorean'' || '''Ekwadorat'''....''Equadoran'' || -- |- | '''Englam'''....''England'' || '''Engla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Englama'''....''English'' || '''Englat'''....''Englishman'' || '''Englad'''....''English'' |- | '''Eritram'''....''Eritrea'' || '''Eritra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Eritrama'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrat'''....''Eritrean'' || '''Eritrad'''....''Eritrean'' |- | '''Estyam'''....''Estonia'' || '''Estya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Estyama'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyat'''....''Estonian'' || '''Estyad'''....''Estonian'' |- | '''Etyopyam'''....''Ethiopia'' || '''Etyopya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Etyopyama'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyat'''....''Ethiopian'' || '''Etyopyad'''....''Ethiopic, Amharic'' |- | '''Europam'''....''Europe'' || '''Europa'''&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Europama'''....''European'' || '''Europat'''....''European'' || -- |- | '''Filipinam'''....''Philippines'' || '''Filipina&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Filipinama'''....''Philippine'' || '''Filipinat''' ''Filipino'' || -- |- | '''Fijyam'''....''Fiji'' || '''Fijya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fijyama'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijyat'''....''Fijian'' || '''Fijiad'''....''Fijian'' |- | '''Finyam'''....''Finland'' || '''Finya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Finyama'''....''Finnish'' || '''Finyat'''....''Finn'' || '''Finyad'''....''Finnish'' |- | '''Fransam'''....''France'' || '''Fransa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Fransama'''....''French'' || '''Fransat'''....''Frenchman'' || '''Fransad'''....''French'' |- | '''Germanyam'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Germanyama'''....''Germany'' || '''Germanyat'''....''German'' || '''Germanyad'''....''German'' |- | '''Grinlandam'''....''Greenland'' || '''Grinlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Grinlandama'''....''Greenlandian'' || '''Grinlandat'''....'' Greenlander'' || -- |- | '''Gwatemalam'''....''Guatemala'' || '''Gwatemala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Gwatemalama'''....''Guatemalan'' || '''Guatemalat'''....''Guatemalan'' || -- |- | '''Haitiyam'''....''Haiti'' || '''Haitiya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Haitiyama'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyat'''....''Haitian'' || '''Haitiyad'''....''Haitian'' |- | '''Helenam'''....''Greece'' || '''Helena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helenama'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenat'''....''Greek'' || '''Helenad'''....''Greek'' |- | '''Helvetam'''....''Switzerland'' || '''Helveta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Helvetama'''....''Swiss'' || '''Helvetat'''....''Swiss'' || -- |- | '''Hindam'''....''India'' || '''Hinda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Hindama'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindat'''....''Indian'' || '''Hindad'''....''Hindu'' |- | '''Holandam'''....''Netherlands'' || '''Holanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Holandama'''....''Dutch'' || '''Holandat'''....''Dutchman'' || '''Holandad'''....''Dutch'' |- | '''Imera Timoram'''....''East Timor'' || '''Imera Timora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Imera Timorama'''....''East Timorese'' || '''Imera Timorat'''....''East Timorese'' || |- | '''Indonesyam'''....''Indonesia'' || '''Indonesya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Indonesyama'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyat'''....''Indonesian'' || '''Indonesyad'''....''Indonesian'' |- | '''Irakam'''....''Iraq'' || '''Iraka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irakama'''....''Iraqi'' || '''Irakat'''....''Iraqi'' || -- |- | '''Irlandam'''....''Ireland'' || '''Irlanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Irlandama'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandat'''....''Irish'' || '''Irlandad'''....''Irish'' |- | '''Islandam'''....''Iceland'' || '''Islanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Islandama'''....''Icelandic'' || '''Islandat'''....''Icelander'' || '''Islandad'''....''Icelandic'' |- | '''Israylam'''....''Israel'' || '''Israyla&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Israylama'''....''Israyli'' || '''Israylat'''....''Israeli'' || '''Israylad''' |- | '''Italyam'''....''Italy'' || '''Italya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Italyama'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyat'''....''Italian'' || '''Italyad'''....''Italian'' |- | '''Ejna Zelandam'''....''New Zealand'' || '''Ejna Zelanda'''....''New Zealandese'' || '''Ejna Zelandat'''....''New Zealander'' || -- |- | '''Jordanam'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Jordanama'''....''Jordan'' || '''Jordanat'''....''Jordanese'' || -- |- | '''Kampucam'''....''Cambodia'' || '''Kampuca&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kampucama'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' || '''Kampucat'''....''Cambodian'' |- | '''Kanadam'''....''Canada'' || '''Kanadamama'''....''Canadian'' || '''Kanadat'''....''Canadian'' || -- |- | '''Kartvelam'''....''Georgia'' || '''Kartvela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kartvelama'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelat'''....''Georgian'' || '''Kartvelad'''....''Georgian'' |- | '''Kataram'''....''Qatar'' || '''Katara'''....''Qatari'' || '''Katarat'''....''Qatari'' || -- |- | '''Kazakam'''....''Kazakstan'' || '''Kazaka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kazakama'''....''Kazakh'' || '''Kazakat'''....''Kazazh'' || '''Kazakad'''....''Kazakh'' |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || -- |- | '''Kenyam'''....''Kenya'' || '''Kenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kenyama'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyat'''....''Kenyan'' || '''Kenyad'''....''Kenyan'' |- | '''Kirgizam'''....''Kyrghistan'' || '''Kirgiza&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kirgizama'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizat'''....''Kyrghiz'' || '''Kirgizad'''....''Kyrghiz'' |- | '''Kolombyam'''....''Columbia'' || '''Kolombya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kolombyama'''....''Columbian'' || '''Kolombyat'''....''Columbian'' || -- |- | '''Kroatyam'''....''Croatia'' || '''Kroatya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kroatyama'''....''Croatian'' || '''Kroatyat'''....''Croat'' || '''Kroatyad'''....''Croatian'' |- | '''Kubam'''....''Cuba'' || '''Kuba&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kubama'''....''Cuban'' || '''Kubat'''....''Cuban'' || |- | '''Kuwaytam'''....''Kuwait'' || '''Kuwayta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Kuwaytama'''....''Kuwaiti'' || '''Kuwaytat'''....''Kuwaiti'' || -- |- | '''Laotam'''....''Laos'' || '''Laota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Laotama'''....''Laotian'' || '''Laotat'''....''Lao'' || '''Laotad'''....''Lao'' |- | '''Latyam'''....''Latvia'' || '''Latya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Latyama'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyat'''....''Latvian'' || '''Latyad'''....''Latvia'' |- | '''Lebanam'''....''Lebanon'' || '''Lebana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lebanama'''....''Lebanese'' || '''Lebanat'''....''Lebanese'' || -- |- | '''Libyam'''....''Libya'' || '''Libya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Libyama'''....''Libyanese'' || '''Libyat'''....''Libyanese'' || -- |- | '''Litwam'''....''Lithuania'' || '''Litwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Litwama'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwat'''....''Lithuanian'' || '''Litwad'''....''Lithuanian'' |- | '''Luksemburgam'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Lusemburga&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Lusemburgama'''....''Luxemburg'' || '''Luksemburgat'''....''Luxemburger'' || -- |- | '''Madagaskaram'''....''Madagascar'' || '''Madagaskara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Madagaskarama'''....''Madagascaran'' || '''Madagaskarat'''....''Madagascarn'' || -- |- | '''Magyaram'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyara&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Magyarama'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarat'''....''Hungarian'' || '''Magyarad'''....''Hungarian'' |- | '''Malayam'''....''Malaysia'' || '''Malaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Malayama'''....''Malay'' || '''Malayat'''....''Malaysian'' || '''Malayad'''....''Malay'' |- | '''Maldivam'''....''Maldives'' || '''Madiva&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maldivama'''....''Madivian'' || '''Maldivat'''....''Madivian'' || |- | '''Maltam'''....''Malta'' || '''Malta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Maltama'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltat'''....''Maltese'' || '''Maltad'''....''Maltese'' |- | '''Meksikam'''....''Mexico'' || '''Meksikamama'''....''Mexican'' || '''Meksikat'''....''Mexican'' || -- |- | '''Mongolyam'''....''Mongolia'' || '''Mongolya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mongolyama'''....''Mongolese'' || '''Mongolyat'''....''Mongol'' || '''Mongolyad'''....''Mongolian'' |- | '''Morokam'''....''Morocco'' || '''Moroka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Morokama'''....''Moroccan'' || '''Morokat'''....''Moroccan'' || -- |- | '''Mozambikam'''....''Mozambique'' || '''Mozambika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Mozambikama'''....''Mozambican'' || '''Mozambikat'''....''Mozambicam'' || -- |- | '''Namibyam'''....''Namibia'' || '''Namibya'''....''Namibian'' || '''Namibyat'''....''Namibian'' || |- | '''Nepalam'''....''Nepal'' || '''Nepala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nepalama'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalat'''....''Nepalese'' || '''Nepalad'''....''Nepalese'' |- | '''Nigeryam'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigerya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Nigeryama'''....''Nigeria'' || '''Nigeryat'''....''Nigerian'' || '''Nigeryad'''....''Nigerian'' |- | '''Niponam'''....''Japan'' || '''Nipona&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Niponama'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponat'''....''Japanese'' || '''Niponad'''....''Japanese'' |- | '''Norvegam'''....''Norway'' || '''Norvega&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Norvegama'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegat'''....''Norwegian'' || '''Norvegad'''....''Norwegian'' |- | '''Omanam'''....''Oman'' || '''Omana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Omanama'''....''Omani'' || '''Omanat'''....''Omani'' || -- |- | '''Pakam'''....''Pakistan'' || '''Paka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pakama'''....''Pakistanian'' || '''Pakat'''....''Pakistani'' || -- |- | '''Paragwayam'''....''Paraguay'' || '''Pargwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pargwayama'''....''Paraguayan'' || '''Paragwyat'''....''Paraguayan'' || -- |- | '''Persam'''....''Iran'' || '''Persa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Persama'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persat'''....''Iranian'' || '''Persad'''....''Persian'' |- | '''Peruvyam'''....''Peru'' || '''Peruvya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Peruvyama'''....''Peruvian'' || '''Peruvyat'''....''Peruvian'' || -- |- | '''Polam'''....''Poland'' || '''Pola&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Polama'''....''Polish'' || '''Polat'''....''Pole'' || '''Polad'''....''Polish'' |- | '''Portugalam'''....''Portugal'' || '''Portugala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Portugalama'''....''Portuguese'' || '''Portugalat'''....''Potuguese'' || '''Portugalad'''....''Portuguese'' |- | '''Pwertorikam'''....''Puerto Rico'' || '''Pwertorika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Pwertorikama'''....''Puerto Rican'' || '''Pwertorikat'''....''Puerto Rican'' || -- |- | '''Romanyam'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Romanyama'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyat'''....''Romanian'' || '''Romanyad'''....''Romanian'' |- | '''Rusam'''....''Russia'' || '''Rusa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rusama'''....''Russian'' || '''Rusat'''....''Russian'' || '''Rad'''....''Russian'' |- | '''Rwandam'''....''Rwanda'' || '''Rwanda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Rwandama'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandat'''....''Rwandan'' || '''Rwandad'''....''Kinyarwanda'' |- | '''Salvadoram'''....''San Salvador'' || '''Salvadora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Salvadorama'''....''Salvadoran'' || '''Salvadorat'''....''Salvadoran'' || -- |- | '''Sawdam'''....''Saudi Arabia'' || '''Sawda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sawdama'''....''Saudi'' || '''Sawdat'''....''Saudi'' || -- |- | '''Senegalam'''....''Senegal'' || '''Senegala&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Senegalama'''....''Senegalese'' || '''Senegalat'''....''Senegalese'' || -- |- | '''Serbyam'''....''Serbia'' || '''Serbya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Serbyama'''....''Serbian'' || '''Serbyat'''....''Serb'' || '''Serbyad'''....''Serbian'' |- | '''Singaporam'''....''Singapore'' || '''Singapora&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Singaporama'''....''Singaporean'' || '''Singaporat'''....''Singaporean'' || -- |- | '''Skotam'''....''Scotland'' || '''Skota&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Skotama'''....''Scottish'' || '''Skotat'''....''Scotlander'' || '''Skotad'''....''Scottish Gaelic'' |- | '''Slovakyam'''....''Slovakia'' || '''Slovakya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovakyama'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyat'''....''Slovak'' || '''Slovakyad'''....''Slovakian'' |- | '''Slovenyam'''....''Slovenia'' || '''Slovenya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Slovenyama'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyat'''....''Slovene'' || '''Slovenyad'''....''Slovenian'' |- | '''Somalyam'''....''Somalia'' || '''Somalya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Somalyama'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyat'''....''Somali'' || '''Somalyad'''....''Somali'' |- | '''Spanyam'''....''Spain'' || '''Spanya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Spanyama'''....''Spanish'' || '''Spanyat'''....''Spaniard'' || '''Spanyad'''....''Spanish'' |- | '''Sudanam'''....''Sudan'' || '''Sudana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Sudanama'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanat'''....''Sudanese'' || '''Sudanad'''....''Sudanese'' |- | '''Suryam'''....''Syria'' || '''Surya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Suryama'''....''Syrian'' || '''Suryat'''....''Syrian'' || -- |- | '''Swedam'''....''Sweden'' || '''Sweda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Swedama'''....''Swedish'' || '''Swedat'''....''Swede'' || '''Swedad'''....''Swedish'' |- | '''Tanzanam'''....''Tanzania'' || '''Tanzana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tanzanama'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanat'''....''Tanzanian'' || '''Tanzanad'''....''Tanzanian'' |- | '''Tayam'''....''Thailand'' || '''Taya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tayama'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayat'''....''Thai'' || '''Tayad'''....''Thai'' |- | '''Taywanam'''....''Taiwan'' || '''Taywana&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Taywanama'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taywanat'''....''Taiwanese'' || '''Taiwanad'''....''Taiwanese'' |- | '''Tibetam'''....''Tibet'' || '''Tibeta&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tibetama'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetat'''....''Tibetan'' || '''Tibetad'''....''Tibetan'' |- | '''Tunisyam'''....''Tunisia'' || '''Tunisya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Tunisyama'''....''Tunisian'' || '''Tunisyat'''....''Tunisian'' || -- |- | '''Turkam'''....''Turkey'' || '''Turka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Turkama'''....''Turkish'' || '''Turkat'''....''Turk'' || '''Turkad'''....''Turkish'' |- | '''Ugandam'''....''Uganda'' || '''Uganda&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ugandama'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandat'''....''Ugandan'' || '''Ugandad'''....''Ugandan'' |- | '''Ukraynam'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukrayna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Ukraynama'''....''Ukraine'' || '''Ukraynat'''....''Ukrainian'' || '''Ukraynyad'''....''Ukrainian'' |- | '''Urugwayam'''....''Uruguay'' || '''Urugwaya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Urugwayama'''....''Urugyuayan'' || '''Urugwayat'''....''Uruguayan'' || -- |- | '''Uzbekistanam'''....''Uzbekistan'' || '''Uzbeka&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Uzbekistana'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekat'''....''Uzbeki'' || '''Uzbekad'''....''Uzbeki'' |- | '''Vatikam'''....''Vatican State'' || '''Vatika&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vatikama'''....''Vatican'' || '''Vatikat'''....''Vatican'' || -- |- | '''Venezwelam'''....''Venezuela'' || '''Venezwela&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Venezwelama'''....''Venezuelan'' || '''Venezwelat'''....''Venezuelan'' || -- |- | '''Vyetnam'''....''Vietnam'' || '''Vyetna&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Vyetnama'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnat'''....''Viet'' || '''Vyetnad'''....''Vietnamese'' |- | '''Yemenam'''....''Yemen'' || '''Yemena&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Yemenama'''....''Yemeni'' || '''Yemanat'''....''Yemeni'' || -- |- | '''Welxam'''....''Wales'' || '''Welxa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Welxama'''....''Welsh'' || '''Welxat'''....''Welshman'' || '''Welxad'''....''Welsh'' |- | '''Zambyam'''....''Zambia'' || '''Zambya&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zambyama'''....''Zambian'' || '''Zambyat'''....''Zambian'' || -- |- | '''Amera Amerikam'''....''North America'' || '''Amera Amerikama'''....''North American'' || '''Amera Amerikat'''....''North American'' || -- |- | '''Amera Koream'''....''North Korea'' || '''Amera Korea / Amera Koreana'''....''North Korean'' || '''Amera Koreat'''....''North Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |- | '''Zayram'''....''Zaire'' || '''Zayra&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zayrama'''....''Zairian'' || '''Zayrat'''....''Zairian'' || -- |- | '''Zea Amerikam'''....''Central America'' || '''Zea Amerikama'''....''Central American'' || '''Zea Amerikat'''....''Central American'' || -- |- | '''Zimbabwam'''....''Zimbabwe'' || '''Zimbabwa&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;Zimbabwama'''....''Zimbabwean'' || '''Zimbabwat'''....''Zimbabwean'' || -- |- | '''Omera Afrikam'''....''South Africa'' || '''Omera Afrikama'''....''South African'' || '''Omera Afrikat'''....''South African'' || -- |- | '''Omera Koream'''....''South Korea'' || '''Omera Korea / Omira Koreama'''....''South Korean'' || '''Omera Koreat'''....''South Korean'' || '''Koread'''....''Korean'' |} </small> : Here are some languages not associated with any particular country name: :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romad'''....''Roma'' (Gypsy) :* '''Kurdad'''....''Kurdish'' :* '''Mirad'''....''Mirad'' (World Language) :* '''Umerad'''....''Martian'' :* '''Klingonad'''....''Klingon'' :* '''Esperantad'''....''Esperanto'' :* '''Arabad'''....''Arabic'' ::* '''Visauna Arabad'''....''Classical Arabic'' ::* '''Ejyena Egona Arabad'''....''Modern Standard Arabic, Fus'ha, MSA'' :* '''Hebrad'''....''Hebrew'' (but also: '''Israelad''') ::* '''Fyadyesa Hebrad'''....''Biblical Hebrew'' ::* '''Ajyena Hebrad'''....''ancient Hebrew'' ::* '''Visauna Hebrad'''....''Classical Hebrew'' :* '''Swahilad'''....''Swahili'' :* '''Romanxad'''....''Romansh'' :* '''Latinad'''....''Latin'' ::* '''Visauna Latinad'''....''Classical Latin'' ::* '''Vutyana Latinad'''....''Latin Vulgate, Vulgar Latin'' ::* '''Fyaxela Latinad'''....''Liturgical Latin'' :* '''Sanskitad'''....''Sanskrit'' :* '''Angla-Saksad'''....''Anglo-Saxon'' :* '''Persad'''....''Persian'' :* '''Prusyad'''....''Prussian'' :* '''Keltad'''....''Celtic'' :* '''Romansad'''....''Romance'' :* '''Baltad'''....''Baltic'' :* '''Aajna Hinda-Europad'''....''Proto-Indo-European'' :* '''Aajna-Slavad'''....''Proto-Slavic'' :* '''Ajyena Helenad'''....''Ancient Greek'' ::* '''Vyisina Helenad'''....''Katharevusa, Puristic Greek'' ::* '''Yasauna Helenad'''....''Demotic, Vulgar Greek'' ::* '''Ejyena Helenad'''....''Modern Greek'' : A book in Swahili would be called '''Swahilada dyen'''. : The Arab-speaking world would be expressed as either '''Arabada mir''' or, more specifically, '''Arabadalea mir'''. : The language nouns ending in '''-ad''' can be made into verbs with '''-adaler'''....''to speak language X'' and '''-ader'''....''to say/pronounce in language X'', as follows: :* '''Fransad'''....''French (language)'' ::*'''Fransadaler'''....''speak French'' :* '''Kinad'''....''Chinese'' ::* '''Kinadaler'''....''speak Chinese'' :* '''Anglad'''....''English'' ::* '''Anglader'''....''say in English, pronounce in English'' :* '''Duven et <u>Angladale</u>?'''....''Do you speak English?'' :* '''Et <u>Miradale</u> fi.'''....''You speak Mirad well.'' :* '''<u>Miradu</u> has.'''....''<u>Say</u> it <u>in Mirad</u>.'' : A ''speaker of Spanish'' would be '''Spanyadalut''', or more simply, '''Spanyadut'''. : Country adjectives that end in '''-ama''' can be reduced to '''-a''', espcially in country pairings like these: :* '''Kanad<u>ama</u>''' ::* '''Kanad<u>a</u>-Fransa vyeni'''....''Canadian-French relations'' === Cities and Their Residents === : Here are some key cities, their adjectival forms, and inhabitants. The adjective can end in '''-a''' or '''-yena'''. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Cities and Their Residents |- ! CITY !! ADJECTIVE !! INHABITANT |- | '''Paris'''....''Paris'' || '''Paris<u>yena</u>'''....''Parisian'' || '''Paris<u>at</u>'''....''Parisian'' |- | '''Nuyork'''....''New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>a</u>'''....''of New York'' || '''Nuyork<u>at</u>'''....''New Yorker'' |- | '''Roma (Dom)*'''....''Rome'' || '''Roma<u>yena</u>'''....''Roman'' || '''Roma Dom<u>at</u>'''....''Roman'' |- | '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>a</u>'''....''of Beijing'' || '''Beijing<u>at</u>'''....''resident of Beijing'' |- | '''Berlin'''....''Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>a</u>'''....''from Berlin'' || '''Berlin<u>at</u>'''....''Berliner'' |} : * <small>Without '''Dom'''....''City'', '''Roma''' could be confused with '''Roma'''....''of Romany, Gypsy''.</small> : Examples: :* '''Berlina diti dyunwe Berlinati.'''....''Berlin citizens are called Berliners.'' :* '''Bostonati ayse Bostonyena deus.'''....''Bostonians have a Bostonian accent.'' == Measurements == : Mirad uses the International System of Units|International System of Units (SI) for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet. Bear in mind that majuscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are spelled with the Mirad name preceded by '''hel''' (eg. ''alpha'', ''beta'', ''gamma'', etc. and if the latter are majuscules, they are similarly preceded with the word '''ag-'''. The Mirad pronunciation of the SI symbol for ''ohm'' (Ω) is '''aghelo'''. All metric units end in the word '''nak'''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !ENGLISH<br>UNIT<br>NAME !SYMBOLIC<br>ABBREVIATION !QUANTITY<br>UNIT !MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} : The hyphen in the above "spelled out" words ensure that each syllable gets even stress. : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''aghelonak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | B | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''agbanak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! ENGLISH<br>NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>WRITTEN<br>ABBREVIATION ! QUANTITY<br>UNIT ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heabak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |} : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! NAME ! SYMBOLIC<br>FORMULA ! DERIVED<br>QUANTITY ! TYPICAL <br>SYMBOL ! MIRAD<br>PRONUNCIATION |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gol-so-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''mi-gar-iwa-gol-kige''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aga-gol-mi''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''mioli-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kige-gol-mi-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''cada-gol-mi-gar-ewa''' |} : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). The SI symbol for ''b'' (byte) is pronounced '''ba''' in Mirad. A terabyte ( ''Tb'') is therefore pronounced '''ag-to-ba''', which This amounts ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | MACRO !! colspan=4 | MICRO |- ! BASE<br>10!! US/UK NAME!!MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX<br>....MIRAD PRON. !!SI SYMBOL !! BASE<br>10 !! (US/UK NAME) !! MIRAD PREFIX....SI PREFIX !! SI SYMBOL<br>....MIRAD PRON. |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' ... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yoon-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yaon-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yeon-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yion'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yuon'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alo-'''....''deca-'' || ''da''....'''da-a-''' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d''....'''da-''' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hexa-'' || ''h''....'''hi-''' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c''....'''ca-''' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k''....'''ki-''' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m''....'''mi-''' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M''....'''agmi-''' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r''....'''ro-''' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G''....'''agge-''' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n''....'''ni-''' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T''....'''agto-''' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p''....'''po-''' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''....'''agpo-'''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f''....'''fe-''' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''....'''age-'''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a''....'''a-''' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''....'''agzu-'''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z''....'''zu-''' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y''....'''agyu''' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y''....'''yu-''' |} : *Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION !! SYMBOL (EXPANSION) !! MIRAD PRONUNCIATION |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daage''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dage''' |- | ''hg'' (hexagram)|| '''hege''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cage''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''koge''' || ''mg'' (milligram) ||'''mige''' |- | ''Mg'' (megagram)|| '''agmige''' ||''rg'' or '''μg''' (microgram)|| '''roge''' or '''helmuge''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggege''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nige''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtoge''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''poge''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpoge''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fege''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agege''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''age''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''ag-ze-ge''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zege''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''ag-yu-ge''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yuge''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* '''10 kg2'''....(pronounced as:) ''alo koge gar ewa'' ::* '''12 mm3'''....(pronounced as:) ''ale mimi gar iwa'' === Age (Years) === : The word for ''age'' is '''jag'''. :* '''jag'''....''age'' :* '''jaga'''....''old'' ::* '''jagser'''....''get old, grow older'' ::* '''jagat'''....''old person, elder'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle-aged'' :::* '''zejagat'''....''middle-aged person'' ::* '''gajaga'''....''elder, older, senior'' :::* '''gajagat'''....''elder'' :::* '''gyajagat'''....''eldest'' ::* '''grejagat'''....''adult'' ::* '''grejagseat'''....''adolescent'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''minor, underaged person'' ::* '''alonijagat'''....''teenager'' ::* '''elonijagat'''....''twenty-year-old'' :* '''joga'''....''young'' ::* '''jogxer'''....''rejuvenate'' ::* '''jogat'''....''youth, youngster, young boy'' :::* '''jogayt'''....''young girl'' : The usual question about age is '''Hojaga et se?'''....''How old are you?'' : Some usual responses are: :* '''At se elo jaga.'''....''I am twenty years old.''&nbsp;&nbsp;(Lit: I am twenty aged.) :* '''At se ili jabi jaga.'''....''I am thirty-three years old.'' :* '''Hia tamaz se asoni bi jabi jaga.'''....''This castle is hundreds of years old.'' :* '''Hua tobot se anay ewa jubi jaga.'''....''That baby is only two days old.'' :* '''Iyt voy se ga jaba vyel at.'''....''She is not older than I.'' :* '''At se gwajagat bi ata tod.'''....''I am the eldest of my family.'' :* '''Hya alonijagati aso grejagseati.'''....''All teenagers will become adolescents.'' :* '''Hogla jubi jaga se hia tobot?'''....''How many days old is this child?'' == Words Ending in '''-yen''' (''manner'') == : The ending '''-yen''' is a stub for '''byen''', meaning ''way, manner'' and is used to form many different words, as the following chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ Words in -YEN |- ! BASE !! DERIVATION |- | '''b-'''....''gesture''|| '''byen'''....''manner'' |- |'''aot-'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''personality, character'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''|| '''fibyen'''....''courtesy'' |- |'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fubyen'''....''bad manners'' |- |'''nap'''....''order'' || '''napyen'''....''discipline'' |- | '''dit'''....''citizen'' || '''dityen'''....''civility'' |- |'''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubyen'''....''habit'' |- |'''yan'''....''together'' || '''yanbyen'''....''harmony'' |- |'''tyod'''....''people'' || '''tyodyen'''....''custom'' |- |'''s-'''....''be'' || '''syen'''....''style, mode'' |- |'''es-'''....''exist'' || '''esyen'''....''status'', '''ejesyen'''....''status quo'' |- |'''kis-'''....''lean'' || '''kisyen'''....''trend'' |- | '''dre-'''....''write'' || '''dresyen'''....''writing style'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''stratagy'' |- | '''tea-'''....''visual'' || '''teasyen'''....''aspect'', '''koteasyen'''....''guise'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tejsyen'''....''lifestyle'', '''tejyen'''...''way of life'' |- | '''jubdindref'''....''newspaper'' || '''jubdindrefsyen'''....''journalese'' |- |'''ut'''....''self'' || '''utsyen'''....''genre'' |- | '''ex-'''....''function'' || '''exyen'''....''method, modus operandi'' |- | '''vi-'''....''beautiful'' || '''visyen'''....''fashion'' |- | '''drir-'''....''print'' || '''drirsyen'''....''typeface'' |- | '''bas-'''....''move'' || '''basyen'''....''way of moving'' |- | '''dal-'''....''speak'' || '''dalyen'''....''idiom'' |- | '''tex-'''....''think'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''te-'''....''know'' || '''teyen'''....''idea'' |- | '''tye-'''....''know'' || '''tyen'''....''know-how, skill, craft, trade'' |- | '''mas'''....''wall'' || '''mastyen'''....''masonry'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''tomtyen'''....''architecture'' |- | '''x-'''....''do'' || '''xyen'''....''process, technique'' |- | '''yex-'''....''work'' || '''yexyen'''....''occupation, industry'' |- | '''yux'''....''help'' || '''yuxyen'''....''means'' |- | '''axl-'''....''act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''yanif-'''....''sew'' || '''yaniftyen'''....''couture'' |- | '''tep-'''....''mind'' || '''tepyen'''....''attitude'' |- | '''tuz-'''....''art'' || '''tuzyen'''....''technique, artistry, skill'' |- | '''dot-'''....''social'' || '''dotsyen'''....''civilization'' |- | '''tees-'''....''hear'' || '''teestyen'''....''acoustics'' |- | '''vidal-'''....''fine speak''|| '''vidalyen'''....''eloquence, rhetoric'' |- | '''maal-'''....''atmosphere'' || '''maalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''den-'''....''saying'' || '''denyen'''....''diction'' |- | '''ifek-'''....''play'' || '''ifekyen'''....''gamesmanship'' |- | '''des-'''....''pronounce'' || '''desyen'''....''accent'' |- | '''tapekut'''....''athlete'' || '''tapekutyen'''....''sportsmanship'' |} == Words Ending in '''-z''' (''something precious'')== : Words ending in '''-z''' refer to something '''''precious''''' or '''''refined,''''' as this chart shows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow" |+ -Z Words |- ! NORMAL WORD !! REFINED WORD |- | '''tun'''....''science'' || '''tuz'''....''art''<br>'''vituz'''....''fine art''<br>'''daltuz'''....''rhetoric'' |- | '''t-'''....''know'' || '''tez'''....''culture''<br>'''yobtez'''....''subculture'' |- | '''teub'''....''mouth'' || '''deuz'''....''song''<br>'''fadeuz'''....''hymn''<br>'''yegdeuz'''....''refrain''<br>'''seuz'''....''tone''<br>'''teuz'''....''voice''<br>'''zoyteuz'''....''echo''<br>'''teuboz'''....''smile''<br>'''videuz'''....''melody''<br>'''yandeuz'''....''harmony''<br>'''uvdeuz'''....''dirge''<br>'''ajdeuz'''....''ballad''<br>'''dudeuz'''....''antiphon''<br>'''ivdeuz'''....''carol''<br>'''yogdeuz'''....''ditty''<br>'''awatdeuz'''....''solo''<br>'''ewatdeuz'''....''duet''<br>'''fizdeuz'''....''anthem'' |- | '''fya-'''....''holy''<br>'''fyo-'''....''profane'' || '''fyaz'''....''miracle''<br>'''kofyaz'''....''magic''<br>'''fyoz'''....''witchcraft''<br>'''fyamaz'''....''halo'' |- | '''vos'''....''flower'' || '''voz'''....''color''<br>'''vooz'''....''tint''<br>'''voyz'''....''shade of color''<br>'''toz'''....''facial/hair color'' |- | '''nas'''....''money'' || '''naz'''....''value''<br>'''noz'''....''gem, jewel''<br>'''finaz'''....''merit'' |- | '''fi-'''....''good''<br>'''fu-'''....''bad'' || '''fiz'''....''honor''<br>'''utfiz'''....''dignity''<br>'''firz'''....''ideal''<br>'''fiyz'''....''respect''<br>'''agfiz'''....''glory''<br>'''fuz'''....''shame'' |- | '''d-'''....''communicate'' || '''daz'''....''dance''<br>'''dyaz'''....''opera''<br>'''dez'''....''theatre''<br>'''diz'''....''comedy''<br>'''duz'''....''music''<br>'''drez'''....''poetry''<br>'''dyez'''....''cinema'' |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''taz'''....''statue'' |- | '''san'''....''shape'' || '''saz'''....''sculpture'' |- | '''teb'''....''head'' || '''tebuz'''....''crown''<br>'''eytebuz'''....''diadem'' |- | '''teis'''....''smell'' || '''teiz'''....''perfume'' |- | '''tiab'''....''breast'' || '''tiabuz'''....''broche'' |- | '''teyob'''....''neck'' || '''teyobuz'''....''necklace'' |- | '''zetiub'''....''navel'' || '''zetiubuz'''....''belly button ring'' |- | '''meg'''....''stone'' || '''mez'''....''crystal'' |- | '''tel'''....''food'' || '''teluz'''....''taste'' |- | '''tuab'''....''arm'' || '''eytuabuz'''....''epaulette'' |- | '''tuyub'''....''finger'' || '''tuyubuz'''....''ring'' |- | '''sin'''....''picture'' || '''siz'''....''painting''<br>'''finsiz'''....''medal''<br>'''dresiz'''....''engraving'' |} <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Vocabulary Formation|Syntax}} 2lcz9epd7vmegw8ie2q44f6po6m2kh7 0 424283 4095687 3825963 2022-08-24T06:21:17Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki The design of control laws for [[Control Systems/MIMO Systems|MIMO systems]] are more extensive in comparison to SISO systems because the additional inputs (<math>q > 1</math>) offer more options like defining the Eigenvectors or handling the activity of inputs. This also means that the feedback matrix ''K'' for a set of desired Eigenvalues of the closed-loop system is '''not unique'''. All presented methods have advantages, disadvantages and certain limitations. This means not all methods can be applied on every possible system and it is important to check which method could be applied on the own considered problem. = Parametric State Feedback = A simple approach to find the feedback matrix ''K'' can be derived via parametric state feedback (in German: ''vollständige modale Synthese''). A MIMO system :<math>\dot{x}(t) = A x(t) + B u(t)</math> with input vector :<math> u(t) = (u_{1}(t), u_{2}(t), \cdots, u_{q}(t)) = -K ~ x(t) </math> input matrix <math> B \in \mathbb{R}^{p \times q} </math> and feedback matrix <math> K \in \mathbb{R}^{q \times p} </math> is considered. The Eigenvalue problem of the closed-loop system :<math>\dot{x}(t) = (A - B~K) ~ x(t) = A_{CL} ~ x(t)</math> is noted as :<math>A_{CL} ~ \tilde{v}_{i} = (A - B~K) ~ \tilde{v}_{i} = \tilde{\lambda}_{i} ~ \tilde{v}_{i} </math> where <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{i} \in \mathbb{C} </math> denote the assigned Eigenvalues and <math>\tilde{v}_{i} \in \mathbb{C}^{p}</math> denote the Eigenvectors of the closed-loop system. Next, new parameter vectors <math> \phi_{i} = K \tilde{v}_{i} </math> are introduced and assigned and the Eigenvalue problem is recasted as {{eqn|1}} :<math> B~K ~ \tilde{v}_{i} = B ~ \phi_{i} = (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{i} ~ I) ~ \tilde{v}_{i}. </math> == Controller synthesis == 1. From Equation [1] one defines the '''Eigenvector''' with :<math> \tilde{v}_{i} = (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{i} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{i} </math> 2. The new parameter vectors <math> \phi_{i} </math> are concatenated as :<math> \Phi = [\phi_{1}, \phi_{2}, \cdots, \phi_{p}] = K [\tilde{v}_{1}, \tilde{v}_{2}, \cdots, \tilde{v}_{p}], </math> where the '''feedback matrix''' ''K'' can be noted as :<math> K = \Phi ~ [\tilde{v}_{1}, \tilde{v}_{2}, \cdots, \tilde{v}_{p}]^{-1}. </math> 3. Finally, the Eigenvector definition is used to hold the full description of the '''feedback matrix''' with :<math> K = [\phi_{1}, \phi_{2}, \cdots, \phi_{p}] ~ [(A - \tilde{\lambda}_{1} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{1}, \cdots, (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{p} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{p}]^{-1}. </math> The parameter vectors are defined arbitrarily but have to be linear independent. == Example == {{TextBox|1=Consider the dynamical system :<math> \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}_{1}(t) \\ \dot{x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 3 & 1 \\ 4 & 3 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} {x}_{1}(t) \\ {x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} + \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} u_{1}(t) \\ u_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} </math> which is unstable due to positive Eigenvalues <math>\lambda_{i} \in \{1, 5\}</math>. A feedback matrix ''K'' should be found to reach a stable closed-loop system with Eigenvalues <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{1} =-4, \tilde{\lambda}_{2} =-2</math>. 1. The parameter vectors are defined as <math>\phi_{1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1\\ 0 \end{bmatrix}</math> and <math>\phi_{2} = \begin{bmatrix} 0\\ 1\end{bmatrix}</math> 2. The resulting Eigenvectors are :<math> \tilde{v}_{1} = (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{1} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{1} = \left( \begin{bmatrix} 3 & 1 \\ 4 & 3 \end{bmatrix} - \begin{bmatrix} -4 & 0 \\ 0 & -4 \end{bmatrix} \right)^{-1} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \end{bmatrix} \approx \begin{bmatrix} 0.09 \\ 0.38 \end{bmatrix} </math> and :<math> \tilde{v}_{2} = (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{2} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{2} = \left( \begin{bmatrix} 3 & 1 \\ 4 & 3 \end{bmatrix} - \begin{bmatrix} -2 & 0 \\ 0 & -2 \end{bmatrix} \right)^{-1} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix} \approx \begin{bmatrix} 0.29 \\ 0.57 \end{bmatrix}. </math> 3. The feedback matrix is calculated with :<math> K = [\phi_{1}, \phi_{2}] ~ [(A - \tilde{\lambda}_{1} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{1}, (A - \tilde{\lambda}_{2} ~ I)^{-1} ~ B ~ \phi_{2}]^{-1} \approx \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} 0.09 & 0.29 \\ 0.38 & 0.57 \end{bmatrix}^{-1} \approx \begin{bmatrix} -9.68 & 4.92 \\ 6.45 & -1.53 \end{bmatrix}. </math> More precise rounding leads to a feedback matrix :<math> K = \begin{bmatrix} -10 & 5 \\ 6.6\overline{1} & -1.5\overline{5} \end{bmatrix} </math> }} = Singular Value Decomposition and Diagonalization = If the state matrix <math>A \in \mathbb{R}^{p \times p}</math> of system :<math>\dot{x}(t) = A ~ x(t) + B ~ u(t)</math> is diagonalizable, which means the number of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors are equal, then the transform :<math> x = M ~ x_{M} </math> can be used to yield :<math> M ~ \dot{x}_{M}(t) = A M ~ x_{M}(t) + B ~ u(t)</math> and further :<math> \dot{x}_{M}(t) = M^{-1} A M ~ x_{M}(t) + M^{-1} ~ B ~ u(t).</math> Transformation matrix ''M'' contains the Eigenvectors <math>v_{i} \in \mathbb{C}^{p}</math> as :<math> M = [v_{1}, v_{2}, \cdots, v_{p}]</math> which leads to a new diagonal state matrix :<math>A_{M} = M^{-1} ~ A ~ M = \begin{bmatrix} \lambda_{1} \\ & \lambda_{2} \\ & & \ddots \\ & & & \lambda_{p} \end{bmatrix} </math> consisting of Eigenvalues <math>\lambda_{i} \in \mathbb{C}</math>, and new input :<math> u_{M}(t) = M^{-1} ~ B ~ u(t) = \begin{bmatrix} u_{M,1} \\ u_{M,2} \\ \cdots \\ u_{M,p} \end{bmatrix}.</math> The control law for the new input <math>u_{M}</math> is designed as :<math>u_{M}(t) = -K_{M} x_{M}(t) = - \begin{bmatrix} K_{M,1} \\ & K_{M,2} \\ & & \ddots \\ & & & K_{M,p} \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} x_{M,1}(t) \\ x_{M,2}(t) \\ \cdots \\ x_{M,p}(t) \end{bmatrix} </math> and the closed-loop system in new coordinates is noted as :<math> \dot{x}_{M}(t) = A_{M} ~ x_{M}(t) + u_{M}(t) = (A_{M} - K_{M}) ~ x_{M}(t) = \begin{bmatrix} \lambda_{1} - K_{M,1} \\ & \lambda_{2} - K_{M,2} \\ & & \ddots \\ & & & \lambda_{p} - K_{M,p} \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} x_{M,1}(t) \\ x_{M,2}(t) \\ \cdots \\ x_{M,p}(t) \end{bmatrix} </math> Feedback matrix <math>K_{M}</math> can be used to influence or shift each Eigenvalue directly. In the last step, the new input is transformed backwards to original coordinates to yield the original feedback matrix ''K''. The new input is defined by :<math>u_{M}(t) = M^{-1} ~ B ~ u(t) </math> and :<math>u_{M}(t) = -K_{M} ~ x_{M}(t) = -K_{M} ~ M^{-1} ~ x(t).</math> From these formulas one gains the identity :<math> M^{-1} ~ B ~ u(t) = -K_{M} ~ M^{-1} ~ x(t) </math> and further :<math> u(t) = - B^{-1} ~ M ~ K_{M} ~ M^{-1} ~ x(t) = - K ~ x(t).</math> Therefore, the feedback matrix is found as :<math>K = B^{-1} ~ M ~ K_{M} ~ M^{-1}. </math> == Requirements == This controller design is applicable only if the following requirements are guaranteed. * State matrix ''A'' is [[w: Diagonalizable matrix|diagonalizable]]. * The number of states and inputs are equal <math>p=q</math>. * Input matrix <math>B \in \mathbb{R}^{p \times p}</math> is invertible. == Example == {{TextBox|1=Consider the dynamical system :<math> \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}_{1}(t) \\ \dot{x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} {x}_{1}(t) \\ {x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} + \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} u_{1}(t) \\ u_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} </math> which is unstable due to positive Eigenvalues <math>\lambda_{i} \in \{1, 3\}</math>. The Eigenvectors are :<math> \tilde{v}_{1} = \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\\ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \end{bmatrix} </math> and :<math> \tilde{v}_{2} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\\ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \end{bmatrix}. </math> Thus, the transformation matrix is noted as :<math> M = \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \\ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \end{bmatrix} </math> and the state matrix in new coordinates is derived as :<math> A_{M} = M^{-1} ~ A ~ M = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 3 \end{bmatrix}. </math> The desired Eigenvalues of the closed-loop system are <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{1} = -5</math> and <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{2} = -1</math>, so feedback matrix is found with :<math> \lambda_{1} - K_{M,1} = 1 - K_{M,1} = \tilde{\lambda}_{1} = -5 \quad \Rightarrow K_{M,1} = 1 + 5 = 6 </math> and :<math> \lambda_{2} - K_{M,2} = 3 - K_{M,1} = \tilde{\lambda}_{2} = -1 \quad \Rightarrow K_{M,2} = 3 + 1 = 4 </math> and thus one holds :<math> K_{M} = \begin{bmatrix} 6 & 0 \\ 0 & 4 \\ \end{bmatrix}. </math> Finally, the feedback matrix in original coordinates are calculated by :<math>K = B^{-1} ~ M ~ K_{M} ~ M^{-1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \end{bmatrix}^{-1} ~ \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \\ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} 6 & 0 \\ 0 & 4 \\ \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \\ \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} & \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} \end{bmatrix}^{-1} = \frac{1}{3} \begin{bmatrix} -7 & 11 \\ 11 & -7 \\ \end{bmatrix} .</math> }} = Sylvester Equation = This method is taken from the online resource * KU Leuven: [https://homes.esat.kuleuven.be/~maapc/static/files/CACSD/Slides/chapter3.pdf Chapter 3: State Feedback - Pole Placement (PDF, 308,5 kB)]. Consider the closed-loop system :<math>\dot{x}(t) = A ~ x(t) + B ~ u(t) = (A - B ~ K) ~ x(t) = A_{CL} ~ x(t) </math> with input <math> u(t) = -K ~ x(t) </math> and closed-loop state matrix <math>A_{CL}=A - B ~ K</math>. The desired closed-loop Eigenvalues <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{i} \in \mathbb{C}</math> can be chosen real- or complex-valued as <math> \tilde{\lambda}_{i} = \alpha_{i} \pm j \beta_{i} </math> and the matrix of the desired Eigenvalues is noted as :<math>\Lambda = \begin{bmatrix} \alpha_{1} & \beta_{1} \\ -\beta_{1} & \alpha_{1} \\ & & \ddots \\ & & & \tilde{\lambda}_{i} \\ & & & & \ddots \end{bmatrix} </math> The closed-loop state matrix <math>A_{CL}</math> has to be similar to <math>\Lambda</math> as :<math> A_{CL} = A - B~K \sim \Lambda </math> which means that there exists a transformation matrix <math>M \in \mathbb{R}^{p \times p} </math> such that :<math> M^{-1}~A_{CL}~M = M^{-1} ~(A - B~K)~M = \Lambda </math> holds and further {{eqn|2}} :<math> A~M - M~\Lambda = B~K~M.</math> An arbitrary Matrix <math>G = K~M</math> is introduced and Equation [2] is separated in a Sylvester equation {{eqn|Sylvester}} :<math> A~M - M~\Lambda = B~G</math> and a feedback matrix formula :<math> K = G ~ M^{-1}.</math> == Algorithm == 1. Choose an arbitrary matrix <math>G \in \mathbb{R}^{q \times p}</math>. 2. Solve the Sylvester equation for ''M'' (numerically). 3. Calculate the feedback matrix ''K''. == Remarks == * State matrix ''A'' and the negative Eigenvalue matrix <math>-\Lambda</math> shall not have common Eigenvalues. * For some choices of ''G'' the computation could fail. Then another ''G'' has to be chosen. == Example == {{TextBox|1=Consider the dynamical system :<math> \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}_{1}(t) \\ \dot{x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} {x}_{1}(t) \\ {x}_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} + \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} u_{1}(t) \\ u_{2}(t) \end{bmatrix} </math> which is unstable due to positive Eigenvalues <math>\lambda_{i} \in \{1, 3\}</math>. The complex-valued Eigenvalues <math>\tilde{\lambda}_{1,2} = -2 \pm 1j</math> are desired for the closed-loop system. So, the eigenvalue matrix is noted as :<math> \Lambda = \begin{bmatrix} -2 & 1 \\ -1 & -2 \end{bmatrix}. </math> Matrix ''G'' is chosen as :<math> G = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}.</math> and Sylvester equation :<math> A~M - M~\Lambda = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 \end{bmatrix}~M - M~ \begin{bmatrix} -2 & 1 \\ -1 & -2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 1 \end{bmatrix} =B~G </math> is noted. The Sylvester equation is solved numerically and the transformation matrix is computed as :<math> M = \begin{bmatrix} 0.0307692 & 0.446154 \\ 0.430769 & 0.246154 \end{bmatrix}. </math> Finally, the feedback matrix is found as :<math> K = G ~ M^{-1} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} ~ \begin{bmatrix} 0.0307692 & 0.446154 \\ 0.430769 & 0.246154 \end{bmatrix}^{-1} = \frac{1}{3} \begin{bmatrix} -4 & 7.25 \\ 7 & -0.5 \end{bmatrix}. </math> }} {{Control Systems/Nav|Standard Forms|Realizations}} {{BookCat}} d60znqzxqoiyb7qymtau42t5sc0f7oq 0 424597 4095689 3834751 2022-08-24T06:22:34Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki The Blue Cross Blue Shield Association (BCBSA) is a large 501(c)(4) public welfare organization formed under the merger of Blue Cross and Blue Shield in 1982 [1]. BCBSA is an entity composed of 35 distinct health insurance companies in the United States.<ref name="d1">Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota. (2021). Our story. https://www.bluecrossmn.com/about-us/our-story#:~:text=We%20are%20a%20nonprofit%20Minnesota,the%20lowest%20in%20the%20country.</ref> In 2018 Tom Yardic, a [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Information_Technology/Cybersecurity./ cybersecurity] engineer at BCBS of Minnesota, raised internal concerns about critical [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Information_Technology/Cybersecurity#Common_Vulnerabilities./ vulnerabilities] discovered on company servers. <ref name="d2">Steve Alder (2019). Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota Starts Correcting 200,000 Critical and Severe Vulnerabilities. https://www.hipaajournal.com/blue-cross-blue-shield-of-minnesota-starts-correcting-200000-critical-and-severe-vulnerabilities/.</ref> Over 200,000 critical vulnerabilities were detected, which infiltrated over 2000 separate servers. Some of the earliest threats dated back to 2010, and more than half of them existed for more than three years. <ref name="d2">Steve Alder (2019). Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota Starts Correcting 200,000 Critical and Severe Vulnerabilities. https://www.hipaajournal.com/blue-cross-blue-shield-of-minnesota-starts-correcting-200000-critical-and-severe-vulnerabilities/.</ref> This ongoing problem heightened the risk for clients at BCBS of Minnesota. While BCBS of Minnesota is only a chapter of the national BCBSA, they still insure an mighty 3.9 million clients.<ref name="d3">Sarah Coble (2019). BBlueCross BlueShield Whistleblower Warns of Cybersecurity. Vulnerabilities. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blue-cross-blue-shield/.</ref> The insured contracts hold a monetary value of approximately 6 billion dollars. New cloud-based healthcare innovations have emerged in the past few years and increased physicians' efficiency, thus allowing more patients to be served per medical practice.<ref name="d3">Sarah Coble (2019). BBlueCross BlueShield Whistleblower Warns of Cybersecurity. Vulnerabilities. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blue-cross-blue-shield/.</ref> However, vulnerabilities in these systems can lead to potential medical fraud and other leaks. In September of 2019 his team had still ignored his requests to install software patches. Since BCBS had failed to adequately address the detected vulnerabilities, Yardic escalated the issue by emailing the CEO and Board of Trustees explaining how severe the issue was on September 16th. <ref name="d2">Steve Alder (2019). Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota Starts Correcting 200,000 Critical and Severe Vulnerabilities. https://www.hipaajournal.com/blue-cross-blue-shield-of-minnesota-starts-correcting-200000-critical-and-severe-vulnerabilities/.</ref> “I am sending this e-mail because I have been unable to impact the situation within the avenues the organization provides,” wrote Yardic. “What has not happened is a serious attempt to remedy the situation.”<ref name="d3">Sarah Coble (2019). BBlueCross BlueShield Whistleblower Warns of Cybersecurity. Vulnerabilities. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blue-cross-blue-shield/.</ref> Yardic ultimately left BCBS to continue his career as a process improvement consultant, but not before he confirmed the issues would be addressed. In December of 2019 BSBS released a statement from its IT security officer highlighting their dedication to cybersecurity only days before their systems' flaws were made public in local news.<ref name="d3">Sarah Coble (2019). BBlueCross BlueShield Whistleblower Warns of Cybersecurity. Vulnerabilities. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blue-cross-blue-shield/.</ref> The company dedicated time in 2020 to repairing and patching these expansive exposures. Yardic's conduct exemplified [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professionalism./ professionalism], while also highlighting broader cybersecurity issues occurring within [[w:Anthem medical data breach| other BCBS entities]].<ref name="d3">Sarah Coble (2019). BBlueCross BlueShield Whistleblower Warns of Cybersecurity. Vulnerabilities. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blue-cross-blue-shield/.</ref> == Background Information == === Blue Cross Blue Shield Association === [[File:Blue Shield of California logo.png|thumb|One of the 35 companies that comprise the BCBSA]] The [[w:Blue Cross Blue Shield| Blue Cross Blue Shield Association]] is a federation of United States Health Insurance companies that insure a third of all Americans. Its 35 component companies operate on either a state or regional levels, they also vary in their status as either non-profit or for-profit enterprises. The Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota is classified as a single-state, not-for-profit company. <ref name="d1">Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota. (2021). Our story. https://www.bluecrossmn.com/about-us/our-story#:~:text=We%20are%20a%20nonprofit%20Minnesota,the%20lowest%20in%20the%20country.</ref> === Relevant Cyber Security Concepts === ==== Vulnerabilities and Patching ==== A [[w:Vulnerability (computing)| vulnerability]] in software terms is a weakness which can be exploited by a cyber attacker to gain unauthorized access to or perform unauthorized actions on a computer system. Vulnerabilities can come from a multitude of sources and vary in how difficult and time consuming they are to address. Vulnerabilities are addressed through the patching process. A [[w:Patch (computing)|patch]] in programming terms is an update that fixes vulnerabilities and other problems within software. While patching seems straightforward, a company must make some considerations beforehand. It can take hours for a company to implement a patch to their software systems, which translates to lost revenue. So in response many companies patch very infrequently to reduce the impact on normal business operations. Patching less frequently has its risks, in a survey of companies affected by data breaches, 60% of them knew about the vulnerability that would go on to become a data breach before it had occurred, but for whatever reason did not patch it beforehand.<ref>Carlson, J. (2019, December 15). Minnesota Blue Cross scrambles to boost cyberdefenses. https://www.startribune.com/minnesota-blue-cross-scrambles-to-boost-cyber-defenses/566184041/?refresh=true</ref> ==== Phishing ==== [[w:Phishing|Phishing]] attacks come in the form of fabricated emails meant to trick the receiver into giving up sensitive login information, which bad-actors and hostile organizations use to access private data. === Prior Breaches === There are other examples examples of customer information breaches that happened in the U.S. prior to Tom Yardic's professional incident. ==== Equifax ==== In 2017, the credit bureau Equifax back in 2017 had an [[w:2017 Equifax data breach|information breach]]. The cause of the breach was a third-party software vulnerability that was already patched, however the patch was not implemented on Equifax’s servers, leading to one of the largest cyber-crimes involving identity theft to date, 148 million members were affected. Equifax had been warned 2 months before the breach of the exploit, but still chose not to patch it.<ref>EPIC (2017). Equifax Data Breach. https://epic.org/privacy/data-breach/equifax/</ref> ==== Anthem and Idaho Blue Cross ==== In 2015, Anthem, another company of the BCBSA from 2015 experienced a [[w:Anthem medical data breach|breach]]. The cause of the breach was a phishing attack that allowed hackers to steal a database admin’s login credentials and get access to customer’s private data. The data included name, date of birth, income data and social security numbers, 79 million customers were affected.<ref>California Department of Insurance (2015). Anthem Data Breach. https://www.insurance.ca.gov/0400-news/0100-press-releases/anthemcyberattack.cfm</ref> Similarly, in 2019, at the Idaho Blue Cross, there was a breach also caused by phishing that allowed hackers to gain access to customer data including patient names, account numbers and payment data, 55,000 members were affected.<ref>Davis, J. (2019, April 16). Hackers Breach Blue Cross of Idaho Provider Portal in Fraud Attempt. https://healthitsecurity.com/news/hackers-breach-blue-cross-of-idaho-provider-portal-in-fraud-attempt</ref> == Related Professionalism Case == {{w|Dan Applegate}} was the director of product engineering for Convair jet planes. Applegate was aware of safety threats concerning the cargo door latching system, and expressed his concern for the planes safe operation. After management had failed to fix the problem, Applegate did not expose the company's awful decision. Applegate's failure to alert the public about the company's faulty plane permitted a fully boarded plane to crash outside of Paris, which killed 346 passengers on the flight. While aviation and cybersecurity are two separate industries, both cases demonstrate corporate negligence. An uninvolved professional with unique experience in risk management and control objectives of technology was interviewed to explain the significance of Yardic's case. <ref name="d4"> Bruce Sussman (2019). Cybersecurity Engineer Turns Whistleblower: What We Know Right Now. https://www.bluecrossmn.com/about-us/our-story#:~:text=We%20are%20a%20nonprofit%20Minnesota,the%20lowest%20in%20the%20country.</ref> He explained "Information is the most critical asset in healthcare today, and to keep it on systems that are not up to date and protected is negligent."<ref name="d4"> Bruce Sussman (2019). Cybersecurity Engineer Turns Whistleblower: What We Know Right Now. https://www.bluecrossmn.com/about-us/our-story#:~:text=We%20are%20a%20nonprofit%20Minnesota,the%20lowest%20in%20the%20country.</ref> Yardic's decision to alert executives at BCBSA saved millions of people's sensitive medical data. He exemplified professionalism by putting the safety of others before his career. == Case Results == Major results of this case include a new privacy protection law being proposed in Minnesota to prevent future breaches of sensitive data as well as corporate changes within BCBS to strengthen their system against future attacks. The governor of Minnesota, Tim Walz, has proposed that the Minnesota legislature adopt a uniform law on insurance privacy security.<ref name=":0">Carlson, J. (2019, December 20). ''New data-privacy law proposed for Minnesota insurers''. Star Tribune. <nowiki>https://www.startribune.com/new-data-privacy-law-proposed-for-minnesota-insurers/566383512/</nowiki></ref> This law was written by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) and has currently been adopted by eight states.<ref name=":0" /> The goal is to have all states adopt this legislation so that sensitive patient information is protected uniformly across the nation. This law would enable the state Commerce Department to investigate breaches of patient information at insurance companies as well as require that insurance companies notify the state about breaches they find in their systems.<ref name=":0" /> The end result will be better protected patient information systems due to increased accountability. Outside of pending legislation, BCBS has taken voluntary steps to improve their system’s integrity to prevent future embarrassing breaches of patient data.<ref name=":1">McGee, M. (2019, December 16). ''Insurer Races to Fix Security Flaws After Whistleblower Alert''. Bank Info Security. <nowiki>https://www.bankinfosecurity.com/insurer-races-to-fix-security-flaws-after-whistleblower-alert-a-13508</nowiki></ref> This current breach was a result of failure to take the time needed to patch up the system. Now BCBS is dedicating time and resources to patching up those vulnerabilities in the system to prevent another breach, essentially doing what Yardic advised in the first place.<ref name=":1" /> This new corporate strategy of taking system security more seriously should help ensure the integrity of sensitive patient data going forward. == Conclusion == In conclusion, it can be seen that Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota was negligent in refusing to patch up their network. They put profits above patient privacy in not dedicating the time and resources to fix the substantial vulnerabilities in their system as identified by Tom Yardic. Although hackers did illegally break into the BCBS system and unlawfully access privileged patient data, it is clear that insurance companies responsible for holding said patient data should be held accountable for its protection. Thus, the proposed law in Minnesota to ensure accountability of insurance companies through government oversight should be passed by the state legislature to reduce the risk of more sensitive patient data being breached. Also, all insurance companies should follow BCBS’s strategy in voluntarily improving their systems by investing more time in patching than they had previously done. Between the new proposed law and internal corporate changes, the state and private insurance companies will work in tandem to prevent future data breaches, thus protecting the privacy of the patients that the companies insure. Unfortunately, there are many other instances of data breaches outside of the insurance world, some just as damaging as revealing private medical information. Oftentimes, like in the case of BCBS of Minnesota, warning signs are present and employees within the company blow the whistle to higher-ups about vulnerabilities in their system. All too often, these warnings go on deaf ears. Authors of future ethics cases should study similar whistleblowing cases outside the insurance industry, particularly in relation to data breaches. They should investigate the warning signs of vulnerabilities in the system before breaches actually occur and see if the breach should ultimately be found to have been due to the negligence of management and other responsible parties within the breached organization. ==References== <references /> {{BookCat}} m91royeejpe3iq11dnp7u5qchhpocqb 0 425981 4095623 4094604 2022-08-24T04:40:59Z 174.21.122.118 /* Luigi */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} ==Unlocking Secret Characters== There are a total of eleven secret characters to unlock. Each character has two ways to be unlocked; one way is unique while the other involves you playing a certain number of Versus Mode matches. You can unlock any character by doing either; you don't have to do both. Special Mode and quitted matches don't add up to your VS Mode match total. The secret characters are listed in order of how many VS. Mode matches it takes to unlock them. To view how many VS. Mode matches you've completed, go to ''Data: Melee Records: Misc. Records''. In the seventh row will be "''VS. Play Match Total''." === Jigglypuff === Jigglypuff is the first character you'd unlock in the original [[w:Super Smash Bros.|Super Smash Bros]], and will probably be the first one you'll unlock in this game. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode once with any character with or without using a continue. * Play 50 Versus Mode matches. === Dr. Mario === Dr. Mario is an almost exact clone of Mario, but because he's so easy to unlock you probably won't be bothered too much by that. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with Mario without using a continue. However if you don't have Jigglypuff unlocked already, doing so will unlock her first, and you'll have to do it again to unlock Dr. Mario. * Play 100 Versus Mode matches. === Pichu === Pichu is possibly one of the weakest characters in the game and is a clone of Pikachu. It takes a lot of effort to unlock it the unique way, so doing the considerably easier VS. Mode mission may be preferred for such a weak character. *Clear Event Match #37: ''Legendary Pokémon''. Note that to even reach this event match, you'll have to complete all 30 previous event matches and have Jigglypuff, Falco, Young Link and Luigi already unlocked. *Play 200 Versus Mode matches. === Falco === Falco is a clone of Fox, with some important differences (including the difference in speeds, lasers, reflector properties, and distance gained by recoveries). *Clear the 100-Man Melee with any character. *Play 300 Versus Mode matches. === Marth === Marth is a character from the previously Japanese-only series ''Fire Emblem''. All his moves involve his sword (except his grabs) and he speaks Japanese. * Use all fourteen of the initial non-secret characters in Versus Mode at least once. * Play 400 Versus Mode matches. === Young Link === Young Link is unsurprisingly a clone of Link, except slightly more agile and less powerful. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with ten different characters. Winning with Link and Zelda/Sheik may be needed as well, but that is unverified. * Play 500 Versus Mode matches. === Ganondorf === Ganondorf is very slow and powerful, but otherwise he is a clone of Capt. Falcon. He is the only clone to not be part of the same series as the one he is cloned from. He is connected to the Legend of Zelda cast by being one square above Young Link, making him the only character to be joined to his party by columns. * Clear Event Match #29: ''Triforce Gathering'', which features Ganondorf. * Play 600 Versus Mode matches. === Mewtwo === Mewtwo is thankfully a very unique character. His telekinetic powers make for some interesting fights, and he will be worth the time necessary to unlock him. * Play a total 20 hours of Versus Mode, or play a total of 20 hours of Single Player Mode. To see how long you've played VS. Matches, go to ''Data: Melee Records: Misc. Records''. In the fifth row will be "''VS. Play Time''." * Play 700 Versus Mode matches. Note: With four people playing, only five hours of play time are required because each player's play time is added to the total. Therefore, theoretically, it is possible to battle three other people in a five-hour battle and still unlock Mewtwo. Also, it is important to realize that only time spent battling counts toward play time. === Luigi === At first glance, Luigi may seem like a mere clone of Mario, but any advanced player will learn how unique he really is. In the character selection screen, Luigi --when he is unlocked-- takes Pikachu's place and joins all his Mario Bros. buddies (including Mario, Peach, Bowser, and Dr. Mario). (Pikachu is the only Pokémon which is available from the start. It initially appears after Mario --at the start-- but moves to the bottom row when Luigi is unlocked.) After Luigi joins his Mario universe buddies, Pikachu travels down to the bottom row to join the other Pokémon. * Fight him in the ''Mushroom Kingdom'' stage of Adventure Mode. To do this, you must finish Part 1 of the ''Mushroom Kingdom'' stage with the last large number of the time limit being a '''2'''. For example, 1:5'''2''':<small>48</small>. This will make him replace Mario in the following fight. Then complete the Adventure Mode without using a continue. * Play 800 Versus Mode matches. === Roy === Roy is a clone of Marth, but with a few differences, the most obvious of which is how his sword burns his opponents. He is quite easy to unlock after you get Marth. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with Marth without using a continue. However if you don't have Jigglypuff unlocked already, doing so will unlock her first, and you'll have to do it again to unlock Roy. * Play 900 Versus Mode matches. === Mr. Game & Watch === Mr. Game & Watch is based on the entire Game & Watch series and is considered the final secret character in the game, as there is no way to unlock him without first unlocking all other characters. Once you get him, you'll be able to easily earn his stage. * Complete Classic Mode, Adventure Mode or Target Test with all other 24 characters. * Play 1,000 Versus Mode matches. {{BookCat}} rcnne5b2505bt7pryhwarpytv2iihgm 4095625 4095623 2022-08-24T04:41:31Z 174.21.122.118 /* Luigi */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} ==Unlocking Secret Characters== There are a total of eleven secret characters to unlock. Each character has two ways to be unlocked; one way is unique while the other involves you playing a certain number of Versus Mode matches. You can unlock any character by doing either; you don't have to do both. Special Mode and quitted matches don't add up to your VS Mode match total. The secret characters are listed in order of how many VS. Mode matches it takes to unlock them. To view how many VS. Mode matches you've completed, go to ''Data: Melee Records: Misc. Records''. In the seventh row will be "''VS. Play Match Total''." === Jigglypuff === Jigglypuff is the first character you'd unlock in the original [[w:Super Smash Bros.|Super Smash Bros]], and will probably be the first one you'll unlock in this game. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode once with any character with or without using a continue. * Play 50 Versus Mode matches. === Dr. Mario === Dr. Mario is an almost exact clone of Mario, but because he's so easy to unlock you probably won't be bothered too much by that. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with Mario without using a continue. However if you don't have Jigglypuff unlocked already, doing so will unlock her first, and you'll have to do it again to unlock Dr. Mario. * Play 100 Versus Mode matches. === Pichu === Pichu is possibly one of the weakest characters in the game and is a clone of Pikachu. It takes a lot of effort to unlock it the unique way, so doing the considerably easier VS. Mode mission may be preferred for such a weak character. *Clear Event Match #37: ''Legendary Pokémon''. Note that to even reach this event match, you'll have to complete all 30 previous event matches and have Jigglypuff, Falco, Young Link and Luigi already unlocked. *Play 200 Versus Mode matches. === Falco === Falco is a clone of Fox, with some important differences (including the difference in speeds, lasers, reflector properties, and distance gained by recoveries). *Clear the 100-Man Melee with any character. *Play 300 Versus Mode matches. === Marth === Marth is a character from the previously Japanese-only series ''Fire Emblem''. All his moves involve his sword (except his grabs) and he speaks Japanese. * Use all fourteen of the initial non-secret characters in Versus Mode at least once. * Play 400 Versus Mode matches. === Young Link === Young Link is unsurprisingly a clone of Link, except slightly more agile and less powerful. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with ten different characters. Winning with Link and Zelda/Sheik may be needed as well, but that is unverified. * Play 500 Versus Mode matches. === Ganondorf === Ganondorf is very slow and powerful, but otherwise he is a clone of Capt. Falcon. He is the only clone to not be part of the same series as the one he is cloned from. He is connected to the Legend of Zelda cast by being one square above Young Link, making him the only character to be joined to his party by columns. * Clear Event Match #29: ''Triforce Gathering'', which features Ganondorf. * Play 600 Versus Mode matches. === Mewtwo === Mewtwo is thankfully a very unique character. His telekinetic powers make for some interesting fights, and he will be worth the time necessary to unlock him. * Play a total 20 hours of Versus Mode, or play a total of 20 hours of Single Player Mode. To see how long you've played VS. Matches, go to ''Data: Melee Records: Misc. Records''. In the fifth row will be "''VS. Play Time''." * Play 700 Versus Mode matches. Note: With four people playing, only five hours of play time are required because each player's play time is added to the total. Therefore, theoretically, it is possible to battle three other people in a five-hour battle and still unlock Mewtwo. Also, it is important to realize that only time spent battling counts toward play time. === Luigi === At first glance, Luigi may seem like a mere clone of Mario, but any advanced player will learn how unique he really is. In the character selection screen, Luigi --when he is unlocked-- takes Pikachu's place and joins all his Mario Bros. buddies (including Mario, Peach, Bowser, and Dr. Mario). (Pikachu is the only Pokémon which is available from the start. It initially appears after Mario --at the start-- but moves to the bottom row when Luigi is unlocked.) After Luigi joins his Mario buddies, Pikachu travels down to the bottom row to join the other Pokémon. * Fight him in the ''Mushroom Kingdom'' stage of Adventure Mode. To do this, you must finish Part 1 of the ''Mushroom Kingdom'' stage with the last large number of the time limit being a '''2'''. For example, 1:5'''2''':<small>48</small>. This will make him replace Mario in the following fight. Then complete the Adventure Mode without using a continue. * Play 800 Versus Mode matches. === Roy === Roy is a clone of Marth, but with a few differences, the most obvious of which is how his sword burns his opponents. He is quite easy to unlock after you get Marth. * Complete Classic Mode or Adventure Mode with Marth without using a continue. However if you don't have Jigglypuff unlocked already, doing so will unlock her first, and you'll have to do it again to unlock Roy. * Play 900 Versus Mode matches. === Mr. Game & Watch === Mr. Game & Watch is based on the entire Game & Watch series and is considered the final secret character in the game, as there is no way to unlock him without first unlocking all other characters. Once you get him, you'll be able to easily earn his stage. * Complete Classic Mode, Adventure Mode or Target Test with all other 24 characters. * Play 1,000 Versus Mode matches. {{BookCat}} msprebuedj3mdneoxl2y2qt7y9u4fou 0 427955 4095680 3861907 2022-08-24T06:10:44Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a simple glossary of terms used in this book and of the most popular [[w:slang|slang]], [[w:acronym|acronym]]s, and [[Wiktionary:lingo|lingo]] used by the [[EverQuest]] community in general. ;2-box (also 3-box, 4-box, etc), aka bot : ''(verb)'' The act of a single player simultaneously controlling multiple PCs, either by running multiple instances of EQ on a single computer, or by using 2 or more computers with one PC on each computer. Each PC in simultaneous use requires a separate Station account. ;AA : Alternate advancement experience point. ''(noun)'' Players may earn and use AA points to obtain advanced abilities for their PCs of level 51 or higher. Certain classes of PCs can spend more than 1300 AA points on scores of performance-enhancing advanced abilities. ;AE, aka AoE : Area of Effect. ''(adjective)'' AE spells are typically detrimental and affect all PCs, NPCs and MOBs within a predefined, spherical radius. ;AFK : Away from keyboard. ''(verb)'' The player is not actively controlling the PC. ;[[Wiktionary:aggro|aggro]] : ''(verb)'' To break an NPC's or MOB's predefined attack radius, causing it to attack the intruding PC. ''(noun)'' The aggressive attention of an NPC or MOB, amount of agro an individual has created from a monster (either through direct offensive acts or through supporting group members through methods such as healing) decides what character in a group is attacked by the NPC or MOB. ;aggro radius : ''(verb)'' Anything intruding upon an NPC's or MOB's aggro radius is attacked. The size of an aggro radius sometimes varies with faction and con, and may be spherical in certain environments. Aggro radius may also appear to be affected by an NPCs or MOBs social standing with other nearby NPCs or MOBs; but it is not. Please see 'social' for an explanation. ;[[Wiktionary:ally|ally]] : ''(adjective)'' The most friendly of the faction messages returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> regards you as an ally..." ;amiable : ''(adjective)'' A friendly faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> judges you amiably..." ;apprehensive : ''(adjective)'' A lightly faction aggressive message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> looks your way apprehensively..." ;assling : ''(noun)'', a less than polite reference to a member of the halfling race. ;auto : ''(verb)'' The act of setting a PC to auto-follow the walking and running movements of another PC within the same group. Please avoid lava... ;bio : ''(noun)'' [[Wiktionary:Bathroom|Bathroom]] (biological) break ;boxer : ''(noun)'' A player whom 2-boxes (3-boxes, 4-boxes, etc) ;buff : ''(noun)'' A statistics or ability-enhancing spell which lasts for a pre-defined time (from between a minute to up to four hours depending on spells) after being cast on target. ''(verb)'' To cast an enhancing spell on another PC, or upon a PC's pet. ;camp : ''(verb)'' To sit on or very close to a NPC or MOB spawn point with the intention of interacting with it every time it spawns. Camping is not specifically endorsed by the EQ EULA, and in the case of [[Wiktionary:CSR|CSR]] arbitration, you may be ordered to share your 'camp' with someone else. Also to issue the /camp command, which logs out the current PC. ''(noun)'' The physical location to which a PC will repeatedly pull NPCs or MOBs for killing and looting. ;CH : ''(noun)'' Complete heal. A cleric's spell which usually completely heals an injured PC. Complete heals take ten seconds to cast. ;CH Chain : ''(noun)'' Complete heal chain. An organized group of clerics who will cast Complete Heal upon an MT, keeping him alive while he absorbs incredible damage. ;consider, aka con : ''(verb)'' To check an NPC's or MOB's faction against a PC, to determine if it will attack when the PC intrudes into its aggro radius. ;crowd control : ''(noun)'' Refers to the ability of certain classes to mesmerize or root aggro'd NPCs or MOBs outside of the camp, thereby preventing them from attacking PCs inside the camp. ;ding : ''(verb)'' To increase a PC's experience level. ''(noun)'' The sound heard when a PC earns a new experience level. ;dubious : ''(adjective)'' An aggressive faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> glowers at you dubiously..." This is the lowest level of faction that one may have with an NPC without having it automatically attack you. ;GM : ''(noun)'' Game Master. An EQ GM is a customer service postition with SOE. A GM has the ability to help a player in many ways. Unfortunately, they are seldom visible to the general population. The /petition system and the Guides act as a gatekeeper for the GMs. ;GTG : ''(adjective)'' Good to go. Said to other players to let them know that you are ready to participate in group movement, or join in a coordinated attack. ;Guide : ''(noun)'' An EQ Guide is a player who has volunteered his time to provide customer assistance to other players. He cannot be a guide on any server upon which he has a PC. Guides are managed by the GMs and the Server GM. A Guide can help a player in several useful ways. Unfortunately, they are seldom visible to the general population. The /petition system acts as a gatekeeper for the Guides. ;indifferent, aka indiff : ''(adjective)'' A non-aggressive faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> regards you indifferently..." ;IVU : ''(noun)'', Invisibility versus Undead, a type of spell which renders the player invisible to (most) undead mobs. ;KEI /C3): ''(noun)'', acronym for Koadic's Endless Intellect, a long lasting mana regeneration buff, much in demand amongst the spell casting classes. ;kindly : ''(adjective)'' A friendly faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> kindly considers you..." ;KoS, aka Kill on Sight. :''(adjective)'' If an NPC or MOB is KoS it will typically attack a PC as soon as the PC breaks its aggro radius. ;Looter : ''(noun)'' A PC designated to loot the rare and valuable tradeable drops off of every NPC and MOB killed by a group or raid. ;MA : ''(noun)'' Main Assist. A PC that will serve as an assist proxy for a group or a raid. Players should target the MA and issue the command /assist to lock onto the MA's target. ;MOB : ''(noun)'' from the Latin ''Mobile Vulgus'', defined as the lower classes of a community; the populace, or the lowest part of it. IE, a common monster. Sometimes attributed to the old multi-user dungeon term 'mobile object.' Sometimes used interchangeably with NPC. ;MT : ''(noun)'' Main Tank. A PC with very high health points, armor class and defensive statistics whom will stand in harm's way during an attack, with the objective of holding the NPC's or MOB's aggro so that the other, typically much less stout, PCs may contribute damage without fear of gaining aggro. More often than not, the MA and MT roles are assigned to the same PC. ;MT : ''(noun)'' Mis-Tell. A tell or other message sent to the wrong person or chat channel. ''(verb)'' The act of sending a message to the wrong person or chat channel, often with comical or embarrassing consequences. ;nerf : ''(verb)'' and ''(noun)'' To nerf ''(vb)'' is to reduce or limit in some way the action of players, rewards, etc and is the consequence of a change effected on the game by developers, usually introduced within a patch. A nerf ''(noun)'' is the resulting consequence, e.g. "the charm nerf". ;[[Wiktionary:Ninja|Ninja]] Looter : ''(noun)'' A player who strives to be the first to loot a corpse. In a non-raid group, a ninja looter may be able to grab rare items without allowing the group to decide who should receive the reward. The raid tool introduced with the Planes of Power expansion has a 'looters table' which effectively prevents ninja looters from grabbing the very valuable items off of raid-level NPCs and MOBs. ;NPC : ''(noun)'' Non-Player Character. A server or (rarely) GM-driven PC of significance to a quest or an objective. Sometimes used interchangeably with MOB. ;ping : ''(verb)'' the AA equivalent of the ding, i.e. to acquire a new AA point. ;ping : ''(noun)'' the amount of server latency a player may be experiencing, typically mentioned when discussing lag. ;PC : ''(noun)'' Player character. An in-game avatar controlled by a player. Each player may have multiple characters per Station account, but only 1 character may be played at a time, per account. ;Player : ''(noun)'' The person owning one or more Station accounts with one or more PCs on each Station account. ;pull : ''(verb)'' To run out and find NPCs or MOBs, then use a variety of tactics to cause them to follow the puller back to camp. ;Puller : ''(noun)'' A PC who runs out and finds NPCs or MOBs, then uses a variety of tactics to cause them to follow him back to camp. ;[[Wiktionary:scowling|scowling]] : ''(adjective)'' The most aggressive of the messages returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> scowls at you..." Scowling NPCs and MOBs are KoS. ;Server GM : ''(noun)'' Server Game Master. An EQ Server GM is a senior customer service postition with SOE. The Server GM oversees a server's GMs and Guides. He has the ability to help a player in extraordinary ways, trigger special events, and host player-to-player contests at whim. Unfortunately, the Server GMs are seldom visible to the general population. The /petition system, Guides and GMs act as gatekeepers for the Server GM. ;social : ''(adjective)'' Refers to whether an NPC or MOB responds to player interaction with nearby NPCs and MOBs. A social MOB may join a nearby friend in defending against a PC's attack. ;Sony Online Entertainment, aka SOE : ''(noun)'' The owners and providers of the EQ experience. ;SOW : ''(noun)'', acronym for Spirit of Wolf, a run-speed enhancing buff cast by druids, shamen and rangers. Also available as a potion, Distillate of Wolf. ;Station account : ''(noun)'' The Sony Station is the name of SOE's MMOG website. Each EQ player has a Station account for access to the website; game subscriptions are tied to the Station accounts. ;[[Wiktionary:threatening|threatening]] : ''(adjective)'' An aggressive faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> glares at you threateningly..." Threatening NPCs and MOBs are KoS. ;train : '' (noun/verb) '' Noun usage usually refers to a group of 1 or more NPC's or MOBs that are aggressive to a player. Usually a player is running away from a 'train' because they cannot handle the size of the battle. (Ex. "the train is heading toward zone[line]"). Verb usage means to take that 'train' of NPC's or MOBs to another location, intentionally or unintentionally, and often to the detriment of other players (Ex. "he trained me five times tonight"). ;trumpet : ''(verb)'' To earn an AA point. Called a ''ping'' on some servers, or a ''plink'' on others. Also to sucessfully complete a step in a quest, or to complete an entire quest. ''(noun)'' The sound heard when a PC earns an AA point, or successfully completes a step in a quest, or completes an entire quest. ;[[Wiktionary:warmly|warmly]] : ''(adjective)'' A very friendly faction message returned when a player cons an NPC or MOB. The in-game message says, "<<target>> looks upon you warmly..." ;zone : ''(noun/verb)'' Noun usage refers to either the zone (environment) one is in or refers to one of the zone line exits that load you into another zone. (Ex. "Train heading to zone") Verb usage means to exit the zone via the zone line. (Ex: "I'm glitching, let me zone and come back") == See also == * [[w:Internet slang|Wikipedia's article on general Internet slang]] * [[w:MMORPG terms and acronyms|Wikipedia's article on MMORPG terms and acronyms]] {{BookCat}} dnzccel8m578habbnyd252b4xcw9l3m 0 428266 4095688 3863897 2022-08-24T06:21:52Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {|style = {{MapleStory/tablestyle}} {{MapleStory/TOC}} {{MapleStory/TOC/Jobs}} {{MapleStory/TOC/Jobs/sub|Magician}} |} ==Beginning== === Beginners === When you begin the game, you get to choose the stats that your character will begin the game with. These are STR, DEX, INT and LUK. Magician equipment, defence, and damage all depend on INT and LUK; STR and DEX are not required for anything. When creating your character, STR and DEX should be as low as possible, preferably a 4 in each, though up to dual 5 or even 6/4 is acceptable. Since INT and LUK will be raised at each level up, it doesn't matter what they are at this point, as long as STR and DEX are low. However, getting a high INT (8/9/10) would be preferable, as well as LUK. Just remember to major your AP(ability points) in INT. Detailed information about raising INT and LUK can be found on the [[../Magician Guide/Builds|Builds]] page. Be patient at the start, It's kinda hard ;) ===Maple Island=== At the beginning, your damage will be severely limited. The best training enemy for the beginning Magician are Green and Blue Snails. Try not to use healing items now. Save them for later. If you die now, your experience stays the same. Later, during the first job, exp decreases if you die. Now since the BIG update, it will be alot easier for mages to lvl up. Luckily, the Magician's advancement level is only 8, whereas the other classes have an advancement level of 10. Also, a Hand Axe appears to be the best weapon for a Beginning Mage, since it has a higher tendency to strike for 3 damage. The first few maps have an abundance of green snails. Beyond that are the two towns on Maple Island. If you wish, there are also quests on Maple Island that can be completed. One gives a helmet equip, and another gives a weapon. The second quest may require a lot of patience, as it asks for 10 orange mushroom caps (orange mushrooms have 80 hp!) as well as 30 blue snail shells. Fortunately, if you have the patience, there are safe spots you can jump and hit mushrooms without taking damage, but your hits tend to be extremely low (1). The reward for the quest is a fruit knife, which may not be very worthwhile for a beginning magician unless you want to sell it later. Once you hit level 8 and if you have at least 20 points of INT (which you should if you have read this guide so far), go to Southperry and take the ship to Lith Harbour at a cost of 150 mesos. You may also want to have at least 2200 mesos after to buy a wooden wand. ===Victoria Island=== First things first. By now, hopefully you should have at least 2,200 meso remaining, enough to get to the Mage town, Ellinia, and buy the first weapon that adds Magic Attack. If you have more, go to the Lith Harbour Weapon/Armour store and purchase the level 11 Common-Class top/bottom. These have more Weapon Defense than more your level 8 and 13(Male) Mage-specific equips, and no monsters apply Magic Defense to their attacks yet. The level 13(Female) Mage-specific equips have a slightly higher Weapon Defense than the level 11 Common-Class equips, but the slightly higher Weapon Defense is not worth the additional cost. Also, it may be easier for beginning mages to simply forgo clothing and invest their mesos in weapons, Red Potions, and Blue Potions. When you are ready, either talk to the man in the ticket booth near the ship, and choose to go to Ellinia or walk to Ellinia. Walking is a good way to train, but running into high level monsters is more or less inevitable. If you walk, make sure you do not advance to level 9 before getting to Ellinia. Also, before you leave, there is an easy quest you can do in Lith Harbor. Talk to Olaf, who is near the right of the city, in the lower level. Once you've answered his questions correctly, you can choose the next quest from him. Choose path of the Magician. Once you've become a magician, you can go back and talk to Olaf again (whenever, doesn't have to be right away)and get a reward. Once in Ellinia, head to the house at the VERY top of the map and go inside. Talk to Grendel. Assuming you are level 8 with at least 20 INT, advance from a Beginner to a Magician. Grendel will also increase your max MP by a large amount, and give you 1 Skill Point (SP) to use. Using that SP in magic bolt would most likely be the wisest, as it doesn't use too much MP, so you can really start fighting. '''New patch edit (With Shell Throw)''' Putting a point or two as a Beginner into Shell Throw can make fighting larger monsters a bit easier as Beginner and early Magician, abeit a sacrifice of a snail shell or two. It loses its usefulness when your Magic Bolt actually hits over 25-40(the end limit of the technique), but for taking down Mushrooms FAST, it's worth the sacrifice of a pair of Red Shells. ==First Job: Magician== Welcome to the way of the Magician. For detailed information about what each skill does, refer to [[../Magician Guide/Skills|Skills]]. For detailed information about how to allocate skill and ability points, refer to [[../Magician Guide/Builds|Builds]] 1st job, low level magician training spots: The Tree that Grew 1,2 or 3 (no. 3 has green mushrooms. For all you low level magicians, WATCH OUT), the place that people call the Slime Tree and Henesys hunting ground (all) However, as you are still pretty low leveled, it could be wiser to stay close to Ellinia until at least level 10. After you reach level 20 or so, Perion (which is ironically the Warrior's town) is a relatively good place to train, since the monsters, which are mostly stumps and their variants, have low magical defense and slow, good for magicians. ===Second Job advance preparations=== At this point, you're a Magician, you're at level 30, and you're currently much more powerful than the other classes. Return to Ellinia and converse with Grendel. He will give you a compliment, and then send you to the 2nd Job Advance Instructor in The Forest West of Ellinia. He'll talk to you as well, and then send you into the darkness. Inside this tree, you will find several Horned Mushrooms and Curse Eyes. Kill them. Instead of EXP and Items, they give you Dark Marbles. Collect 30 of these marbles, and then talk to the Instructor. He will give you the Proof of a Hero, and then send you back to Grendel the Really Old. Here, he will inquire as to which path you wish to take... You have three roads before you, each with a myriad of puzzles and adventures that await you. The least common choice is the Fire/Poison. This does not mean that it is inferior, of course. By level 38, you'll be capable of dishing out more damage faster than any other class. Or, you could become an Ice Mage, and quickly freeze and kill your enemy. Lightning comes along with ice, and Lightning gives you the ability to kill of a pack of 6 monsters all at once (Ice/Lightning are placed in the same job, so you get both eventually as an Ice/Lightning Wizard). The third, and possibly most common choice is the Cleric. As a cleric, you do the least damage, but you eventually become (literally,) the life of the party. You'll eventually end up very wealty as a cleric. This is because Clerics can cheat the system; they can gain MP from killing monsters, and HP from their MP-consuming skill, heal. Nowhere in this process is money drained. ===Holy, Fire, Ice, Poison, or Lightning?=== There are several paths from which this single choice can take you. Be sure to pick the one that won't bore you to death! *'''Fire/Poison Wizard''': Fire Wizards (or Fizards, as they seem to be commonly known) tend to spend most of their time in Ossyria, since Fire-Friendly (Or Fire Abnegant) monsters roam the beautiful white snowbanks of El Nath and the areas encompassing it. Poison is also an option in this job, but most simply choose to stay away from it and place their SP into more useful skills, as this is phased out instantly in the Third Job Advance. Leveling with a Poison Wizard is difficult. The highest level Poison Wizard on beta only reached level 42. Fire Wizards spend most of their time sniping ice monsters from afar with their magical instruments of burning death. They tend to Teleport from monster to monster, killing from afar and near when strategically advantageous. Slow is an essential skill to them as well, as it allows Fire Arrow the time it needs to destroy mobs of, say, Jr. Yetis. A note on maxed Poison Breath: Only after Fire Arrow has been maxed a Fire Wizard might consider the option of maxing out Poison Breath. With a base damage of 70, a 60% mastery, and a magician with roughly 175 m attack and about 35 luk this skill can deal about 347-578 Poison damage while actual poisoning does 70 hp damage or 1/40th the enemies hp. This can allow a Fire Mage to deal with some Fire creatures they normally would not be able. There are roughly 12 enemies weak to Poison. In the third job, these Mages undergo a nice power boost. Explosion has a range that rivals Fire Arrow, and a power that is equal to Fire Arrow, rendering it useless, seeing how Explosion is a mob skill, whilst Fire Arrow is stuck to one target at a time. (Explosion is, however, painfully slow) Though, Fire Arrow may find solace in the fact that it gets an upgrade in the form of the Fire Mage's Magic Composition spell! This attack is a fusion of Fire and Poison placed into an ethereal bow. When launched, this attack strikes with a Base Damage of 150, and also a 70% chance of Poisoning the enemy for 40 seconds. Fire Mages also get Poison Myst which is a poison based mob skill that initially hits one monster for damage and then creates a mist with 70% chance of poisoning for all monsters that travel within the mist. *'''Ice/Lightning Wizard''': Ah, yes. The ultimate in icy and electrical crowd control is now at your fingertips! As a Lightning Wizard, you can wander about the country side, scaring noobs and vets alike as you massacre groups of upto 6 monsters with Lightning! Statistically, Lightning is no more powerful than Magic Claw, but the compound damage on the six monsters that Lightning strikes add up to be more. And, if you choose Ice first, you are allowed the power to freeze monsters, rendering them immobile. Though Cold Beam is 17% weaker than Fire Arrow, it's ability to freeze enemies makes up for it. Together, with ice and lightning, you will roam the countryside, laughing at the frozen forms of large monsters and burnt (electrified) carcasses of smaller creatures. Forget about slow... who needs to slow enemies down, when you can either zap them to nothingness or make them wish the Fourth Vial Judgement (Random Bible Reference) is upon them? In the Third Job, Ice/Lightning Mages are the pinnacle of crowd control. Although their Ice Strike is 10% weaker than Cold Beam, it allows Wizards to attack and freeze upto six enemies at once. They also get Thunder Spear, the strongest (currently, at least) spell among all Magicians, with 170 Base Damage maxed. Compare that to the Fire Mage's 150 Base Damage Magic Composition and a Cleric's 105 Base Damage Shining Ray. The drawback to this, like Explosion, is it's slow casting time (Some say that you should put points into Slow to prepare for this attack, but from what I have seen, the freeze time Composition grant you is more than enough). The Ice/Lightning Mage's Magic Composition has a Base Damage of 140, but it only strikes one enemy and freezes only one target, rendering this skill much weaker when compared to Thunder Spear and Ice Strike. However, it serves as an excellent replacement to Cold Beam, and a faster alternative to Thunder Spear. *'''Cleric''': The weakest of the three wizards, even when this mage has an elemental advantage, Fire Wizards beat it out in damage. However, Clerics have become quite popular in the Maple Story crowd with their "Heal" skill. With this skill, you can easily heal some 2000 hp for each party member while using only 24 mana. Additionally, Heal can damage undead enemies, such as Wraiths, Jr. Wraiths, Zombies and Zombie Lupins. Also, when Heal is coupled with the skill "MP Eater", a Cleric becomes very low maintenance in the Zombie areas, allowing for them to attack with Heal, and thusly take no damage, and absorb the MP needed for the spell from other monsters via MP Eater. In other words, Clerics can just walk into a crowd of zombies, cast heal for about an hour, and take absolutely no damage in terms of neither HP nor MP. This combination is how Clerics manage to become the richest class in the game, as they tend to have no need for potions, thus allowing them to retain all of the mesos they find as pure profit. Since Clerics mainly cast Heal over and over to level on these undeads, they tend to become boring after level 45. Try your hardest to stick through, as they pay off in a big way. Looking ahead to 3rd job, Clerics continue to be weakest in terms of damage, due to their lack of Booster or Element Amplification. However, instead they get skills that all parties will love. Holy Symbol increases the amount of exp gained for every person in the party (finally giving parties some uses), and Mystic Door creates a 2-way doorway to the closest town and where you are, allowing travel to the farthest corners of Ossyria in a single step. Not to mention Doom, which allows a Priest to turn upto 6 of it's adversaries into Blue Snails for upto 20 seconds for the price of a Magic Rock, which is comically effective when you're surrounded by a mob of tough monsters. The Summoning Rock can also be used by Priests to activate their skill Summon: Dragon, in which a blue pet dragon appears and follows you around for 2 and 1/3 minutes, attacking your enemies and making your life easier. They also have a very potent mob attack, Shining Ray, with a base attack power of 105 which is only a little weaker than the explosion but stronger than ice strike still, when not factoring in Mage-specific skills. Clerics are also the most popular 2nd job in MapleStory, as their party-benefitting skills are widely welcomed by all 3 jobs. *Teleport and MP Eater are both skills shared by all three magician variations. *Slow and Meditate (magic attack boost) are both skills shared by the Fire/Poison and Ice/Lightning variations, although only Fire/Poison has the need to max it. *In the third job, Fire/Poison and Ice/Lightning Mages both receive Partial Resistance, Element Amplification, and Magic Booster. These three spells improve the elemental resistance, the elemental power, and the Spell Casting speed of the user, respectively. Another skill, Seal, locks enemies from casting spells of their own. ==The Second Job== Ahah! Elemental Power! Holy, Ice, Lightning, Fire! For the next 40 levels, you will raise and discover your own, true power. Become one with nature, harness it's power, become stronger so that you can kick Grendel's floating Butt when it's time to reach the Third Job! Your goal is in sight, young mages, more power is at hand! ===For Ice/Lightning Wizards=== As depicted before, Ice/Lightning Wizards have the highest versatility out of all mages classes, and possess the most efficient group-attack skill amongst all 2nd job advance classes. ====Training Grounds==== *Level 30-34: Train where you have trained before. Ant Tunnel is a good choice, and so is Land of Wild Boars. Jr Sentinels and those green and horned mushroom tree dungeons at Ellinia are profitsome alternatives. With Aqua Road out, Fish Resting Spot is not a bad choice as well. *Level 35-39: Ice mages can now go kill Fire Boars with ease, so do so at Burnt Land II. They can also go to Sand Castle Playground to train on Flower Fishes if they want. Lightning right now is still too weak for your purposes, so boars are a good source of exp and money for now (use magic claw, not lit!). Lightning mages can also train well on White Ratz in Floor 100 of EOS Tower. Standing on a slide allows one to rain down lightning while not getting hit. *Level 40-49: If you're an ice mage, now would be a good time to move up to Jr Celions (the red kitties) at Ossyria, and Fire Boar is a solid (but less rewarding) alternative. Thunder Mages should train on Lorang, can also train on Jr Cellions or Grupin if Lorang costs too much money. You're going to lose money on pots wherever you go anyway, so why not lose them on monsters that give good exp and decent drops? Party with cleric at Hot Sands occasionally if you're feeling bored. *Level 50-59: If you have both Ice and Lit, Hot Sands is a very good choice. With only Ice, Red Drake should now be what you're training on (you can also go for Celions and Lioners if Red Drakes hurt too much)(and at between lvl 50 -52, u may miss the drakes. so it a the best if you train at Celions and Lioners), while with only lit... Lorangs are still your best bet right now, even though you're earning less than 0.01% exp per kill. Move to hot sands if you're going for Ice after med, when you have level 15 ice. With the new lands coming out, Platoon Chronos in The Road of Time <I> is also a good choice. *Level 60-69: Celions, Lioners, Red Drakes, Hot Sands, the old spots. You can TRY to train at Buffoons if you like, but that's not generally a good idea. If you're not so obsessed with big damage, electrifying some jr yetis may not be a bad idea, as with freezing up some hectors and zombies. *Level 70-75: Same old, samd old. Zombies, Hot Sands, Red Drakes. Buffoons might be more practical to hunt right now, but there isn't much change in training. *Level 76-83: IS mages can start killing Death Teddies now, since there are some sniping points present where you can hit them without worrying about getting hit. It's not great on your wallet, but it's very fast training. If you need money, Zombies are your friend again. You can also try Buffoons. Comp Mages should just stay at Zombies or Buffons right now. *Level 83-88: IS mages got some options now. Bains are a pain to get to and there aren't many sniping spots, but they're like Death Teddies with more money, though the map isn't pure Bains and poison geysers are annoying. Death Teddies are as good as always. If you feel bold, you can try Vikings. Comp mages should probably go for Bains now, or Vikings if you're bold. *Level 88+: Vikings are the best target for you now, at least in GMS and MapleSEA. JMSers could probably go for Bains in Weapon Storage (the map after Anego), while KMSers could probably try the red centaurs in Riprey (though I'm not sure about their spawns). ===For Fire/Poison Wizards=== Fire/Poison Wizards are also often called Fizards, since Poison is a rather meh-ish skill that does not represent the power of the wizard. Despite the lack of versatility, Fire Wizard has the highest damage power out of all mages. ====Training Grounds==== *Level 30-34: Train where you have trained before. Ant Tunnel is a good choice, and so is Land of Wild Boars. Jr Sentinels and those green and horned mushroom tree dungeons at Ellinia are profitsome alternatives. *Level 35-39: The Jr Grupins in Ossyria are a good choice as you should be able to 2 or 3 hit KO them with minimum MP usage per attack (especially since level 1 MP Eater recovers 14 MP). You could also go clawing up Boars, which might be more profitable. Also, Jr Wraiths in the sewers of Kerning City provide good experience because they are very weak to fire. They also give 5 more experience each than Jr Grupins. *Level 40-48: Kill things you can OHKO. Jr Grupins and Jr Wraiths are good initially, then eventually you can 1HKO Jr Pepes semi-consistently. *Level 49-60: Jr Yetis, or Grupins. Jr Yetis give less experience but more profit, while Grupins give more experience but less profit. *Level 61-70: Grupins are the best exp you can get at this point. White Pangs are alright, but they have the most HORRIBLE maps to train on. Poison Wizards at this point should be leveling at the same place if they have Fire Arrow. If not, they should either be training on Dark Stone Golems or Werewolves. Yetis and Pepe are pretty decent aswell, but when they separate, they are a pain to kill.>;0 If you have Poison, you can also kill Death Teddies as you approach 3rd job. ===For Clerics=== Although Clerics are the weakest in terms of damage, their high wealth and the fact that they are virtually invincible more than makes up for it. Clerics are one of the more sought after classes in Party Quests and are never absent during tough raids. ====Training Grounds==== *Level 30-34: Train where you have trained before. Ant Tunnel is a good choice, and so is Land of Wild Boars. Jr Sentinels and those green and horned mushroom tree dungeons at Ellinia are profitsome alternatives. *Level 35-39: Zombie Mushrooms should about do right now. Your Heal is still too weak to 1HKO Zombie Mushrooms, or any other undeads for that matter, but you can hurt a large amount of them at once. *Level 40-48: At this point, try to stick to hunting with parties as opposed to hunting alone. The PQ in Ludibrium is a nice option and so are raids to difficult dungeons with high damaging monsters (more damage you Heal, more exp you get). For healing Clerics, if you have the patience and skill, it is possible to train on zombie lupins with heal at around level 42. *Level 49-60: Wraiths, Jr. Wraiths, and Zombie Lupins. Your Heal should be maxed out by this point, so you should have no trouble killing a mob of Jr. Wraiths and Zombie Lupins with 2 hits flat. Wraiths should be a bit tougher than that, but they give more exp and you can still kill a large gang of them at once. *Level 61-70: At this point, you should be able to kill most undeads out there. El Nath dungeons and the Golem Hunting Grounds are recomended because they have dark type monsters that take extra damage from holy attacks like Holy Arrow although they are not damaged by Heal. Clerics were made for parties, so try to limit your times hunting solo and try to hunt more in parties with high leveled users in more difficult hunting grounds. Both Balrogs are dark type monsters, so you may consider them as well, although Crimson Balrog is probably still too hard right now. also wraith is a good training spot, if u party a priest with max HS the exp can go really high *level 71-78 you could go train anywhere that you think is good exp, grim phantom watches are still too hard to fight but ive seen lv 7x train there *level 79+ your holy symbol should be nearly maxed and you should be able to train with dragon knights at grims easy, i personally gain around 800k exp per hour at grims and im lv 87 at the moment, others might train somewhere else, and by now you should be able to hit crimson balrog, but dont get too confident that you can solo it An alternate guide can be found at [[MapleStory/Magician Guide Alternate]] {{BookCat}} e0nobn1pmor3roxpwwxo1w68bg96pa0 0 428271 4095686 4046346 2022-08-24T06:20:44Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {| style={{MapleStory/tablestyle}} {{MapleStory/TOC}} |} This page contains a listing of some Frequently Asked Questions. If you have a question that is not answered anywhere else in this book, please add it to the relevant section here and you should receive a reply within a few days. Questions may be removed at the discretion of the [[../Authors|authors and editors]]. (For example, price checks and questions that only pertain to a very small group of Maplers do not belong here.) = New Questions = If you have a question, please ask it here. It will be answered as soon as possible. Hotmail accounts are not being accepted to make new acc anymore, will this change? They have fixed the error with hotmail, you can try resending to code now. How are Game Masters selected in MapleSEA? what does it mean by "move" in maplestory on each characters account? = General Questions = ==What are the Minimum system requirements, and where can I find them? == The requirments for MapleStory can be found at the download page on Mapleglobal.com. CPU: Celeron 500 MHz<br> RAM: 64 MB<br> HDD: 500 MB space needed<br> OS: Windows 98/ME/2K/XP<br> VGA: 3d acceleration card<br> Sound: -<br> Network: 56kbps MODEM<br> ~Noted I originally started on 800Mhz and 64 MB RAM and... let's just say run double the recommended speed and RAM if you don't want to disconnect between screens XD But yeah, it will run, just really badly... ==Can I choose a another character without quit game and log in again?== No. You must go to "Quit Game" and then log in again to switch to another character. == What should I do about disconnections? == There are some areas in the game where hackers have actually been able to force anyone who logs in to immediately disconnect from the game. The Sauna area in Sleepywood is one known area for this*. The best way to escape the map in this situation is to cause as much lag on purpose; and then walk out of the portal while you are in the lag. For example, start downloading 20 [[w:YouTube|YouTube]] videos at once, or turn on [[w:BitTorrent|BitTorrent]] at a max upload rate, or do both. Then hold down the quest button as you walk out of the Sauna. Another possible solution is to connect using an old modem, or a phone modem. You should disconnect one last time, and you'll be able to play again. The Sleepywood Sauna is the only verified place to have this occur. There is no known solution for any other area in MapleStory. *A hacker by the name of [please fill in name here I forgot it] used a special sort of vac-hack to pull all the npc's in the game to that location, so when a user walked in, they disconnected, or d/c'ed. This hacker also did it in other areas, too. He announced what areas would be "disconnection hotspot". These places are usually small, and places that sold exclusive items like weapon shops. ~I've seen this done in Perion also. It's just not very common now... whoever was doing it must have gotten bored.... Another reason I often disconnect is generally slow power computer or moving between too many screens. Resetting when you crash helps clear the RAM so you won't disconnect again as soon. == Is MapleStory appropriate for young children? == MapleStory is a game suitable for all ages. However, the players may not be. There is a very strict "curse word filter" that blocks certain curse words, even if the curse word is separated with a space. For example, the phrase "Bush italics" is blocked, even with the space in the middle (hint: look at the end of "Bush" and beginning of "italics"). Nonetheless, there are always the users bringing on immature jokes and trying to bypass the curse word filter; but that is to be expected in any community-based game. It should also be noted that the "c word" is sometimes used. There is no suggestive artwork; everything is done "Chibi-style" or Super Deformed, a popular anime/manga style in which characters are 3 heads tall and the overall style is very cute. There is no blood or gore; the violence level is equivalent to early Megaman games (enemies fall over and disappear). Death in the game is comical: a little ghost-shape replaces your avatar, and your chat bubble becomes a thought bubble. There are no "surprises" in this game such as there are in [[w:Resident Evil|Resident Evil]]. In terms of difficulty, the base gameplay is easy enough for a 5-year-old to learn. However, some advanced stuff such as watching the market and trying to sell your ores at the correct price, or avoiding scammers who'll trick you into thinking an item is cheap when it is instead very rare, may be over the head for a child. ~Be warned users also swear, insult, harrass... there's quite a few who are only on Maple to harrass people for fun. The main problem with online games is, quite simply, the fact that you cannot control what the other people do. No amount of swear filtering stops people being racist, for example, and it does happen. But the game itself is very well built considering all that. == How do you save? == In most single-player games, you must save the game otherwise your progress will be lost. As this game is online, progress does not need to be saved. If you leave the game or get disconnected, you will be back in the same location(map that you were in) once you reconnect. == What are these different versions of MapleStory? == MapleStory is different in different parts of the world. Therefore, each of the versions are given a name based on where they are. * Official MapleStory South Korea [KoreaMS/kMS] (in Korean) * Official MapleStory Japan [JapanMS/jMS] (in Japanese) * Official MapleStory China [ChinaMS/cMS] (in Simplified Chinese) * Official MapleStory Taiwan [TaiwanMS/twMS] (in Traditional Chinese) * Official MapleStory Thailand [ThailandMS/thMS] (in Thai) * Official MapleStory Global [GlobalMS/gMS] (in English) * Official MapleStory South East Asia/SEA for Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand [MapleSEA/MSEA] (in English) * Closed-Beta MapleStory Europe (in multilanguage eg. Dutch, English, French, etc. European languages only however) * Tester/Beta MapleStory Global [GlobalMS Tespia] Closed - East Gateway June 2005, West Gateway 16 November 2005 * Tester MapleStory South Korea [KoreaMS Tespia] Thailand residents can play both MapleStory SEA and MapleStory Thailand. == How do I access the MapleStory website without using Internet Explorer? == The MapleStory Global website checks to see if the browser you are using is Internet Explorer or not. If it isn't, it will block you from accessing the website. This check is done using Javascript, so to access the website you need to disable Javascript. You will need to reenable Javascript once you are done to continue browsing other websites as some may not work properly without Javascript. Disabling Javascript varies between browsers. If using Firefox, click on the "Tools" menu, then select "Options". Click the "Content" button and there should be a number of checkboxes to enable/disable certain features. Clear the checkbox beside Javascript, and select "OK". Now, when you visit the website it should allow you in. Another option is to download the IE Tab extension from the Mozilla website. Once downloaded, select the Sites Filter tab from the top, then add the MapleGlobal website to the URL list. Make sure that the box at the top of the window is checked. == Taxes? Why taxes? == Taxes in MapleStory sounds like quite a bad idea. However, looking at the economic structure of the MapleStory community, we have a source of infinite income (killing monsters) and at the same time, no sources of taking money out of the economy. Just as the federal government raises interest rates to control inflation, Wizet decided to implement a tax system to curb inflation. Inflation occurs when everyone is richer, but there is still not enough items for everyone. For example, if everyone has 2,000,000 Mesos, and there are 30 +10 ATK work gloves in all of MapleStory, most people will only be able to offer 2,000,000 Mesos because that's all they have. But if the whole world just trained and trained, you have a situation where the whole world gets 20,000,000 Mesos instead of 2,000,000. This is the case in MapleStory. Given enough time, you will reach an infinite amount of Mesos. Regardless if the typical user had 2,000,000 Mesos or 20,000,000 Mesos, there are still only 30 +10 ATK work gloves. Because of this, work gloves will skyrocket in price to the 20,000,000 Meso range. Having a tax system is a smart way to make everyone in the world more poor, to counteract this inflation. If the world went from 2,000,000 Mesos to 1,000,000 Mesos, then work gloves will drop in price. Additionally, this gives an edge to the lower-level characters in MapleStory. As players reach higher levels, they earn more money faster. Thus, we don't have a case where everyone has 2,000,000 Mesos, we have a case where 30 people have 20,000,000 Mesos who can buy that +10 ATK work glove, while the rest of the community can't. By making the taxes higher for more expensive purchases, this serves to even the playing field out a little between high level players, and low level players. The main disadvantage of taxes comes when pure Meso transactions are involved, i.e. lending a friend 2 million Mesos. Mesos will be lost although no actual sale took place. Taxes are usually circumvented in MapleStory by dropping Mesos in isolated loactions or paying in rates lower than the tax rate. This applies to all players that have trustworthy trade partners. ==Maple Story Doesn't Work/Doesn't Run Smoothly...== *Check the system requirements. *The system requirements listed are minimum requirements. Minimum requirements are only enough to get the program running. For better performance, get a system that at least doubles the requirements. *Close all other programs. *Run virus scans and check for spyware, adware, and other programs that secretly run in the background. *Occasionally, Maple Story is updated. This means download the latest version or patch, or wait for the update to finish. ~One more thing... tho I already mentioned it. After a while your RAM memory fills with loaded screens, character info etc... if you find yourself disconnecting or lagging heavily try shutting down the computer to empty the RAM, then reboot it. That usually helps. what does it mean by "move" in maplestory on each characters account. = Gameplay = ==How do you activate a skill?== Open your skills window (usually by pressing the "K" key) and you can see the list of your skills. Now open your key settings window (usually by pressing the "\" key) and click on the skill icon you want to asign to the key on your keyboard. A faint image will follow your mouse after clicking on the skill icon. Move your mouse over the key on the key settings window that you want to assign that skill to, and click. You should not have the faint image following your cursor anymore. Close the key settings, and now anytime you want to activate the skill, just press the key you have assigned it to. Another way is to double click the skill in the skill book. == Can I use first job points for second job points? What about the third job?== No. Any skill points you gain in the first job MUST be used before the second job. It is okay to use second job points for the first job, but this is generally not recommended. The third job follows the same rule; first and second job points can't be applied to third job skills. ==What are some good ways to make money? Both generally and class specific.== The best way to make money is to train on something that you can kill in 2 or less hits consecutively Warriors: This shouldn't be too much of a problem before 2nd job. Warriors tend to make money really easily. Thieves: Train on whatever suits best, during levels 21-30 I recommend NOT to PQ all the time if you are not funded. This is because pqing too much will slow down your money making pace. Magicians: To save money, you should only buy red and blue pots till level 30. At lvl 25 magicians will entirely OWN the Kerning pq so you should be able to get pots or ores from there easily. Bowman: As a newbie bowman you should find or buy a melee weapon (metal axe for example drop from slimes) untill lvl 15 then you could buy the lvl 15 bow there. Save up on stiff feathers, tree branches, and firewood. You use those to make arrows for free. ~Remember blue pots cost about twice what red ones do and using your MP based attacks can rapidly burn several hundred in a level. When you buy armour and weapons focus on your body armour and weaponry. Check the actual bonus offered for the price... 10k isn't worth 2 more defence when 2 defence barely blocks 1 HP. Pick up everything that drops. Everything. Even the stuff that sells for 1 meso adds up. Only buy pots that heal you half or less of your HP and MP when you can. Unless you're fighting things that 2-hit kill you. That way you don't press your pot button when you're only 1/4 or 1/2 damaged and heal what would have been 3/4 of your HP... wasting mesos. As a mage master MP Recovery VERY early. You can't make do without your magic attacks and MP Recovery rapidly starts to heal 50ish MP every 10 seconds WHILST YOU ATTACK! That means 300 MP every minute. That's a lot of free MP and it costs twice what HP does generally... == What happens if I don't use up all the points before advancing? == Your job instructor simply won't let you advance to the next job advancement. == Why should I max skills? == The argument usually goes: Skills cost more when they are at a higher level, and most of the time, they don't give the same mana/damage efficiency as lower levels. So why max skills at all? Simple answer: When you are at a higher level, you make much more money. At level 10, you are generally happy to have 10,000 Mesos. At level 60, weapons may cost 15 million Mesos. The money "wasted" from maxing out skills is miniscule compared to the money used on equipments, scrolls, and so forth. You will '''always''' make more money, but you cannot always do more damage. And this goes for '''all'' mana- or HP-based skills, including Slash Blast, Arrow Bomb, Iron Arrow, Power Strike, Double Shot, Magic Claw, Lucky 7, Savage Blow, etc. More importantly, when you max out a damage skill, you save '''time'''. 2 level 10 Slash Blasts > more damage than a level 20 Slash Blast, but a level 20 Slash Blast saves time, especially since that level 20 Slash Blast has a much better chance of a one-hit kill than a level 10 Slash Blast. == Is xxx skill good? == Check out the [[MapleStory/Jobs|Jobs]] section with your specific job for the answer. A number of skills are considered useless irrespective of the build used and are only necessary if they are prerequisites for other, more powerful skills. Those skills are listed here. '''Mage''' * Magic Armor (not to be confused with the skill "Magic ''Guard''") :Magic Armor removes at most 30 or so damage. If fighting Yetis at level 50, you won't care that they do 470 damage to you instead of 500. * Energy Bolt :Energy Bolt is good if you want a skill to knockback enemys. Magic Claw outdamages Energy Bolt anytime, but doesn't knockback most of the time. * Poison Breath (second job, Fire/Poison Wizard) :It is weak, and the poison doesn't last long enough to warrant use. However, there are poison mages that like going against the crowd. Given the fact that Poison Mist and Magic Composition (both third-job skills) are more effective Poison-based spells, one would wonder why Poison Breath even exists. A maxed Poison Breath can do around 347 to 578 damage (with roughly 35 LUK and 175 MATK) plus, if poisoned, 70 HP or 1/40 HP damage, whichever is greater. If the enemy has roughly 3000+ HP the Poison will hit for 1/40 HP doing 75+ damage over time. This can allow Fire Wizards to hunt fire creatures they normally would not be able to such as Fire Boars. Some creatures weak to poison also give good EXP. It is recommended, however, that only advanced Fire Wizards should consider maxing Poison Breath after Fire Arrow has been maxed. '''Bowman''' *Blessing of Amazon : Bowmen have the best accuracy in the game, and can generally hit monsters before they can even break a monster's armor. The only exception is Jr. Neckis in the beginning of the game, however, getting a skill for a single monster is a bad plan, especially when you gain enough accuracy to kill Jr. Neckis by level 28 or so. '''Warrior''' *Endure :Recover while hanging on a rope. Quite useless since you'll be using potions to get HP. With 4000 HP at L60 it would take a lot of minutes to recover your total health. Besides if you want to recover health while being idle you'd better sit down somewhere. Only put the required 3 points into endure so you can put some points into Iron Body. *Iron Body :This skill can be handy at lower levels but around L60 it loses its value because of the much more powerful power guard skill. The main and only reason to have Iron body is to negate the weapon defense penalty of Rage. Theoretically you could do with only 1 point in Iron body to undo the -10 wdef effect of Rage. However, it is recommended to put around 8 - 10 points into this skill. There are some builds online that suggest maxing Iron body and only putting 6 points into sword/axe booster. This isn't really recommended as with a duration of 60 seconds the recasting becomes really annoying. Instead, putting 15 or 16 points into booster and 8 or 9 points into Iron body and maxing out Rage will result in 3 skills that will last for approximately 160 seconds. Since Rage and Iron body are casted at the same time this will make recasting easier and less annoying. Also consider this: having 16 versus 40 wdef doesn't really do a lot for the damage you take. A tauromaci touch would be around for example 450 versus 500 damages. However if you have maxed Power Guard(which is very likely) it will reflect 40 % of the damage so you only take 300 out of a total of 500. *Shield Mastery (Third job Crusader and Page skills, warriors already have huge weapon defense, and Shield Mastery barely increases it) Warriors still get some of these skills because there are too many first job points. It is recommended you get at least 1 SP in Endure and some HP Recovery to help at areas such as El Nath or Underwater maps where the area slowly drains your HP, but there are not enough points to max any of these skills. '''Thief''' *Disorder :It has been quite a debate between many maplers about the "Which is better, disorder or dark sight?". I personally feel that disorder will not be often used when you are training and mostly only when fighting boss monsters and such. Dark sight, however, is used when you want to pass a map without being disturbed by monsters or when you ran out of potions and only have a little bit of hp left, you will die easily. This is where dark sight comes in to prevent yourself from dying. I feel that both skills are useful and you will have to choose one to add in 1st job advancement and maybe the other in the late 2nd job advancement. Dark sight is also required for the Ludibruim Party Quest, where only a theif with Dark Sight can get past two certain invincible monsters.(lv 60+). *Shield Mastery (3rd job, Bandit. Gets you about 10 extra weapon defense points assuming the best sheild for a Thief, which will block about 4 damage from the enemy) *Steal : Steal is more of a "fun" ability as its not to be used seriously. It CAN help you get something good, but it doesn't happen often. It may be useful in the Ludi party quest so you can get extra passes. But its not as useful as other skills == Why am I training so slow? == You will ''only'' train at a reasonable pace if you consistantly use your skills. Never use a "regular" attack for any class after level 25, and if you're an assassin or mage you will probably need to use skills WAY before that. To keep up the pace of your mana-consumption, you must buy potions to consistantly up your mana. By level 35 mages should hold ATLEAST 60 mana pots so you don't have to go back and forth to buy more. Additionally, you must always have HP potions ready. Sitting still for 10 minutes every time you are hit is not a fast way to train. By level 35, any class should have 50 ORANGE pots, unless you are ungodly good. Upon reaching level 40, you should start scrolling your weapons, on top of using your skills, to keep a reasonable pace of exp. 60% scrolls are the general recomendation, and if you are ready to play the lottery, just buy 10% off of other people. 100% are a safe choice, but do worse than 60% on average. For you assassins, get the best stars you can afford at all times. Kumbis tend to be the ones people get most. Or, if you have another character or you have a really nice friend, get icys off of them at early levels and you kill much faster. :Actually, getting +7 100% claw is more important than getting stars, especially with Meba. Also, once you get Kumbis/Icicles you should start spending money on work glove scrolled for attack. You should get 8 atk glove before you get Tobi, 10 atk glove before you get Steely, and 11-12 attack glove before you get Ilbis. Also, starting from level 50 you should start considering get +5 or more 60% scrolled claws. Just look at your next upgrade's cost for your claw, glove, star, and determine which one is cheaper. Don't go out thinking that getting better star is your only option to raise your attack. If you are low on money, here is the list of priorities if you want to continue training at a fast pace: # HP potions and Mana potions # Most powerful Weapon/stars money can buy # Scrolls for Atk, or intelligence/Attack if a Mage # Best Top/Bottom/Overalls you can buy It is recomended that you don't waste money on gloves or shoes, unless they are upgraded with weapon attack, speed, or jump. The lvl 15 or 20 glove will suffice for a while for any class; in fact, most high levels (lvl 50+) use a lvl 10 work glove (upgraded with wAtk) ! So what does this list mean? It means, if you got nearly no mesos, buy as many HP and Mana potions as you can. If you saved up enough money, then buy a more powerful weapon. If you still got money, then scroll your weapon. If you still got money, then buy your armor. ~I tried this style of play unfunded... it does not work out well. Spending all your money on HP and MP pots sounds fair enough but when you hit level 35 in level 25 gear you start to realise that extra 30 HP you lost per hit added up to 30k after 1000 hits. It's slower to avoid using MP until you have mastery but it pays off. Btw, if you go with claw early as a mage that tends to sap funds too... I had no idea how much MP recovery helps them, Going broke as a mage is not fun... ~Note. Getting 8 mp recovery is sufficient to support 10 claw - around lvl 16-17. mp recovery gradually increases the mp recovered for every 4 int that you have. for example, a lvl 33 wiz with 5/5 stats and maxed recovery would heal 55 mp every 10 seconds. When you are low on cash and want to buy a new wep, you should save up until you have 150% of the cost of the item in case you find a bargain or you need pots or armour. Weps and armour should be considered first at lvls below 20, since ur mp and hp heals on its own. then it is followed by pots. Scrolls should not be considered until you're at least lvl 25 since even the cheapest 10% scrolls will cost you 20k. ~Note: I have no idea why people do not consider the benefits of training in parties. With the 10%+ to experience share and a good solid party that can 1HKO, levelling up becomes a tad bit faster then solo. Also spawn rate seems to be affected by the number of people on the same map. == How do I get to (insert place here) == [[Image:How2Get2PigBeach.PNG |frame|right| This is where you stand to get into Hidden Street: Pig Beach.]] If it is a hidden street, you must find a secret location somewhere, and press "up" on it. They are scattered all around. If you are looking for a place in Victoria Island, check the world map by pressing "w". www.hidden-street.net has a good list of almost all of the hidden streets. ==Where do you find ***** item?== Refer to the in-depth item sections at [http://www.hidden-street.net Hidden-Street]. They list all the enemies that drop a specific item. == Where do I find a good build for my Character? == Builds in general require a lot of thought and time to put together. There is simply not enough room in this page to describe all your builds. In your specific [[../Jobs|Job]] section however; you should be able to find a build for your specific character. Also keep in mind that a perfect build does not exist, every character is supposed to suit the player's style. == Why do people like to buy Solid Horns? == 100 Solid horns can be exchanged at the [[../Quests/Exchange Quest| Exchange Quest]] for 500 experience. While this is not much at higher levels, you can bring a level 10 player into the Exchange Quest and constantly get around 500 exp for every 100 horns. This is most likely the fastest way to level up at early levels, although it can be quite expensive if you do not gather the horns yourself. Zombie's Lost Teeth, Jr. Yeti Skins, and Hector Tails are also popular choices, as they provide better rewards than Solid Horns. Though being more expensive, in these cases most people will hunt the items themselves. Zombie Teeth also have a relatively high supply due to the sheer number of players that train on Coolie Zombies for a large number of levels (60-80 for most classes). Again, if you have a second, stronger character, use them to get the solid horns or any other exchange quest items. That way, you get exp for both of your characters. == What Job should I choose? == This has been answered in the [[../Jobs#Which class should I choose?|Jobs]] section. == How do you jump and attack in the air with magicians and archers? == Assassins can do this much easier. For archers, this is answered in the Archer guides [[MapleStory/Bowman_Guide#Jump_Shot|here]]. Magicians use the same technique, except with their spells. Magicians can also attack and teleport at the same time, and it is the same technique again, except using teleport instead of jump. When doing an attack normally, your character is unable to move for a short period of time until the attack animation is complete. With the jump shot, you are able to move while performing the attack. However the arrow/spell acts as if it was shot/cast while on the ground. For mages and bowmen, to jump shoot you have to jump and then a split second later, then shoot. This takes practice to master. :Warriors and Thieves have an innate ability to attack in mid-air, while Mages and Bowmen can't. Mages and Bowmen can take advantage of a glitch in the game to jump while attacking, although the only thing this does is help you move while attacking. This is accomplished by pressing attack *first*, then jump immediately afterwards. 20:23, 18 March 2006 (UTC) :: It should be noted that different keyboards have different responces to the jump-attack glitch. Some keyboards can do it very easily, some keyboards require attack and then jump button, some keyboards require the reverse. So try doing it differently if it doesn't work for you the first time. Also, the internet connection of the user has an affect on the jump shot. == Is anything known about the fourth jobs? == Fourth jobs are currently not released in any server. However, the KoreaMS Beta server is testing fourth jobs. Currently, only a few things are known about this job advancement: *The names of the fourth job classes. *There is a skill that is common to all classes. *Each class currently has one class-specific skill. KoreaMS is currently accepting suggestions for new skills. See [[MapleStory/Jobs]] for more information. == How do I open a shop in the Free Market?== To do this, you must purchase a Store Permit in the Cash Shop. The Permit will last for 90 days, during which it may be used as often as you like withing the numbered Free Market areas. == What Is Scrolling? == Scrolling is the process of buying usually expensive scrolls (70,000 mesos for cheap 100% scrolls, w.atk for gloves can rise as high as several million mesos), and then using them on your items. Usually; a fully scrolled item is better than the next item. For example, a +7 Red Viper (lvl 35 bow) can have 68 weapon attack and 7 accuracy if scrolled with 60%s. An unscrolled Vaulter 2000 (lvl 40 bow) has upto 59 weapon attack if you are lucky. Because of the lvl 40/50 gap, it is recommended that you start scrolling your weapons at lvl 40. 10 levels take a long time, and most level 50 weapons are rare (though creatable in Ludibrium). So you may be using your lvl 40 weapon well into lvl 55 or even level 60! Scrolling allows you to make your weapon stronger without buying a new weapon. 10%s, 60%s and 100%s are three kinds of scrolls that are available. 10%s give the best stats, but only work 10% of the time. 60%s do best on average, but they are usually very very expensive. 100% scrolls are usually cheap, as most are available from NPCs scattered across the Maple Story world, and they always work. However, 100%s won't get you the best possible weapon. In JMS, there are 30% and 70% scrolls also available. These are similar to 10%s and 60%s, except they may destroy your weapon in the process (50% chance if the scroll fails). All items can be scrolled, even pet items! If you are a warrior, thief or archer, weapon attack effects your damage the most, usually 3 or 4 times more effective than increasing your primary stat. Mages should focus on getting intelligence on their items, usually on the earrings. 60% Jump scrolls on shoes are recommended for warriors, thieves and archers, while if you go with 100%s, speed on shoes works out better. ==How long does it take for (name) to spawn?== The following are estimates: *Chief Gray: randomly *Rombot (Lombard): 15~20 minutes *MT-09: 15-30 minutes *Mushmom: 45~60 minutes *Jr. Balrog: 4~6 hours *Zombie Mushmom: 45-90 minutes If anyone has more accurate information, feel free to add it. ==How long will it take to get [certain starting ability point allocation]?== In general, it is more likely to generate evenly distributed ability points (e.g. STR6 DEX6 INT7 LUK6) than skewed ability points (e.g. STR4 DEX13 INT4 LUK4). The total ability points is 25, and the minimum for any ability is 4. The maximum for an ability is 13, though that is rare (see below). The way starting abilities are generated: (Not verified, though seems to be a good approximation) # All abilities are set equal to 4. # Randomly choose STR, DEX, INT, or LUK and add one point to that ability. # Repeat until STR + DEX + INT + LUK = 25. The below table shows approximately how long it will take to generate certain ability point distributions. These times are approximate and actual results may vary. One person may get a certain distribution within 1 minute whereas another person will take 10 minutes, depending on clicking speed and pure luck. {| class="wikitable" !align="left"|Ability Points !align="left"|Exact Probability !align="left"|Approximate Time Required |- |align="left"|07 06 06 06 |align="left"|7560/262144 |align="left"|1 minute |- |align="left"|07 07 07 04 |align="left"|1680/262144 |align="left"|2 minutes |- |align="left"|09 06 06 04 |align="left"|0756/262144 |align="left"|6 minutes |- |align="left"|12 05 04 04 |align="left"|0009/262144 |align="left"|8 hours |- |align="left"|13 04 04 04 |align="left"|0001/262144 |align="left"|3 days! |- |align="left"|- |align="left"|- |align="left"|- |- |align="left"|XX XX 04 04 |align="left"|0512/262144 |align="left"|9 minutes |} The table shows how hard it is to get large numbers like 12 and 13, especially where you want them. Therefore, don't set your goal too high, unless you have time for 3 days of nonstop playing! ==What should I do to avoid being scammed?== Three important points: # Learn how scammers scam. (Go to the Introduction.) # Use common sense, be smart, and watch for suspicious offers. # Report possible scams. Common Scams: *"Drop Game": Someone dares you to drop a valuable item. That person picks it up before you can. (Don't do something because someone dares you to!) They often bring you to specific areas where another character can hid behind walls and run out to get your items when you drop them too. *"Tab Tab Space Enter": That key sequence accepts any trade that's going on. If you put something valuable up for trade, the other person can take it. (Don't press keys unless you know what they do.) *Any Unsecured Trade: Don't do it. You never know if someone will keep their promise. *"Middleman": A person is making a really good trade offer to you, but you don't have the specific thing they want. Luckily, you find someone who offers just that thing, but at a high price. You buy it, but when you go back to the first person to make the trade, they refuse. (This is a co-op scam between the two people.) *"Tax Evasion": Paying for an expensive item in parts is risky, because either the scammer gives only 49999 for your expensive item and doesn't pay up the rest, or the scammer makes you pay until you are short about 50000, then leaves without giving you anything. *"The Hold Enter, Keep Clicking Trick": This happens in the Free Market, the title usually says, "To Enter, Hold Enter and Click". When you actually enter, you would have clicked on something twice, and the pop up says 'You sure you want to buy ______ for ___ mesos" or something simular, while holding enter will trigger you to pressing 'OK' on that item, thus buying the item. The trick is you will not be able to see the pop-up since your holding enter which instantly presses 'OK'. You could accidently buy a useless item(eg.Snail Shell) for 1 million mesos even. *"Scroll Switch" You are about to purchase an expensive scroll, but the trade window closes. The person with the scroll re-trades apologising that the window was closed by mistake and puts a scroll of the same % but is a worthless scroll and quickly trades. So you spend a large amount of mesos on a useless scroll if you do not check the item again. Miscellaneous: *Always check the trade one last time before accepting. Carefully examine all items the other person is offering, and make sure you are putting up the correct items, too. *Beginners: learn the average prices of items on reliable websites before making expensive trades. If anyone has any more tips, feel free to add them here. = Warrior Specific= == What is the point of a Hybrid Spearman? == Hybrid spearmen seem like a dumb idea at first; you don't get final attack and you max out a weapon that you think you won't use. However, maxing out both weapons gives a massive advantage in 3rd job. In 3rd job, there are 2 main attacks for a Dragon Knight, and those are Spear Crusher, and Dragon Fury. Dragon Fury will always be stronger with a polearm because it always swings, while Spear Crusher will always be stronger with a spear because it always stabs. The idea is not to switch weapons in the middle of battle, but to switch to another weapon when the map calls for it. For example, flatter maps would prefer Spear Crusher because stabs have a bit more horizontal range, while in hilly maps, Dragon Fury's swing motion would cover more vertical grounds. ==Do I need Final Attack or Not?== Many warriors wonder, whats final attack, and why should I have it? Final Attack is much like an MP free Power Strike. When it is maxed it has a 60% chance of following any attack with a damage of 250%. Now the real question is "Do I need it?" Well if you are a Fighter FA is almost required. It is fast MP free and powerful. Now with a Page I personally think it is a very good idea to max FA. At 3rd job the page gets elemental skills that work for a certain amount of time. Since FA is fast you can get a few extra hits with each element. Some Spearmans may prefer this skill, but it's usually the users choice (in my case, i have.) : Last I heard warrior third job skills DO NOT activate final attack. I.E. Crusher and Thresher will not activate it. ~Marl :: I would have to agree with Marl. Any references though? This is one reason why most 2nd job Spearmen skip FA, because it doesn't work with Crusher. --[[User:Dragontamer|Dragontamer]] 04:25, 29 March 2006 (UTC) FA will definitely NOT work with 3rd job skills. It is only triggered by Power Strike and Slash Blast. ~If you check Sleepywood's guides you'll get verification from many people. Third job skills just don't activate final attack. And if anyone was still unclear, neither will NORMAL attacks. Just Power Strike and Slash Blast ~ One last thing, in case anyone wasn't aware of it still, Final Attack diffuses its damage with Slash Blast. Basically this means instead of doing 500, 500, 500 with Slash Blast you'll find your attack broken up with 500, 100, 500, 100, etc... whilst it's still free damage, and you'll level faster with Power Strike getting the free fast FA off it, it does mess with Slash Blast. It apparently goes down in damage as it spreads through the mob too. I've heard figures of 2000 normal damage, 20 on the mob edge with FA. : with SB FA each following monster will receive 50% of the damage (up to 6 monsters). ex. 1000, 500, 250, 125, 63... that's why when you SB a mob the last 1 or 2 need an extra hit. Still, it's recommended you get it because there's not much else and it saves MP. ~ Marl hey ~ Adding to the confusion, it is possible for the first monster hit by a slash blast final attack to take more damage than a regular slash blast is capable of doing. It seems capable of doing 30% to 40% more damage than regular slash blast. ~ IMO there isn't a real reason as a fighter NOT to get it, because you can easily max all your skills as a fighter (as long as you pick either axe of sword) and it will GREATLY increase leveling speeds if this skill is maxed. = Magician Specific= == Fire/poison vs Ice/lightning vs Cleric == Also known as Fire wizs, Ice wizs/Lit wizs, or Clerics. This is answered in the [[../Magician Guide#Holy, Fire, Ice, Poison, or Lightning?|Magician Guide]] already. == How does MP eater work? == For any magic attack you do, you have a chance of draining a good amount of MP from the enemy, While it does nothing to the enemy, this basically means with max MP eater, you would only be able to drain so much MP from 1 foe. Every magic attack you do, there is a 30% chance that you would '''gain''' MP from the enemy. This includes magic claw, energy bolt, and even the cleric's "Heal" attack on undead monsters. Because of this, it is highly recommended that mages get 1 MP eater at level 30, to heal back MP at a rate even faster than MP recovery. MP Eater is especially effective with mob attacks such as Heal or Lightning, for obvious reasons. ==How do mages teleport backwards?== The Mage and Cleric Teleport skill work by sending you a certain distance in the direction of whichever arrow key is pressed, given that there is a platform to stand on at that location. ~A mage teleports backwards by pressing teleport then very quickly pressing back on their arrow keys. Simple as that. With practice you can abuse this apparent glitch by attacking, teleporting and pressing back in that order to attack whilst retreating backwards. Most mages I've seen use this technique for bosses etc as the attacks miss them if they teleport at the right moment. You can also do this forwards. Telecasting can also be done vertically. ~It's not a glitch. Teleport can be used at any time provided that: :1. You have enough mp :2. You're teleporting to a valid location :3. You're not in the middle of teleport ~ A glitch is anything occurring in a game that the programmers did not want to happen. Telecasting is a glitch that occurs because somehow they messed up so you can attack and teleport together. It just happens to be a very useful glitch they probably won't remove as it's become the only way mages can fight a lot of big monsters = Rogue Specific= == What is a Banditsin?== A Banditsin is a bandit that uses Lucky 7s in 1st job, and then turns into a Bandit 2nd job. Lucky 7s is a much better skill than Double Stab, as it is ranged, has innate mastery and does more damage. While this is more expensive than the typical Bandit build, it is much faster if you got the money to burn. But it can cause problems after you make the second job advancement. You might think that the banditsin are very much well stronger then you might be. There is a good explanation to that. The reason why is because of the use of there SP some might be dexless and some might raise STR. In the end a FULL BANDIT or a FULL ASSASSIN are way stronger then the hybrid BANDITSIN :Not true, the only difference between a Bandit and a Banditsin is that the Banditsin won't have Double Stab. Considering that Savage Blow will be more effective than Double Stab past Level ~45, and that the AP build doesn't change, we can concur that Banditsins are just as powerful as Bandits. --[[User:EMP Demon|EMP Demon]] ::And why the hell would a dexless banditsin raise their STR? LUK increases L7 damage, and STR is only used for STR bandits. --[[User:Daze|Daze]] = Bowman Specific = == Double Shot or Arrow Blow? == This has been answered [[../Bowman Guide/Builds#Conclusions_of_the_first_Great_Archer_Debate:_AB_vs_DS|here in the bowman section]] completely. == Final Attack or No Final Attack?? == The debate of FA vs FAless is different for Bowmen than warriors, so warriors who want that answer should check out the Warrior specific questions. As for archers, it has been answered in the [[../Bowman Guide/Skills_and_Builds#The_Greater_Archer_Debate:_FA_or_FA-less?| Skills and Builds]] section of the Bowman Guide. If you are to lazy to go there, well, there cannot be a very precise answer. FA archers and FA-less archers tend to hang out on the same forums, and thus you have clusters of people who think "everyone else" is doing the same as they are doing. For example: the GameFAQs forums usually say FA-less, while Sleepywood forums are a bit more neutral and say both ways go. But for someone on GameFAQs, it is easy for them to think that "everyone" is doing FA-less. This is a very deep issue, too deep to be summarized in a couple of sentences. == Crossbow or Bow? == Before changing classes to a Bowman or Crossbowman, the player can switch back and forth between bows and crossbows with no penalty. It is purely based on preference. In depth information about the advantages and disadvantages of both weapons can be found [[../Bowman_Guide#Hunter_or_Crossbow??|here]]. {{BookCat}} 1fyq05qclgbgv6jg07cg2skbbkvu1u1 0 433271 4095684 3916868 2022-08-24T06:17:50Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki Note that most of the glitches here apply to the NES version exclusively, meaning they were later fixed in the ''Super Mario All-Stars'' and/or ''Super Mario Advance 4'' re-releases. ==Air walking== This is a simple and minor glitch. Go into quicksand with your P-Meter full as Raccoon or Tanooki Mario. Fly and instead of a flying sprite, Mario will have a walking sprite. This was fixed in Super Mario All-Stars. ==Brick blocked== In World 3-6, there's a brick on one platform that contains a raccoon leaf. Throw the nearby koopa's shell at the block to release the power-up. Collect it. Then, quickly jump to the brick above and it won't break. This was not fixed in Super Mario All-Stars. ==Gray Hammer Suit Mario== Enter the bonus room in 7-8 which includes a Hammer Suit as Tanooki Mario. Jump at the giant ? block, then stand so that the bouncing suit hits you, but transform to a statue before it hits you. If you did it correctly, you should transform into gray Hammer Mario. You're completely invulnerable in this form - but you cannot enter the pipe to exit this room, so you're stuck until time runs out. Ths was not fixed in Super Mario All-Stars. ==Invisible muncher== In the second piranha plant level, enter with a P-Wing. Fly to the last thin pipe in the level and go on it. You'll get hurt and die for no reason at all! ==Pipe bug== Go to either World 3-9 or World 7-5 as big Mario. Both have pipes directly beside ice blocks. Stand on the pipe and remove the bottom-right ice block from Mario's position, then run and duck to get inside (kick the ice blocks under you away as well). Once you're in this small gap, duck and jump to try to wedge yourself between the ice block and the pipe and hold down. If you did it correctly, Mario should eventually go down beside the pipe and land on the other side, except he's nowhere to be seen. You can now move the screen freely, but are stuck here indefinitely. To return to normal play, you'll need to wait for time to run out and lose a life, or reset the game. This trick works on both the original NES version, as well as the Super Mario All-Stars version. ==Small to fiery== In World 5-7, there is a wooden block with a fire flower. Release it as Super Mario but don't collect it. Next, get hit by a Pile Driver Micro-Goomba. After that, hit the question block directly to the left of the fire flower. Collect the flower and you'll become Fire Mario. Small Mario normally would become Super Mario. This was not fixed in Super Mario All-Stars and is meaningless in Super Mario Advance 4 because a Fire Flower changes Small to Fire Mario normally in Super Mario Advance 4. ==Squashed statue Mario== Enter World 5-2 as Tanooki Mario. Turn into a statue above the top of the cliff to the left of the player. Mario will slide down as a statue. When he reaches the bottom, he'll die for no reason! It works because Mario escapes the level's boundaries. This was not fixed in Super Mario All-Stars. ==Remove Bowser's Fire Abilities and Defeat Him Easily== Enter Bowser's Castle with a P-Wing. There are two separate Bowser rooms and the glitch requires you to go to a certain one. The easier way to do the glitch takes you to a room with Donut Lifts over lava, but the glitch can't be performed if you enter the door at the end of the hall. The other way takes you to a room with solid block platforms over lava. This is the one where you must enter the door at the end of the hallway. However, getting to this room without losing the P-Wing is very hard, since it requires to get past a Thwomp, and the P-Wing slows your descent, causing you to lose the power-up and the glitch can't be performed. There is a way to get to this room without encountering the Thwomp. Simply take the easier route to the room with lava and Donut Lifts. At the end of the room, instead of entering the door to the Bowser chamber, fly upward and fly to the space between the ceiling and the statue. This will take you to the other room with the lava and the solid block platforms. '''Warning''': do not squeeze your way through the ceiling in this second room; if you do, you will get stuck in the side of the screen until time runs out and you lose a life, and the P-Wing. Enter the door to Bowser's chamber. Now, fly upward to the wall on the left and you will be in Bowser's other chamber. He will be making belching motions, but will be unable to produce fire. Also, if you are ducking, Bowser cannot harm you, allowing you to beat him easily by ducking under him, and then move out of the way when he is going to ground pound a third time. This glitch wasn't fixed in Super Mario All-Stars ==Vine bug== Go to either World 3-9 (as Raccoon Mario) or World 6-10 with a Starman. In both cases, there will be a block containing a vine. Grab onto the vine ''while you still have Starman power.'' Even when it wears off, you'll still be somersaulting! Go off the vine to end this. This was not fixed in Super Mario All-Stars or Super Mario Advance 4. ==White block invincibility== In World 5-7, go to the bonus area. Find the White Block and duck on it. After you fall behind the scenery, quickly exit the bonus area. If you were fast enough, you won't get hurt by any enemies! ==World 7-1 Skip== In World 7-1 exists a wall clip which can be used to skip the entire level. Begin by heading to the opening which would be used to enter the level, but do not go in it. Instead, make a running jump at the wall beside it (P speed, even if not a full meter, will help). Mario should be pushed through the wall and to the end of the level where he can then collect the card to proceed. {{BookCat}} pdpgw25hul5kdqlrqklcww8arz51799 0 434718 4095682 4070584 2022-08-24T06:16:27Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 poor English wikitext text/x-wiki <p style="clear: both;"></p> {{OpenRewi/Chapter-Top}} <p style="clear: both;"></p> <!--Please do not delete the part above this comment--> {{Template:OpenRewi/WIP}}<!--You can delete this template as soon as your text is (provisionally) finished--> <big>'''Author:''' Anna Hankings-Evans </big> <blockquote>'''Required knowledge:''' Link<!--Please insert links to other parts of the book or other books that are needed as prior knowledge--> </blockquote> <blockquote>'''Learning objectives:''' Understanding XY.<!--Please enter the learning objective for your chapter--> </blockquote> This is where the text begins.<ref name=":0">UNCTAD, ''Expropriation'', (New York and Geneva 2012) 6.</ref> This template follows [[Wikibooks:WikiProject_OpenRewi_-_Open_Legal_Science/Styleguide|our style guide]]. Please take into account our [[Wikibooks:WikiProject_OpenRewi_-_Open_Legal_Science/Didactics|guidelines for didactics]]. If you're wondering how to create text in Wikibooks, feel free to check out our guide on [[Wikibooks:WikiProject_OpenRewi_-_Open_Legal_Science/Writing|how to write]] in Wikibooks. {{OpenRewi/Advanced|Reference=Example|Content=This is your advanced content. You can create this text box using our template "Advanced". How to do this is described [[Wikibooks:WikiProject_OpenRewi_-_Open_Legal_Science/Writing|here]].}} {{Template:OpenRewi/Example|Content=This is your example.|Reference=to example topic}} {{Template:OpenRewi/Test|Link=https://openrewi.org/en/projects/project-public-international-law/history-theory-methods/#PIL-test}} Just replace the content above and below with your content. == A. Introduction: Colonial Origins, Global and Regional Trends == The evolution of the international law relating to foreign investment was accompanied and inevitably shaped by a long history of dispute over applicable rules and standards. The origins of what today is known as international investment law can be traced to the first half of the 20th century that witnessed significant developments of international norms protecting aliens and their property against interference of the territorial state. These developments were thereby largely shaped by major powers and the protection of their nationals assets in Latin American states. They largely excluded notably colonized territories, as protection of their nationals property was achieved through occupation and the subsequent installment of colonial administrative systems. It was the period of decolonization of Africa and Asia after World War II that significantly contributed to the evolution of today's 'modern' international investment law and ajudication. === I. The Evolution of International Investment Law === ==== 1. The Colonial Period ==== The law of foreign investment is inextricably linked with the colonial venture and expansion. It was early writings by European institutions on the treatment of aliens that launched the evolution of protection of assets abroad. For instance the Spanish philosopher, theologian, and jurist, Francisco de ''Vitoria'' (ca. 1483 – 1546), had insisted in his early encounters with indigenous people and land on a natural right of the Spanish to travel and to trade. It was the observed differences in culture and community that led to the justification of hegemony and colonial exploitation, thus the subsequent protection of forcefully acquired territory.<ref name=":3">Sornarajah, M., ''The International Law on Foreign Investment'' (Cambridge University Press 5th ed. 2021) 27.</ref> Likewise, the Dutch jurist Hugo ''Grotius'' (1583 – 1645), the 'father' of international law, had played an essential role in the legal justification of the colonial expansion into Asia and Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Grotius had worked closely with the directors of the Dutch East India Company (officially the United East India Company), a multinational trading and investment company of the 17th century, and developed rights and contract theories for the benefit of the corporation and its commercial, particularly foreign investment interests oversees.<ref>van Ittersum, M. (2006). ''Profit and Principle: Hugo Grotius, Natural Rights Theories and the Rise of Dutch Power in the East Indies (1595-1615)''. Brill Academic Publishers.</ref> In the 18th and 19th centuries, a large part of the non-Western world had been brought under colonial control, which made the development of rules on the protection of foreign investments largely redundant. Instead, investment protection of assets acquired in colonies was guaranteed by the forceful integration of the colonial legal systems into the imperial state's parliamentary and court system.<ref name=":3" /> Colonial state power, motivated by furthering the commercial interests of its trading and investment companies,<ref>Roy, T. East India Company: The World's Most Powerful Corporation (2012).</ref> thus, served as the protector of its nationals' investments abroad. ==== 2. Treaties of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation and “Unequal Treaties” ==== While so-called “gunboat diplomacy” served as investment protection in colonized territories, trade and investment relations to states which where not under colonial rule, such as China, were often established on the basis of the principle of extraterritoriality. For instance, bilateral treaties between the Qing dynasty in China and the United States as well as other European states that were negotiated governing diplomatic and commercial relations between the parties, stipulated home state jurisdiction, meaning the application of laws of the respective home state to its citizens abroad.<ref name=":4">Hanneman, Stacie. Moving Beyond the “Unequal Treaties”. ''Frontiers of History in China'' 7.3 (2012), pp. 344-375, pp. 345, 351.</ref> Due to the one-sidedness of privileges accorded by these treaties, they were later referred to as 'unequal treaties' by China. The inequality that inhibited these bilateral treaties was thereby a clear contradiction to the proclaimed sovereignty and equality of states under international law. On the other hand, they also manifested a clash of empires, from which one emerged as the victor by contractually establishing the victory of on legal framework over the other.<ref name=":4" /> ==== 3. The Quest for a (Customary) International Minimum Standard ==== The international Minimum Standard of Treatment is today considered a customary rule in international law regarding the treatment of aliens and their property within a host State. But it did not establish without being challenged by non-Western states. ===== a. The Soviet Union and the First Wave of Expropriation ===== Subsequent to the October Revolution in Russia, the Decree on Peace that was written by Vladimir Lenin, the head of government of Soviet Russia, was passed on 26th of October 1917 by the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, resulting in the abolition of private land and a wave of expropriation of foreign property without compensation.<ref name=":2">SALACUSE, Jeswald, ''The Law of Investment Treaties'' (Oxford University Press 2021 3rd ed) 168.</ref> Western governments reacted indignantly to the measures taken by the new Soviet government, insisting on a well-established principle among civilized states that prescribes compensation to be paid for any forceful expropriation and nationalization.<ref>See Resolution adopted at the Brussels Conference of 1921.</ref> In 1920, due to internal economic hardship, the Soviet Union passed the New Economic Policy with the intend of receiving economic assistance from the international community. It simultaneously opened up to the idea of compensating previously confiscated foreign property, nevertheless insisting that no customary state duty exists that would obligate a state to compensate foreign nationals in cases where property had been expropriated.<ref name=":2" /> In return for the Soviet Union's concessions, counterclaims were being asserted on behalf of the latter for military intervention it endured in response to the October Revolution. Years of negotiations followed, initiated by states such as the United Kingdom and the United States, which did, however, not lead to the anticipated outcome of successful settling all claims. The Soviet Union rather upheld its opposition to the customary minimum standard being asserted by the West. ===== b. The Calvo Doctrine ===== Likewise, Latin American states resisted the assertion of a customary international minimum standard. It was particularly the investment relations between the United States and Latin American states that triggered an international debate on the exact scope of foreign investment protection. Latin American states argued for 'national treatment' of foreign investors, meaning that they should not be treated better that local investors under the laws of the host state. This standard in treatment effectively restricted foreign investment protection to the standard accorded by domestic law. The conception became known as the so-called ''Calvo Doctrine'' that was developed by the Argentinian diplomat and legal scholar Carlos ''Calvo'' (1822 – 1906). The doctrine was first articulated in Calvo's ''Derecho internacional teórico y práctico de Europa y América'' (International law: Theory and practice in Europe and America), which was published in 1868. To give emphasis to the doctrine, Latin American states such as Peru and Bolivia went on to incorporate the ''Calvo'' Doctrine into their national constitutions or otherwise into their national legal frameworks, or entered into commercial agreements with foreign investors based on the Calvo Doctrine.<ref name=":2" /> Western states responded by challenging the legality of domestically regulating foreign investments under international law's doctrine of diplomatic protection. ===== c. The Hull Formula ===== Conversely, capital-exporting states such as the United States maintained the existence of an international (minimum standard) of treatment applicable to foreign investments must be a standard that exists independently of local laws. The so-called ''Hull Formula'' formula was coined in 1938 by former U.S. Secretary of State and co-founder of the United Nations Cordell Hull (1871 – 1955). According to it, compensation must be 'prompt, adequate and effective.' ''Prompt'' in that regard refers to compensation in close temporal connection with the expropriation, especially if otherwise an inflationary loss would have to be accepted, ''adequate'' refers to appropriate, usually full compensation for value (market value), and ''effective'' means payment without foreign exchange restrictions and in a convertible currency. ===== d. The Era of Decolonization and the Second Wave of Expropriation ===== With the end of World War II and the subsequent decolonization of the Global South, newly independent states increasingly challenged the customary rules on foreign investments. They argued that the emergence of such rules had largely excluded the perspectives and participation of formerly colonized states. They, further, argued that the asserted international law on foreign investments was central to the underdevelopment of newly independent state as they primarily upheld existing power structures and served economic interests of predominantly Western states. It was for this reason that a global regime for investment emerged through the negotiation of international investment agreements (IIAs), negotiated primarily on the basis of bilateral relations. These agreements form part of international law and are intended to protect and promote foreign investments in the respective territories of contracting states. One of the main features in IIAs is the guaranteed protection of foreign investment against expropriation and nationalization without compensation. Today virtually all BITs entail a substantive provision protecting foreign property against expropriation. This is partly due to the numerous cases of expropriation that arose in the 1960s, when newly independent states moved to nationalize foreign property. Many former colonies regarded nationalizations as an integral part of their decolonization process.<ref name=":0" /> ===== e. Towards a New International Economic Order (NIEO) ===== In the several resolutions were passed within the United Nations General Assembly, calling for the establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). One cornerstone of the demand was the replacement of international laws governing the expropriation of aliens with domestic laws of the nationalizing state that would determine appropriate compensation and settle disputes arising from the question of compensation.<ref>DOLZER, Rudolf and SCHREUER, Christoph, ''Principles of International Investment Law'' (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2012) 4.</ref> ==== 4. The 21st Century and International Investment Law's Legitimacy Crisis ==== === II. Legal Sources === ==== 1. Customary Law ==== ==== 2. International Investment Agreements ==== ==== 3. (Private) Investment Contracts ==== ==== 4. Domestic Laws Governing Foreign Investment ==== == B. General Structure and Substantial Guarantees of International Investment Agreements == === I. Overview and Structure of International Investment Agreements === IIAs can be defined as international agreements between two or more states that governs investments made by a national of one state party to the treaty in the territory of the other state party treaty.<ref name=":2" /> IIAs generally show slight variations in language, with some restricting host state actions more severely than others. This is largely depends on and is often due to the differences in bargaining of negotiating states. Nevertheless, virtually all IIAs share significant similarities regarding their general structure and substantive provisions on the standard of treatment of foreign investors and their investments.<ref name=":2" /> At the beginning of May 2022, the total number of IIAs was 3219, of which 2794 were Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs).<ref>UNCTAD, IIA [https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements Navigator]</ref> === II. The General Scope of Application of International Investment Agreements === While IIAs generally aim at protecting 'foreign investment' and establish a standard of treatment, shielding foreign assets against host state intervention, a natural or legal person can only claim protection under the respective agreement, in cases where the person also falls under the treaty's scope of application. Each IIA therefore offers a definition of what constitutes an investment under the IIA and who benefits from its protection. In negotiating IIAs, states usually aim at allocating the maximum possible protection to its own citizens, companies and corporations, while making sure, no nationals from other states are excluded of benefitting from the IIAs protection. ==== 1. Principal Actors ==== International Investment Law typically involves a tripartite set of actors: the capital-exporting home state, the capital-importing host state and the foreign investor. Traditionally, only States were considered principal subjects of international law, which led to the customary doctrine of diplomatic protection being the only remedy available to the foreign investor in question that wished to challenge host state measures affecting his or her property rights abroad. Diplomatic protection, however, constituted a genuine right of the home state, not the foreign investor, and accordingly largely depended on the home state's political willingness to challenge host state actions against its national by way of initiating an international claim for compensation.<ref name=":1">MUCHLINSKI, Peter, ''Policy Issues'' in: Muchlinski, Peter, Ortino, Frederico, and Schreuer, Christoph (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Investment Law (Oxford University Press 2008) 6.</ref> Diplomatic protection thereby depended on the exhaustion of domestic remedies as well as the foreign national's nationality that would amount to a genuine link between national and home state. The development of a separate international treaty-based substantive and procedural law thus also served to depoliticize the investment relationship. ==== 2. Foreign Investors ==== Most IIAs distinguish between and provide a definition for foreign investors that are natural persons and legal entities and offer different definitions for the two categories. But there are also IIA that just offer one definition that is equally applicable to natural and legal persons. The foreign investor, either a natural or legal person, does thereby not acquire international legal personality, but is, by way of an international agreement between the two states in question, empowered to resort to treaty-based dispute resolution using international platforms and procedures.<ref name=":1" /> These developments are similar to those in other areas of international law, namely human rights law, which comparatively give individuals a treaty-based right of action against a state. Foreign investors can be divided into several sub-categories, the most important being non-state actors, meaning private investors as well as state investors.<ref>SALACUSE, Jeswald, ''The Law of Investment Treaties'' (Oxford University Press 2021 3rd ed) 37.</ref> But also a number of international institutions and organizations play a crucial role abroad, such as the the World Bank and its affiliates. Development institutions typically invest both state and private capital to curb economic development in host states but simultaneously earn a return on invested funds.<ref name=":5">SALACUSE, Jeswald, ''The Law of Investment Treaties'' (Oxford University Press 2021 3rd ed) 40.</ref> Sometimes investors are finally found in mixed form, for example, when a private company decides to enter into a joint venture with a state-owned company and invest jointly abroad.<ref name=":5" /> ===== a. Private Investors ===== Private investors are either a natural or legal person that are not affiliates of any government or state. ====== i. Natural Persons as 'investor' ====== In principle any natural person fall under the scope of an IIA, if that natural person has the citizenship or nationality of the host state. Occasionally, the home state extends the scope of application also to natural persons that permanently reside in in the home state. Many IIAs thereby shift the scope of application to the domestic sphere, by establishing that domestic law as the denominator for the necessary link to the home state. Natural persons with dual citizenship accordingly pose a challenge to the establishment of the link, as IIAs are not intended to, for instance, leverage one nationality against the other. ====== ii. Companies or legal entities as 'investors' ====== The typical form of private investors are regularly companies and corporations that are owned or controlled by private individuals. Companies and corporations are usually created under domestic law of the respective home state, and can thus vary in form and structure. Nevertheless, companies and corporations share some characteristics irrespective of their place of origin and seat, for instance being entities with 'limited liability' and allowing for centralized control and management, even if subsidiaries are located in different home states. Firstly, they exist as separate legal entity that is separate and distinct from the legal personality of their owners or shareholders. They can, secondly, sue and be sued both in their domestic jurisdiction and abroad. And, finally, they can enter into legal and contractual relationships that allows them, for instance, to acquire and transfer property. In that way, they are comparable to natural persons who engage in similar legal relationships. Companies and corporations can take complex forms, particularly if they enter into joint-ventures with other companies and create subsidies in receiving states. They can also appear as so-called 'multinational corporations', for example, if different companies are linked to one another by contract or by way of share ownership. This has enabled private entities in the past to choose between different investment dispute forums offered by BITs, depending on which standard of protection and access to ajudication is regarded more favorable. This phenomenon has been referred to as 'forum shopping'. Forum shopping strategies can be described as the systematic utilization or exploitation of co-existing jurisdictions for the sake of certain legal or factual advantages and accordingly raise numerous legitimacy and fairness issues that have been addressed in international academia and by various NGOs. ===== b. State Investors ===== State investors usually refer to state-owned enterprises, government corporations or entities that are at least controlled by the state.<ref>SALACUSE, Jeswald, ''The Law of Investment Treaties'' (Oxford University Press 2021 3rd ed) 38.</ref> State affiliated investors thereby raise a couple of geopolitical concerns, for instance regarding a home state's influence and a host state's security interests. This is because a state-owned or state controlled entity owning assets in another state allows for political power of that entity, and thus, the state of origin. States hiding behind a state-owned or state-controlled corporation that owns assets in another state may thereby exercise political power over the home state in question. State investors may also warrant concerns over national security, economic dependency and sovereignty, depending on how the receiving state conceptualizes its economic ideology.It is therefore crucial that home states assess potential risks and regulate accordingly those sectors that are not open to foreign investment by a state investor. This has been done by many capital-importing states, as state-affiliated corporations remain important investors both domestically and globally.<ref>SALACUSE, Jeswald, ''The Law of Investment Treaties'' (Oxford University Press 2021 3rd ed) 39.</ref> ==== 2. Forms of International Investments ==== ===== a. Foreign Direct Investments ===== ===== b. Portfolio Investments ===== === III. Standard of Treatment === ==== 1. Principles of Non-Discrimination ==== ===== a. National Treatment ===== ===== b. Most Favoured Nation ===== ==== 2. Fair and Equitable Treatment ==== ==== 3. Other Standards ==== ===== a. Full Protection and Security ===== ===== b. Money Transfer Provisions ===== ==== 4. Guarantees Against Expropriation and Dispossession ==== The IIA terminology utilized in the respective provisions on expropriation are not uniform. Terms such as expropriation, taking, nationalization, dispossession, and deprivation are often used interchangeably, and their use usually depends on legal tradition and translation.<ref name=":0" /> While host state measures may target and seize foreign property directly, the prohibition usually extends to state measures short of physical taking. Such indirect measures may likewise impact the economic value of the foreign property in question or prevent foreign investor from its proper usage, management or control in a meaningful way.<ref name=":0" /> Host state measures that impact foreign property indirectly can, thus, be categorized as indirect expropriation and are sometimes explicitly referenced as prohibited host state measure. A third category of deprivation can arise in cases of host state regulation in the public interest that may affect foreign property in a similar manner such as in the cases of direct and indirect expropriation. The legality of such regulatory measures largely depend on the preservation of regulatory space in a state's IIA regime and will be further addressed below when discussing the right to regulate. ==== 5. Non-Precluded Measures: Essential Security, Economic Stability and the Defence of Necessity ==== ==== 6. Dispute Settlement ==== ===== a. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) ===== ===== b. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) ===== == C. Public Policy Issues: Environmental Protection, Human Rights and Sustainable Development == === I. Fragmentation in International Law === === II. The Right to Regulate === === III. Legitimacy and Postcoloniality === ==D. Investor-State Dispute Settlement and Legitimacy Concerns == ==Further Readings== * Source I * Source II ==Conclusion== * Summary I * Summary II <!--Please do not delete the part under this comment--> {{OpenRewi/Chapter-End}} {{BookCat}} f0z0nj0600i6hndoifo3o99xatb8p6f 0 438382 4095676 3999988 2022-08-24T06:08:43Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki Note taking is vital when ''Reading Textbooks'' and ''Listening To Lectures''. Note taking serves a number of purposes. The least important reason is to have material for review. The real reason for note taking is to get the material to stick in your brain. By taking notes, you are actively engaging your brain in the process. And it helps keep you awake. #Get the keys - Make notes of key words, phrases and concepts. #Summarize - Make summaries of the keys. #Restate - Use your own words when writing down the keys. This causes you to think about them. #Review - Always review. Review always. Always. Review. Get it? Now read that again. These instructions are derived from the Cornell study method. You can find more information about the Cornell Notes format [http://www.bucks.edu/~specpop/Cornl-ex.htm here]. ==Tips== *Don't try to substitute a tape recorder or prepared lecture notes for note taking. Remember that making a record of the lecture is the least important reason for taking notes. *Don't try to copy the lecture word for word. Instead try to summarize the major points. This causes you to listen actively. *Talk to yourself in your notes. Note what is interesting, what is boring, what makes sense, and what doesn't. *Summarize what you have learned. Some people highlight the most important sentence on each page. (Highlighting nearly every sentence on a page is a clear sign that you don't understand it.) Others keep scratch paper, and jot down a summary of every chapter - a few sentences noting the topic of that chapter and the three most important things about that topic. *Draw diagrams in your notes, label them, and color them, if you want. Diagrams related to the lecture are what is useful. Unrelated diagrams are merely doodles. *Visually organize points into groups. Use outlines, brackets, lists, arrows, stars, boxes, circles, and others. *Use color pens or highlighters to mark the different parts of concepts, such as key term, definition, examples, person, place or time, etc. ==Annotation system== If you are annotating a text, for example, a scientific article, try creating an annotating scheme. One system is to: *circle words or ideas I do not understand or have never seen *put a bracket around things I wish to highlight *underline things I especially wish to highlight *put an angle bracket next to things I disagree with *put an arrow next to things I find remarkable or interesting (scientific articles) Play around with this. Let the system evolve to suit your needs. See if colors are of any use; I personally prefer not to switch pens so I stick to blue (to contrast against the black text) == Read more == * There is a separate Wikibook on [[Note taking]]. {{Bookcat}} 7wlnb8lqhwc6g1s6oae1a15esja4exm 1 439677 4095696 4015394 2022-08-24T07:46:54Z 41.115.81.184 /* Geography */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki == Review: Onboarding == ''This'' is my '''review'''. --[[User:Max Milas|Max Milas]] ([[User talk:Max Milas|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Max Milas|contribs]]) 09:35, 14 December 2021 (UTC) == Geography == Investigation of a Settlement f3so2tnma6ibnqkayjy2la0ilbylxfg 0 440627 4095679 4077994 2022-08-24T06:09:46Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki '''Old English''' or '''Anglo-Saxon''' was the West Germanic language spoken in England from about 500 AD, after the arrival of several Germanic tribes (mostly the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes) to southern Great Britain, until about 1100 AD, shortly after the Norman Conquest. It died by evolving into Middle English, which had a simpler declension and conjugation system and somewhat Frenchified orthography, and which also borrowed a significant number of Norman-French words due to Norman-French being the language of the aristocracy. == Technical Info == * Language family: Indo-European languages/Germanic languages/West-Germanic languages * Region: Was spoken in southern Britain, approximately modern-day England (but also the south of modern-day Scotland, and probably not in the entirety of modern-day Cornwall) * Number of speakers: Currently probably thousands of (mostly?) academics with some knowledge; much fewer with any kind of fluency; no known native speakers * Scripts: Insular Latin alphabet (with the addition of ash, thorn, eth, and wynn to fill some gaps); small amount written in Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc runes * Majority language: Itself (languages of neighbouring nations included Old Welsh, Old Gaelic, Old Norse, and amongst scholars Latin) == Writing system == The vast majority of Old English manuscripts were written in a modified version of the Insular Latin script, with the additional letters ash (Æ, æ), eth (Ð, ð), thorn (Þ, þ), and wynn (Ƿ, ƿ) (the last two were borrowed from the fuþorc). Unlike most modern written Old English, most Old English texts did not have long vowels explicitly marked. There are a few examples of long vowels in Old English being represented with doubled letters and possibly also by having an accute-accent-like mark above the vowel (though the latter method was not clearly definitely used to mark long vowels). In modern editions of Old English texts, double-u is usually used instead of wynn, and long vowels are usually marked with macrons. Also, palatalization is sometimes marked (see paragraph below). It is most likely that the Anglo-Saxons wrote very phonologically (as did most European languages that had a writing system at the time), which does help in attempts to reconstruct the language's phonology. However, their writing system seems to largely represent a pre-palatalization pronunciation, while we know that the palatalization phenomenon in Old English was already complete by the time Middle English came around (because they explicitly recognized palatalization in Middle English orthography). In other words, in the latter Old English stage at least, the writing did not necessarily recognize all significant features of the phonology (possibly because writing standards tend to lag behind spoken speech); but there is certainly ''some'' evidence in latter Old English writing that palatalization had already taken place or was taking place. But there are other, etymological reasons to believe that at least a "germ" of the palatalization phenomenon was present in Old English from the time of the first written records – perhaps the palatalized forms earlier on did not sound different enough to the Old English ear to be recognized as separate in writing. == Borrowed words == Before their arrival to Britain, various Germanic tribes had contact with the Roman empire, and borrowed a small few words into their own language or languages. After arrival, to Britain, they borrowed and adapted many Celtic place-names, but borrowed very few everyday words from the Celtic languages apart from that. After the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons, quite a few (possibly several hundred) words were borrowed from Greco-Latin, especially for church-related areas. Some Anglo-Saxon writers seem to show a tendency to calque words. For example, the word ''efenniht'' from "equinox" – "equal night". A few seemed to be particularly creative in translating foreign words with totally new neologisms, for example "Sundorhālgan" ("separate holy people") for "Pharisee". In Anglo-Saxon poetic tradition, as in other ancient Germanic languages, poets would regularly make up neologisms (called today "kennings") "on-the-fly" to help fit a particular idea into their poetic meter. == See also == * [[:w:en:Old English|Old English's article on the English Wikipedia]] <noinclude>{{BookCat}}</noinclude> f8byk9yqfy5qyd9gmzyaaoo72cgqf20 0 442358 4095444 4067704 2022-08-23T15:16:13Z 146.189.182.8 wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub}} This book discusses modern popular music, which comprises genres such as pop, rock, jazz, etc., from 1970 to present. * [[Popular Music/Jason Mraz/Have It All|Jason Mraz - Have It All]] * [[Popular Music/Luis Fonsi/Despacito|Luis Fonsi - Despacito]] * [[Popular Music/Maroon 5/Memories|Maroon 5 - Memories]] * [[Popular Music/Taylor Swift/Blank Space|Taylor Swift - Blank Space]] * [[Popular Music/The Weeknd/Save Your Tears|The Weeknd - Save Your Tears]] {{Shelves|Music}} {{alphabetical|P}} {{status|00%}} 8f1fjazlrmmaja4rrurv5xld0af9i3j 0 443454 4095476 4088743 2022-08-23T16:45:49Z Refcanimm 3267488 /* RAD Rule 30: Providing a Document */ wikitext text/x-wiki == RAD Rules Part 3 == The text of the relevant rules reads:<pre>PART 3 Rules Applicable to All Appeals Communicating with the Division Communicating with Division 14 All communication with the Division must be directed to the registry office specified by the Division. Change to contact information 15 If the contact information of a person who is the subject of an appeal changes, the person must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the Minister.</pre> == RAD Rule 16: Counsel == <pre>Counsel Retaining counsel after providing notice 16 (1) If a person who is the subject of an appeal retains counsel after providing a notice of appeal or a notice of intent to respond, as the case may be, the person must without delay provide the counsel’s contact information in writing to the Division and to the Minister. Change to counsel’s contact information — person (2) If the contact information of counsel for a person who is the subject of an appeal changes, the person must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the Minister.</pre> === A failure to copy the Minister on a change of counsel can be procedurally unfair === RAD Rule 16(2) provides that if the person who is the subject of the appeal retains new counsel, that person must without delay notify the Minister in writing. A failure to do so is potentially procedurally unfair and may justify setting aside the decision, as the Federal Court did in ''Canada v. Miller''.<ref>''Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v. Miller,'' 2022 FC 1131 (CanLII), at para 72, <https://canlii.ca/t/jr5nh#par72>, retrieved on 2022-08-03.</ref><pre>Change to counsel’s contact information — Minister (3) If the contact information of counsel for the Minister changes, the Minister must without delay provide the changes in writing to the Division and to the person who is the subject of the appeal. Declaration — counsel not representing or advising for consideration 17 If a person who is the subject of an appeal retains counsel who is not a person referred to in any of paragraphs 91(2)(a) to (c) of the Act, both the person who is the subject of the appeal and their counsel must without delay provide the information and declarations set out in the schedule to the Division in writing. Becoming counsel of record 18 (1) Subject to subrule (2), as soon as counsel for a person who is the subject of an appeal provides on behalf of the person a notice of appeal or a notice of intent to respond, as the case may be, or as soon as a person becomes counsel after the person provided a notice, the counsel becomes counsel of record for the person. Limitation on counsel’s retainer (2) If a person who is the subject of an appeal has notified the Division of a limitation on their counsel’s retainer, counsel is counsel of record only to the extent of the services to be provided within the limited retainer. Counsel ceases to be counsel of record as soon as those services are completed. Request to be removed as counsel of record 19 (1) To be removed as counsel of record, counsel for a person who is the subject of an appeal must first provide to the person and to the Minister a copy of a written request to be removed and then provide the written request to the Division. Proof request was provided (2) The request provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that copies were provided to the person represented and to the Minister. Request — if date for proceeding fixed (3) If a date for a proceeding has been fixed and three working days or less remain before that date, counsel must make the request orally at the proceeding. Division’s permission required (4) Counsel remains counsel of record unless the request to be removed is granted. Removing counsel of record 20 (1) To remove counsel as counsel of record, a person who is the subject of an appeal must first provide to counsel and to the Minister a copy of a written notice that counsel is no longer counsel for the person and then provide the written notice to the Division. Proof notice was provided (2) The notice provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that copies were provided to counsel and to the Minister. Ceasing to be counsel of record (3) Counsel ceases to be counsel of record when the Division receives the notice. Refugee Protection Division Record Providing notice of appeal 21 (1) The Division must without delay provide a copy of the notice of appeal to the Refugee Protection Division after the appeal is perfected under rule 3 or 9, as the case may be. Preparing and providing record (2) The Refugee Protection Division must prepare a record and provide it to the Division no later than 10 days after the day on which the Refugee Protection Division receives the notice of appeal. Content of record (3) The Refugee Protection Division record must contain (a) the notice of decision and written reasons for the decision that is being appealed; (b) the Basis of Claim Form as defined in the Refugee Protection Division Rules and any changes or additions to it; (c) all documentary evidence that the Refugee Protection Division accepted as evidence, during or after the hearing; (d) any written representations made during or after the hearing but before the decision being appealed was made; and (e) any audio or other electronic recording of the hearing. Providing record to absent Minister (4) If the Minister did not take part in the proceedings relating to the decision being appealed, the Division must provide a copy of the Refugee Protection Division record to the Minister as soon as the Division receives it. Language of the Appeal Choice of language 22 (1) A person who is the subject of an appeal must choose English or French as the language of the appeal. The person must indicate that choice in the notice of appeal if they are the appellant or in the notice of intent to respond if they are the respondent. Language — Minister’s appeals (2) If the appellant is the Minister, the language of the appeal is the language chosen by the person who is the subject of the appeal in the proceedings relating to the decision being appealed. Changing language (3) A person who is the subject of an appeal may change the language of the appeal that they chose under subrule (1) by notifying the Division and the Minister in writing without delay and, if a date for a proceeding has been fixed, the notice must be received by their recipients no later than 20 days before that date.</pre> == RAD Rule 23: Designated Representatives == <pre>Designated Representatives Continuation of designation 23 (1) If the Refugee Protection Division designated a representative for the person who is the subject of the appeal in the proceedings relating to the decision being appealed, the representative is deemed to have been designated by the Division, unless the Division orders otherwise. Duty of counsel to notify (2) If the Refugee Protection Division did not designate a representative for the person who is the subject of the appeal and counsel for a party believes that the Division should designate a representative for the person because the person is under 18 years of age or is unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings, counsel must without delay notify the Division in writing. Exception (3) Subrule (2) does not apply in the case of a person under 18 years of age whose appeal is joined with the appeal of their parent or legal guardian if the parent or legal guardian is 18 years of age or older. Content of notice (4) The notice must include the following information: (a) whether counsel is aware of a person in Canada who meets the requirements to be designated as a representative and, if so, the person’s contact information; (b) a copy of any available supporting documents; and (c) the reasons why counsel believes that a representative should be designated. Requirements for being designated (5) To be designated as a representative, a person must (a) be 18 years of age or older; (b) understand the nature of the proceedings; (c) be willing and able to act in the best interests of the person who is the subject of the appeal; and (d) not have interests that conflict with those of the person who is the subject of the appeal. Factors (6) When determining whether a person who is the subject of an appeal is unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) whether the person can understand the reason for the proceeding and can instruct counsel; (b) the person’s statements and behaviour at the proceeding; (c) expert evidence, if any, on the person’s intellectual or physical faculties, age or mental condition; and (d) whether the person has had a representative designated for a proceeding in a division other than the Refugee Protection Division. Designation applies to all proceedings (7) The designation of a representative for a person who is under 18 years of age or who is unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings applies to all subsequent proceedings in the Division with respect to that person unless the Division orders otherwise.</pre> === Rule 23(7): Designation applies to all proceedings in the Refugee Appeal Division === Rule 23(7) specifies that the designation of a representative for a person who is under 18 years of age applies to all subsequent proceedings in the Refugee Appeal Division with respect to that person, unless the Division orders otherwise. A designated representative appointed by the RAD would not ordinarily establish such a relationship before another division, for example if the RAD remitted a matter to the RPD and had appointed a DR prior to that remittal. Instead, the fact that a person has had a representative designated for a proceedings in another division of the Board is simply one factor for the RPD to take account in such circumstances when determining whether the RPD should appoint a designated representative: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Designated Representatives#RPD Rule 20(5) - Factors for determining whether a claimant or protected person is unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings]]. <pre>End of designation — person reaches 18 years of age (8) The designation of a representative for a person who is under 18 years of age ends when the person reaches 18 years of age unless that representative has also been designated because the person is unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings. Termination of designation (9) The Division may terminate a designation if the Division is of the opinion that the representative is no longer required or suitable and may designate a new representative if required. Designation criteria (10) Before designating a person as a representative, the Division must (a) assess the person’s ability to fulfil the responsibilities of a designated representative; and (b) ensure that the person has been informed of the responsibilities of a designated representative. Responsibilities of representative (11) The responsibilities of a designated representative include (a) deciding whether to retain counsel and, if counsel is retained, instructing counsel or assisting the represented person in instructing counsel; (b) making decisions regarding the appeal or assisting the represented person in making those decisions; (c) informing the represented person about the various stages and procedures in the processing of their case; (d) assisting in gathering evidence to support the represented person’s case and in providing evidence and, if necessary, being a witness at the hearing; (e) protecting the interests of the represented person and putting forward the best possible case to the Division; and (f) informing and consulting the represented person to the extent possible when making decisions about the case.</pre> == RAD Rule 24: Specialized Knowledge == <pre>Specialized Knowledge Notice to parties 24 (1) Before using any information or opinion that is within its specialized knowledge, the Division must notify the parties and give them an opportunity to, (a) if a date for a hearing has not been fixed, make written representations on the reliability and use of the information or opinion and provide written evidence in support of their representations; and (b) if a date for a hearing has been fixed, make oral or written representations on the reliability and use of the information or opinion and provide evidence in support of their representations. Providing written representations and evidence (2) A party must provide its written representations and evidence first to any other party and then to the Division. Proof written representations and evidence were provided (3) The written representations and evidence provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that they were provided to any other party.</pre>See the commentary on the equivalent RPD rule: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Specialized Knowledge]]. == RAD Rule 25: Notice of Constitutional Question == <pre>Notice of constitutional question 25 (1) A party who wants to challenge the constitutional validity, applicability or operability of a legislative provision must complete a notice of constitutional question. Form and content of notice (2) The party must complete the notice as set out in Form 69 of the Federal Courts Rules or any other form that includes (a) the party’s name; (b) the Division file number; (c) the specific legislative provision that is being challenged; (d) the material facts relied on to support the constitutional challenge; and (e) a summary of the legal argument to be made in support of the constitutional challenge. Providing notice (3) The party must provide (a) a copy of the notice to the Attorney General of Canada and to the attorney general of each province of Canada, in accordance with section 57 of the Federal Courts Act; (b) a copy of the notice to the Minister even if the Minister has not yet intervened in the appeal; (c) a copy of the notice to the UNHCR, if the UNHCR has provided notice of its intention to provide written submissions, and to any interested person; and (d) the original notice to the Division, together with proof that copies were provided under paragraphs (a) to (c). Time limit (4) Documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients at the same time as the Division receives the appellant’s record, respondent’s record or the reply record, as the case may be. Deciding of constitutional question (5) The Division must not make a decision on the constitutional question until at least 10 days after the day on which it receives the notice of constitutional question.</pre> == RAD Rule 26: Conferences == <pre>Conferences Requirement to participate at conference 26 (1) The Division may require the parties to participate at a conference to discuss issues, relevant facts and any other matter in order to make the appeal fairer and more efficient. Information or documents (2) The Division may require the parties to give any information or provide any document, at or before the conference. Written record (3) The Division must make a written record of any decisions and agreements made at the conference.</pre> == RAD Rule 27: Documents == <pre>Documents Form and Language of Documents Documents prepared by party 27 (1) A document prepared for use by a party in a proceeding must be typewritten, in a type not smaller than 12 point, on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 ½ inches x 11 inches) paper. Photocopies (2) Any photocopy provided by a party must be a clear copy of the document photocopied and be on one or both sides of 216 mm by 279 mm (8 ½ inches x 11 inches) paper. List of documents (3) If more than one document is provided, the party must provide a list identifying each of the documents. Consecutively numbered pages (4) A party must consecutively number each page of all the documents provided as if they were one document. Language of documents — person 28 (1) All documents used by a person who is the subject of an appeal in an appeal must be in English or French or, if in another language, be provided together with an English or French translation and a declaration signed by the translator. Language of Minister’s documents (2) All documents used by the Minister in an appeal must be in the language of the appeal or be provided together with a translation in the language of the appeal and a declaration signed by the translator. Translator’s declaration (3) A translator’s declaration must include the translator’s name, the language and dialect, if any, translated and a statement that the translation is accurate.</pre> == RAD Rule 29: Documents or Written Submissions not Previously Provided == <pre>Documents or Written Submissions not Previously Provided Documents or written submissions not previously provided — person 29 (1) A person who is the subject of an appeal who does not provide a document or written submissions with the appellant’s record, respondent’s record or reply record must not use the document or provide the written submissions in the appeal unless allowed to do so by the Division. Application (2) If a person who is the subject of an appeal wants to use a document or provide written submissions that were not previously provided, the person must make an application to the Division in accordance with rule 37. Documents — new evidence (3) The person who is the subject of the appeal must include in an application to use a document that was not previously provided an explanation of how the document meets the requirements of subsection 110(4) of the Act and how that evidence relates to the person, unless the document is being presented in response to evidence presented by the Minister. Factors (4) In deciding whether to allow an application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) the document’s relevance and probative value; (b) any new evidence the document brings to the appeal; and (c) whether the person who is the subject of the appeal, with reasonable effort, could have provided the document or written submissions with the appellant’s record, respondent’s record or reply record. Documents or written submissions not previously provided — Minister (5) If, at any time before the Division makes a decision, the Minister, in accordance with paragraph 171(a.5) of the Act, submits documentary evidence or written submissions in support of the Minister’s appeal or intervention that were not previously provided, the Minister must provide the documentary evidence or written submissions first to the person who is the subject of the appeal and then to the Division. Proof documents or written submissions provided (6) The additional documents or written submissions provided to the Division under subrule (5) must be accompanied by proof that they were provided to the person who is the subject of the appeal. Reply to Minister’s documents or written submissions (7) The person who is the subject of the appeal may reply to the additional documents or written submissions in accordance with rule 5 with any modifications that the circumstances require.</pre> == RAD Rule 30: Providing a Document == <pre>Providing a Document General provision 30 Rules 31 to 35 apply to any document, including a notice or request in writing. Providing documents to Division 31 (1) A document to be provided to the Division must be provided to the Division’s registry office that is located in the same region as the Refugee Protection Division’s registry office through which the notice of decision under appeal was provided. Providing documents to Refugee Protection Division (2) A document to be provided to the Refugee Protection Division must be provided to the Refugee Protection Division’s registry office through which the notice of decision under appeal was provided. Providing documents to Minister (3) A document to be provided to the Minister must be provided to the Minister’s counsel. Providing documents to person other than Minister (4) A document to be provided to a person other than the Minister must be provided to the person’s counsel if the person has counsel of record. If the person does not have counsel of record, the document must be provided to the person. How to provide document 32 A document may be provided in any of the following ways: (a) by hand; (b) by regular mail or registered mail; (c) by courier; (d) by fax if the recipient has a fax number and the document is no more than 20 pages long, unless the recipient consents to receiving more than 20 pages; and (e) by email or other electronic means if the Division allows. Application if unable to provide document 33 (1) If a party is unable to provide a document in a way required by rule 32, the party may make an application to the Division to be allowed to provide the document in another way or to be excused from providing the document. Form of application (2) The application must be made in accordance with rule 37. Allowing application (3) The Division must not allow the application unless the party has made reasonable efforts to provide the document to the person to whom the document must be provided. Proof document was provided 34 (1) Proof that a document was provided must be established by (a) an acknowledgment of receipt signed by the recipient or a statement of service, if the document was provided by hand; (b) a confirmation of receipt if the document was provided by registered mail, courier, fax or email or other electronic means; or (c) a statement of service if the document was provided by regular mail. Statement of service (2) For the purpose of paragraph (1)(a) or (c), a statement of service consists of a written statement, signed by the person who provided the document, that includes the person’s name and a statement of how and when the document was provided. Statement – unable to provide proof (3) If a party is unable to provide proof that a document was provided in a way required by paragraph (1)(a) to (c), the party must provide a written statement, signed by the party, that includes an explanation of why they are unable to provide proof. When document received by division 35 (1) A document provided to the Division or to the Refugee Protection Division is considered to be received on the day on which the document is date-stamped by that division. When document received by recipient other than division (2) A document provided by regular mail other than to the Division or to the Refugee Protection Division is considered to be received seven days after the day on which it was mailed. If the seventh day is not a working day, the document is considered to be received on the next working day. Extension of time limit — next working day (3) When the time limit for providing a document ends on a day that is not a working day, the time limit is extended to the next working day. Applications General General provision 36 Unless these Rules provide otherwise, (a) a party who wants the Division to make a decision on any matter in a proceeding, including the procedure to be followed, must make an application to the Division in accordance with rule 37; (b) a party who wants to respond to the application must respond in accordance with rule 38; and (c) a party who wants to reply to a response must reply in accordance with rule 39.</pre> == RAD Rule 37: How to Make an Application == <pre>How to Make an Application Form of application and time limit 37 (1) Unless these Rules provide otherwise, an application must be made in writing and without delay. Oral application (2) If a date for a hearing has been fixed, the Division must not allow a party to make an application orally at the hearing unless the party, with reasonable effort, could not have made a written application before that date. Content of application (3) Unless these Rules provide otherwise, in a written application, the party must (a) state the decision the party wants the Division to make; (b) give reasons why the Division should make that decision; and (c) if there is another party and the views of that party are known, state whether the other party agrees to the application. Affidavit or statutory declaration (4) Unless these Rules provide otherwise, any evidence that the party wants the Division to consider with a written application must be given in an affidavit or statutory declaration that accompanies the application. Providing application to other party and Division (5) A party who makes a written application must provide (a) to any other party, a copy of the application and a copy of any affidavit or statutory declaration; and (b) to the Division, the original application and the original of any affidavit or statutory declaration, together with proof that a copy was provided to any other party.</pre> == RAD Rule 38: How to Respond to a Written Appliation == <pre>How to Respond to a Written Application Responding to written application 38 (1) A response to a written application must be in writing and (a) state the decision the party wants the Division to make; and (b) give reasons why the Division should make that decision. Evidence in written response (2) Any evidence that the party wants the Division to consider with the written response must be given in an affidavit or statutory declaration that accompanies the response. Unless the Division requires it, an affidavit or statutory declaration is not required if the party who made the application was not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration, together with the application. Providing response (3) A party who responds to a written application must provide (a) to the other party, a copy of the response and a copy of any affidavit or statutory declaration; and (b) to the Division, the original response and the original of any affidavit or statutory declaration, together with proof that a copy was provided to the other party. Time limit (4) Documents provided under subrule (3) must be received by their recipients no later than seven days after the day on which the party receives the copy of the application. How to Reply to a Written Response Replying to written response 39 (1) A reply to a written response must be in writing. Evidence in reply (2) Any evidence that the party wants the Division to consider with the written reply must be given in an affidavit or statutory declaration that accompanies the reply. Unless the Division requires it, an affidavit or statutory declaration is not required if the party was not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration, together with the application. Providing reply (3) A party who replies to a written response must provide (a) to the other party, a copy of the reply and a copy of any affidavit or statutory declaration; and (b) to the Division, the original reply and the original of any affidavit or statutory declaration, together with proof that a copy was provided to the other party. Time limit (4) Documents provided under subrule (3) must be received by their recipients no later than five days after the day on which the party receives the copy of the response. Joining or Separating Appeals Appeals automatically joined 40 The Division must join any appeals of decisions on claims that were joined at the time that the Refugee Protection Division decided the claims. Application to join 41 (1) A party may make an application to the Division to join appeals. Application to separate (2) A party may make an application to the Division to separate appeals that are joined. Form of application and providing application (3) A party who makes an application to join or separate appeals must do so in accordance with rule 37, but the party is not required to give evidence in an affidavit or statutory declaration. The party must also (a) provide a copy of the application to any person who will be affected by the Division’s decision on the application; and (b) provide to the Division proof that the party provided the copy of the application to any affected person. Time limit (4) Documents provided under this rule must be received by their recipients, (a) if the person who is the subject of the appeal is the applicant, at the same time as the Division receives the person’s notice of appeal, notice of intent to respond or reply record; or (b) if the Minister is the applicant, at the same time as the Division receives the Minister’s notice of appeal, notice of intervention or reply. Factors (5) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including whether (a) the appeals involve similar questions of fact or law; (b) allowing the application would promote the efficient administration of the Division’s work; and (c) allowing the application would likely cause an injustice. Proceedings Conducted in Public Minister considered party 42 (1) For the purpose of this rule, the Minister is considered to be a party even if the Minister has not yet intervened in the appeal. Application (2) A person who makes an application to the Division to have a proceeding conducted in public must do so in writing and in accordance with this rule rather than rule 37. Oral application (3) If a date for a hearing has been fixed, the Division must not allow a person to make an application orally at the hearing unless the person, with reasonable effort, could not have made a written application before that date. Content of application (4) In the application, the person must (a) state the decision they want the Division to make; (b) give reasons why the Division should make that decision; (c) state whether they want the Division to consider the application in public or in the absence of the public; (d) give reasons why the Division should consider the application in public or in the absence of the public; and (e) include any evidence that they want the Division to consider in deciding the application. Providing application (5) The person must provide the original application and two copies to the Division. The Division must provide a copy of the application to the parties. Response to application (6) A party may respond to a written application. The response must (a) state the decision they want the Division to make; (b) give reasons why the Division should make that decision; (c) state whether they want the Division to consider the application in public or in the absence of the public; (d) give reasons why the Division should consider the application in public or in the absence of the public; and (e) include any evidence that they want the Division to consider in deciding the application. Minister’s notice (7) If the Minister responds to a written application, the response must be accompanied by a notice of intervention in accordance with subrule 4(2), if one was not previously provided. Providing response (8) The party must provide a copy of the response to the other party and provide the original response and a copy to the Division, together with proof that the copy was provided to the other party. Providing response to applicant (9) The Division must provide to the applicant either a copy of the response or a summary of the response referred to in paragraph (13)(a). Reply to response (10) An applicant or a party may reply in writing to a written response or a summary of a response. Providing reply (11) An applicant or a party who replies to a written response or a summary of a response must provide the original reply and two copies to the Division. The Division must provide a copy of the reply to the parties. Time limit (12) An application made under this rule must be received by the Division without delay. The Division must specify the time limit within which a response or reply, if any, is to be provided. Confidentiality (13) The Division may take any measures it considers necessary to ensure the confidentiality of the proceeding in respect of the application, including (a) providing a summary of the response to the applicant instead of a copy; and (b) if the Division holds a hearing in respect of the appeal and the application, (i) excluding the applicant or the applicant and their counsel from the hearing while the party responding to the application provides evidence and makes representations, or (ii) allowing the presence of the applicant’s counsel at the hearing while the party responding to the application provides evidence and makes representations, on receipt of a written undertaking by counsel not to disclose any evidence or information adduced until a decision is made to hold the hearing in public. Summary of response (14) If the Division provides a summary of the response under paragraph (13)(a), or excludes the applicant and their counsel from a hearing in respect of the application under subparagraph (13)(b)(i), the Division must provide a summary of the representations and evidence, if any, that is sufficient to enable the applicant to reply, while ensuring the confidentiality of the proceeding having regard to the factors set out in paragraph 166(b) of the Act. Notification of decision on application (15) The Division must notify the applicant and the parties of its decision on the application and provide reasons for the decision. Assignment of Three-member Panel Notice of order 43 (1) If the Chairperson of the Board orders a proceeding to be conducted by three Division members, the Division must without delay notify the parties — including the Minister even if the Minister has not yet intervened in the appeal — and the UNHCR in writing of the order. Providing documents to UNHCR (2) The Division must provide the UNHCR with a copy of the following documents at the same time that it provides notice of the order: (a) the Refugee Protection Division record; and (b) the notice of appeal, appellant’s record, notice of intent to respond, respondent’s record, reply record, Minister’s notice of intervention, Minister’s intervention record, if any, Minister’s reply, and Minister’s reply record, if any. UNHCR’s notice to Division (3) If the UNHCR receives notice of an order, the UNHCR may provide notice to the Division in accordance with subrule 45(1) of its intention to provide written submissions. Time limit (4) The Division may, without further notice to the parties and to the UNHCR, decide the appeal on the basis of the materials provided if a period of 15 days has passed since the day on which the Minister and the UNHCR receive notice of the order. UNHCR and Interested Persons Rules applicable to UNHCR and interested persons 44 These Rules, with the exception of rules 25 (notice of constitutional question) and 47 to 49 (withdrawal, reinstatement, reopening), apply to the UNHCR and interested persons with any modifications that the circumstances require.</pre> == RAD Rule 45: UNHCR providing written submissions in an appeal conducted by a three-member panel == <pre>Notice to Division 45 (1) The UNHCR must notify the Division in writing of its intention to provide written submissions in an appeal conducted by a three-member panel, and include its contact information and that of its counsel, if any. Notice to person and Minister (2) The Division must without delay provide a copy of the UNHCR’s notice to the person who is the subject of the appeal and to the Minister. Providing written submissions to Division (3) The UNHCR’s written submissions must be received by the Division no later than 10 days after the day on which the UNHCR provided the notice. Limitation — written submissions (4) The UNHCR’s written submissions must not raise new issues. Length of written submissions (5) The UNHCR’s written submissions must not be more than 30 pages long if typewritten on one side or 15 pages if typewritten on both sides. Providing written submissions (6) The Division must without delay provide a copy of the UNHCR’s written submissions to the person who is the subject of the appeal and to the Minister. Response (7) The person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister may respond to the UNHCR’s submissions in writing. Limitation — response (8) A response must not raise new issues. Length of response (9) A response must not be more than 30 pages long if typewritten on one side or 15 pages if typewritten on both sides. Providing response (10) The response must first be provided to the person who is the subject of the appeal or to the Minister, as the case may be, and then to the Division. Proof response provided (11) The response provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that it was provided to the person who is the subject of the appeal or to the Minister, as the case may be. Time limit (12) Documents provided under subrules (10) and (11) must be received by their recipients no later than seven days after the day on which the person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister, as the case may be, receives the UNHCR’s submissions. Application by person to participate 46 (1) Any person, other than the UNHCR, may make an application to the Division to be allowed to participate in an appeal conducted by a three-member panel. The person must make the application without delay and in accordance with this rule. Form and content of application (2) The application must be in writing and include (a) the applicant’s name; (b) an explanation of why the applicant wants to participate; (c) the submissions the applicant wants to put forward and an explanation of how they are relevant to the appeal; (d) an explanation of the differences between the applicant’s submissions and those of the person who is the subject of the appeal and the Minister; (e) an explanation of how the applicant’s submissions may help the Division decide the appeal; and (f) the contact information of the applicant and their counsel, if any. Providing application (3) The Division must provide a copy of the application to the person who is the subject of the appeal and to the Minister. Response (4) The person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister may respond to the application in writing. Limitation — response (5) A response must not raise new issues. Length of response (6) A response must not be more than 30 pages long if typewritten on one side or 15 pages if typewritten on both sides. Time limit (7) A response must be received by the Division no later than 10 days after the day on which the person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister, as the case may be, receives the application. Notification of decision on application (8) The Division must without delay notify the applicant, the person who is the subject of the appeal and the Minister in writing of its decision on the application. Providing documents (9) If the Division allows the application, it must without delay provide the interested person with a copy of the following documents as soon as they are available: (a) the Refugee Protection Division record; (b) the notice of appeal, appellant’s record, notice of intent to respond, respondent’s record, reply record, Minister’s notice of intervention, Minister’s intervention record, if any, Minister’s reply, and Minister’s reply record, if any; and (c) the written submissions of any other interested person and the UNHCR. Limitation — written submissions (10) The interested person’s written submissions must not raise new issues. Length of written submissions (11) The interested person’s written submissions must not be more than 30 pages long if typewritten on one side or 15 pages if typewritten on both sides. Providing written submissions (12) The interested person’s written submissions must first be provided to the person who is the subject of the appeal and to the Minister and then to the Division. Proof written submissions provided (13) The written submissions provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that they were provided to the person who is the subject of the appeal and to the Minister. Response (14) The person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister may respond to the written submissions in writing. Limitation — response (15) A response must not raise new issues. Length of response (16) A response must not be more than 30 pages long if typewritten on one side or 15 pages if typewritten on both sides. Providing response (17) The response must first be provided to the interested person, then to the person who is the subject of the appeal or to the Minister, as the case may be, and then to the Division. Proof response provided (18) The response provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that it was provided to the interested person, and to the person who is the subject of the appeal or to the Minister, as the case may be. Time limit (19) Documents provided under subrules (17) and (18) must be received by their recipients no later than seven days after the day on which the person who is the subject of the appeal or the Minister, as the case may be, receives the interested person’s written submissions. Withdrawal Abuse of process 47 (1) For the purpose of subsection 168(2) of the Act, withdrawal of an appeal is an abuse of process if withdrawal would likely have a negative effect on the Division’s integrity. If the requirements set out in rule 7 or 13, as the case may be, for deciding an appeal on the basis of the materials provided have not been met, withdrawal is not an abuse of process. Withdrawal on notice (2) If the requirements set out in rule 7 or 13, as the case may be, for deciding an appeal have not been met, an appellant may withdraw an appeal by notifying the Division in writing. Application to withdraw (3) If the requirements set out in rule 7 or 13, as the case may be, for deciding an appeal have been met, an appellant who wants to withdraw an appeal must make an application to the Division in accordance with rule 37. Reinstating a Withdrawn Appeal Application to reinstate withdrawn appeal 48 (1) An appellant may apply to the Division to reinstate an appeal that was made by the appellant and was withdrawn. Form and content of application (2) The appellant must make the application in accordance with rule 37. If a person who is the subject of an appeal makes the application, they must provide to the Division the original and a copy of the application and include in the application their contact information and, if represented by counsel, their counsel’s contact information and any limitations on counsel’s retainer. Documents provided to Minister (3) The Division must provide to the Minister, without delay, a copy of an application made by a person who is the subject of an appeal. Factors (4) The Division must not allow the application unless it is established that there was a failure to observe a principle of natural justice or it is otherwise in the interests of justice to allow the application. Factors (5) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including whether the application was made in a timely manner and the justification for any delay. Subsequent application (6) If the appellant made a previous application to reinstate an appeal that was denied, the Division must consider the reasons for the denial and must not allow the subsequent application unless there are exceptional circumstances supported by new evidence. Reopening an Appeal Application to reopen appeal 49 (1) At any time before the Federal Court has made a final determination in respect of an appeal that has been decided or declared abandoned, the appellant may make an application to the Division to reopen the appeal. Form and content of application (2) The application must be made in accordance with rule 37. If a person who is the subject of an appeal makes the application, they must provide to the Division the original and a copy of the application and include in the application their contact information and, if represented by counsel, their counsel’s contact information and any limitations on counsel’s retainer. Documents provided to Minister (3) The Division must provide to the Minister, without delay, a copy of an application made by a person who is the subject of an appeal . Allegations against counsel (4) If it is alleged in the application that the person who is the subject of the appeal’s counsel in the proceedings that are the subject of the application provided inadequate representation, (a) the person must first provide a copy of the application to the counsel and then provide the original and a copy of the application to the Division, and (b) the application provided to the Division must be accompanied by proof that a copy was provided to the counsel. Copy of pending application (5) The application must be accompanied by a copy of any pending application for leave to apply for judicial review or any pending application for judicial review. Factor (6) The Division must not allow the application unless it is established that there was a failure to observe a principle of natural justice. Factors (7) In deciding the application, the Division must consider any relevant factors, including (a) whether the application was made in a timely manner and the justification for any delay; and (b) if the appellant did not make an application for leave to apply for judicial review or an application for judicial review, the reasons why an application was not made. Subsequent application (8) If the appellant made a previous application to reopen an appeal that was denied, the Division must consider the reasons for the denial and must not allow the subsequent application unless there are exceptional circumstances supported by new evidence. Other remedies (9) If there is a pending application for leave to apply for judicial review or a pending application for judicial review on the same or similar grounds, the Division must, as soon as is practicable, allow the application to reopen if it is necessary for the timely and efficient processing of appeals, or dismiss the application.</pre> == Rules 50-51: Decisions == <pre>Decisions Notice of decision 50 (1) When the Division makes a decision, other than an interlocutory decision, it must provide in writing a notice of decision to the person who is the subject of the appeal, to the Minister and to the Refugee Protection Division. The Division must also provide in writing a notice of decision to the UNHCR and to any interested person, if they provided written submissions in the appeal. Written reasons (2) The Division must provide written reasons for the decision, together with the notice of decision, if a hearing (a) was not held under subsection 110(6) of the Act; or (b) was held under subsection 110(6) of the Act and the decision and reasons were not given orally at the hearing. Request for written reasons (3) A request under paragraph 169(1)(e) of the Act for written reasons for a decision must be made in writing. When decision of single member takes effect 51 (1) A decision, other than an interlocutory decision, made by a single Division member takes effect (a) if made in writing, when the member signs and dates the reasons for the decision; and (b) if given orally at a hearing, when the member states the decision and gives the reasons. When decision of three-member panel takes effect (2) A decision, other than an interlocutory decision, made by a panel of three Division members takes effect (a) if made in writing, when all the members sign and date their reasons for the decision; and (b) if given orally at a hearing, when all the members state their decision and give their reasons.</pre> === Rule 50(2)(b) provides that a decision and reasons may be given orally, but this is not allowed by the statute === Rule 50(2)(b) provides that where the RAD holds a hearing, it may provide a decision and reasons for that decision orally at the hearing and that doing so obviates the need to provide written reasons. However, s. 169(c) of the Act provides that all decisions of the Refugee Appeal Division must be rendered in writing: [[Canadian Refugee Procedure/Decisions and Reasons]]. To the extent of inconsistency between this provision of the rules and the statute, s. 169 of the statute is controlling. As such, RAD decisions may not be provided orally. It appears that this provision in the rules reflects an earlier version of the Act which had allowed oral reasons to be provided, and it was not updated when the Act was amended to preclude that. == Rules 52-53: General Provisions == <pre>General Provisions No applicable rule 52 In the absence of a provision in these Rules dealing with a matter raised during the proceedings, the Division may do whatever is necessary to deal with the matter. Powers of Division 53 The Division may, after giving the parties notice and an opportunity to object, (a) act on its own initiative, without a party having to make an application or request to the Division; (b) change a requirement of a rule; (c) excuse a person from a requirement of a rule; and (d) extend a time limit, before or after the time limit has expired, or shorten it if the time limit has not expired. Failure to follow rules 54 Unless proceedings are declared invalid by the Division, a failure to follow any requirement of these Rules does not make the proceedings invalid.</pre> {{BookCat}} h7u5wczmfhszo04j7soj1bxj0vg281s 0 445285 4095667 4084556 2022-08-24T06:05:26Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {{guide to the Godot game engine/Top|Platform specific|Plugins}} Have you made an epic game that you want to share with your friends or sell online? You could give away the Godot editor along with your game's files, but that is (a) impractical and (b) allows others to peek into your hard work, and maybe even claim it as their own. The solution to both of these problems? Exporting. When you export your game, you export every file in your game to an application file. But in order to do this, you need an ''export template''. These can be downloaded on Godot's download page. You want them for all platforms you intend to sell your game on, which are: #Windows Desktop #Linux/X11 #Mac OSX #Html5 #UWP (Universal Windows Platform) #IOS #Android Once downloaded, the templates must be put in your Godot appdata folder in the ''Godot/templates/<CURRENT VERSION>/'' dir. You can then create export ''presets''. Go to "Project -> Export..." and a popup will appear. Press "Add..." and choose a platform your game will run on. You may choose any value for the settings on the left on the "Options" tab. ==Options== You should pick a name for "Product name". This should be the name of your game. If present, "Company Name", "File Version", "File Version" and "File Description" should be set. Sometimes these values are changed based on the platform, most notably hand-held devices. You can also set an image for your game's icon, shown as the image next to the file's name on your file explorer or on your handheld device's menus. Android has quite a lot of "permissions". You '''must''' enable the ones your game uses, like "Camera" if you use a camera (e.g: for AR) or "Internet" if your game is multiplayer. If in doubt, enable them one at a time, if it doesn't help, disable it and enable the next. Repeat until the game works as expected. ==Resources== Go on the "Resources" tab, and under the "Filters to export non-resource files/folders", you may use regex patterns. Here are some common examples: *To allow all files that end in ".json", use <code>*.json</code> *To allow all files inside a "docs" folder, use <code>docs/*</code> *To allow all files/folders that begin with "doc", use <code>doc*</code> *To allow a specific file called "versions.txt" inside the main folder, use <code>versions.txt</code> The text box below that one is for excluding things that fit the include filters or are normally excluded. For example, to avoid exporting any folder called "exclude_export", use <code>*exclude_export/*</code>. Uses the same rule as "Filters to export non-resource files/folders". Both of these "filters" may be comma separated to define more than one pattern. ==Features== The "features" tab is a list of ''features'' that can be checked with <code>OS.has_feature()</code>. (It doesn't define "release" or "debug", that is done automatically based on your options.) ==Script== Go onto the "Script" tab. The 3 script modes are: #Text: code is saved as plain text that anybody can read #Compiled: code is compressed, to be smaller and harder to read #Encrypted: code is encrypted to become almost impossible to read. Recommended for retail games where the code is not free or open-source. <noinclude>{{Guide to the Godot game engine/bottom|prev=Multiplayer|next=Plugins}} {{BookCat}} 0n0ae67zzcph5v79xbme6x7elyfcuoj 4095698 4095667 2022-08-24T08:07:13Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{guide to the Godot game engine/Top|Platform specific|Plugins}} Have you made an epic game that you want to share with your friends or sell online? You could give away the Godot editor along with your game's files, but that is (a) impractical and (b) allows others to peek into your hard work, and maybe even claim it as their own. The solution to both of these problems? Exporting. When you export your game, you export every file in your game to an application file, also known as an ''executable''. But in order to do this, you need an ''export template''. These can be downloaded on Godot's download page. You want them for all platforms you intend to sell your game on. Supported templates are: #Windows Desktop #Linux/X11 #Mac OSX #Html5 #UWP (Universal Windows Platform) #IOS #Android Once downloaded, the templates must be put in your Godot appdata folder in the ''Godot/templates/<CURRENT VERSION>/'' dir. You can then create export ''presets''. Go to "Project -> Export..." and a popup will appear. Press "Add..." and choose a platform your game will run on. You may choose any value for the settings on the left on the "Options" tab. ==Options== You should pick a name for "Product name". This should be the name of your game. If present, "Company Name", "File Version", "File Version" and "File Description" should be set. Sometimes these values are changed based on the platform, most notably hand-held devices. You can also set an image for your game's icon, shown as the image next to the file's name on your file explorer or on your handheld device's menus. Android has quite a lot of "permissions". You '''must''' enable the ones your game uses, like "Camera" if you use a camera (e.g: for AR) or "Internet" if your game is multiplayer. If in doubt, enable them one at a time, if it doesn't help, disable it and enable the next. Repeat until the game works as expected. ==Resources== Go on the "Resources" tab, and under the "Filters to export non-resource files/folders", you may use regex patterns. Here are some common examples: *To allow all files that end in ".json", use <code>*.json</code> *To allow all files inside a "docs" folder, use <code>docs/*</code> *To allow all files/folders that begin with "doc", use <code>doc*</code> *To allow a specific file called "versions.txt" inside the main folder, use <code>versions.txt</code> The text box below that one is for excluding things that fit the include filters or are normally excluded. For example, to avoid exporting any folder called "exclude_export", use <code>*exclude_export/*</code>. Uses the same rule as "Filters to export non-resource files/folders". Both of these "filters" may be comma separated to define more than one pattern. ==Features== The "features" tab is a list of ''features'' that can be checked with <code>OS.has_feature()</code>. (It doesn't define "release" or "debug", that is done automatically based on your options.) ==Script== Go onto the "Script" tab. The 3 script modes are: #Text: code is saved as plain text that anybody can read #Compiled: code is compressed, to be smaller and harder to read #Encrypted: code is encrypted to become almost impossible to read. Recommended for retail games where the code is not free or open-source. <noinclude>{{Guide to the Godot game engine/bottom|prev=Multiplayer|next=Plugins}} {{BookCat}} 3f4dljqauicuucuu4b9nr8ofercrh5t 4095700 4095698 2022-08-24T08:10:50Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{guide to the Godot game engine/Top|Platform specific|Plugins}} Have you made an epic game that you want to share with your friends or sell online? You could give away the Godot editor along with your game's files, but that is (a) impractical and (b) allows others to peek into your hard work, and maybe even claim it as their own. The solution to both of these problems? Exporting. When you export your game, you export every file in your game to an application file, also known as an ''executable''. But in order to do this, you need an ''export template''. These can be downloaded on Godot's download page. You want them for all platforms you intend to sell your game on. Supported templates are: #Windows Desktop #Linux/X11 #Mac OSX #Html5 #UWP (Universal Windows Platform) #IOS #Android Once downloaded, the templates must be put in your Godot appdata folder in the ''Godot/templates/<CURRENT VERSION>/'' dir. An easy way to do this is go to the "Editor" dropdown menu at the top of the screen and click "Open Editor Data/Settings Folder". You can then create export ''presets''. Go to "Project -> Export..." and a popup will appear. Press "Add..." and choose a platform your game will run on. You may choose any value for the settings on the left on the "Options" tab. ==Options== You should pick a name for "Product name". This should be the name of your game. If present, "Company Name", "File Version", "File Version" and "File Description" should be set. Sometimes these values are changed based on the platform, most notably hand-held devices. You can also set an image for your game's icon, shown as the image next to the file's name on your file explorer or on your handheld device's menus. Android has quite a lot of "permissions". You '''must''' enable the ones your game uses, like "Camera" if you use a camera (e.g: for AR) or "Internet" if your game is multiplayer. If in doubt, enable them one at a time, if it doesn't help, disable it and enable the next. Repeat until the game works as expected. ==Resources== Go on the "Resources" tab, and under the "Filters to export non-resource files/folders", you may use regex patterns. Here are some common examples: *To allow all files that end in ".json", use <code>*.json</code> *To allow all files inside a "docs" folder, use <code>docs/*</code> *To allow all files/folders that begin with "doc", use <code>doc*</code> *To allow a specific file called "versions.txt" inside the main folder, use <code>versions.txt</code> The text box below that one is for excluding things that fit the include filters or are normally excluded. For example, to avoid exporting any folder called "exclude_export", use <code>*exclude_export/*</code>. Uses the same rule as "Filters to export non-resource files/folders". Both of these "filters" may be comma separated to define more than one pattern. ==Features== The "features" tab is a list of ''features'' that can be checked with <code>OS.has_feature()</code>. (It doesn't define "release" or "debug", that is done automatically based on your options.) ==Script== Go onto the "Script" tab. The 3 script modes are: #Text: code is saved as plain text that anybody can read #Compiled: code is compressed, to be smaller and harder to read #Encrypted: code is encrypted to become almost impossible to read. Recommended for retail games where the code is not free or open-source. <noinclude>{{Guide to the Godot game engine/bottom|prev=Multiplayer|next=Plugins}} {{BookCat}} st4jw6053u4k3cn5edndptth96ihzy6 4095701 4095700 2022-08-24T08:15:54Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{guide to the Godot game engine/Top|Platform specific|Plugins}} Have you made an epic game that you want to share with your friends or sell online? You could give away the Godot editor along with your game's files, but that is (a) impractical and (b) allows others to peek into your hard work, and maybe even claim it as their own. The solution to both of these problems? Exporting. When you export your game, you export every file in your game to an application file, also known as an ''executable''. But in order to do this, you need an ''export template''. These can be downloaded on Godot's download page. You want them for all platforms you intend to sell your game on. Supported templates are: #Windows Desktop #Linux/X11 #Mac OSX #Html5 #UWP (Universal Windows Platform) #IOS #Android Once downloaded, the templates must be put in your Godot appdata folder in the ''Godot/templates/<CURRENT VERSION>/'' dir. An easy way to do this is go to the "Editor" dropdown menu at the top of the screen and click "Open Editor Data/Settings Folder". Another way to download them is to go to "Editor -> Manage Export Templates..." and click the "Download" under the "Current Version" section. You can then create export ''presets''. Go to "Project -> Export..." and a popup will appear. Press "Add..." and choose a platform your game will run on. You may choose any value for the settings on the left on the "Options" tab. ==Options== You should pick a name for "Product name". This should be the name of your game. If present, "Company Name", "File Version", "File Version" and "File Description" should be set. Sometimes these values are changed based on the platform, most notably hand-held devices. You can also set an image for your game's icon, shown as the image next to the file's name on your file explorer or on your handheld device's menus. Android has quite a lot of "permissions". You '''must''' enable the ones your game uses, like "Camera" if you use a camera (e.g: for AR) or "Internet" if your game is multiplayer. If in doubt, enable them one at a time, if it doesn't help, disable it and enable the next. Repeat until the game works as expected. ==Resources== Go on the "Resources" tab, and under the "Filters to export non-resource files/folders", you may use regex patterns. Here are some common examples: *To allow all files that end in ".json", use <code>*.json</code> *To allow all files inside a "docs" folder, use <code>docs/*</code> *To allow all files/folders that begin with "doc", use <code>doc*</code> *To allow a specific file called "versions.txt" inside the main folder, use <code>versions.txt</code> The text box below that one is for excluding things that fit the include filters or are normally excluded. For example, to avoid exporting any folder called "exclude_export", use <code>*exclude_export/*</code>. Uses the same rule as "Filters to export non-resource files/folders". Both of these "filters" may be comma separated to define more than one pattern. ==Features== The "features" tab is a list of ''features'' that can be checked with <code>OS.has_feature()</code>. (It doesn't define "release" or "debug", that is done automatically based on your options.) ==Script== Go onto the "Script" tab. The 3 script modes are: #Text: code is saved as plain text that anybody can read #Compiled: code is compressed, to be smaller and harder to read #Encrypted: code is encrypted to become almost impossible to read. Recommended for retail games where the code is not free or open-source. <noinclude>{{Guide to the Godot game engine/bottom|prev=Multiplayer|next=Plugins}} {{BookCat}} gk1cse1xgs4pct3fdragv0zsn1dabqj 4095702 4095701 2022-08-24T08:16:44Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{guide to the Godot game engine/Top|Platform specific|Plugins}} Have you made an epic game that you want to share with your friends or sell online? You could give away the Godot editor along with your game's files, but that is (a) impractical and (b) allows others to peek into your hard work, and maybe even claim it as their own. The solution to both of these problems? Exporting. ==Getting an export template== When you export your game, you export every file in your game to an application file, also known as an ''executable''. But in order to do this, you need an ''export template''. These can be downloaded on Godot's download page. You want them for all platforms you intend to sell your game on. Supported templates are: #Windows Desktop #Linux/X11 #Mac OSX #Html5 #UWP (Universal Windows Platform) #IOS #Android Once downloaded, the templates must be put in your Godot appdata folder in the ''Godot/templates/<CURRENT VERSION>/'' dir. An easy way to do this is go to the "Editor" dropdown menu at the top of the screen and click "Open Editor Data/Settings Folder". Another way to download them is to go to "Editor -> Manage Export Templates..." and click the "Download" under the "Current Version" section. You can then create export ''presets''. Go to "Project -> Export..." and a popup will appear. Press "Add..." and choose a platform your game will run on. You may choose any value for the settings on the left on the "Options" tab. ==Options== You should pick a name for "Product name". This should be the name of your game. If present, "Company Name", "File Version", "File Version" and "File Description" should be set. Sometimes these values are changed based on the platform, most notably hand-held devices. You can also set an image for your game's icon, shown as the image next to the file's name on your file explorer or on your handheld device's menus. Android has quite a lot of "permissions". You '''must''' enable the ones your game uses, like "Camera" if you use a camera (e.g: for AR) or "Internet" if your game is multiplayer. If in doubt, enable them one at a time, if it doesn't help, disable it and enable the next. Repeat until the game works as expected. ==Resources== Go on the "Resources" tab, and under the "Filters to export non-resource files/folders", you may use regex patterns. Here are some common examples: *To allow all files that end in ".json", use <code>*.json</code> *To allow all files inside a "docs" folder, use <code>docs/*</code> *To allow all files/folders that begin with "doc", use <code>doc*</code> *To allow a specific file called "versions.txt" inside the main folder, use <code>versions.txt</code> The text box below that one is for excluding things that fit the include filters or are normally excluded. For example, to avoid exporting any folder called "exclude_export", use <code>*exclude_export/*</code>. Uses the same rule as "Filters to export non-resource files/folders". Both of these "filters" may be comma separated to define more than one pattern. ==Features== The "features" tab is a list of ''features'' that can be checked with <code>OS.has_feature()</code>. (It doesn't define "release" or "debug", that is done automatically based on your options.) ==Script== Go onto the "Script" tab. The 3 script modes are: #Text: code is saved as plain text that anybody can read #Compiled: code is compressed, to be smaller and harder to read #Encrypted: code is encrypted to become almost impossible to read. Recommended for retail games where the code is not free or open-source. <noinclude>{{Guide to the Godot game engine/bottom|prev=Multiplayer|next=Plugins}} {{BookCat}} dk6yot6akwseox4runr3hocvvsqb5zp 102 445963 4095713 4056361 2022-08-24T09:22:35Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} '''Nigerian okra soup''', also called '''ila alasepo''', is a stewed okra soup. It is a very popular delicacy among the Yoruba ethnic group of western Nigeria. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Stockfish|Stockfish]] (Norwegian unsalted dried fish) * Nigerian smoked [[Cookbook:Dryfish|dryfish]] * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]], in small chunks * Water * 250 g (8.8 oz) [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]], finely diced * Red [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * [[Cookbook:Pumpkin|Pumpkin]] leaves or [[Cookbook:Spinach|spinach]], washed and chopped * 1 spoonful [[Cookbook:Ground Crayfish|ground crayfish]] * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Pepper]] * Salt === Optional ingredients === * [[Cookbook:Tripe|Tripe]] * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] * [[Cookbook:Shrimp|Shrimp]] == Procedure == # Soak the dry fish and stockfish in water, then debone them. Cut into pieces. # Starting with the toughest meat first, cook all the meat and fish until done. Add water sparingly and top up as necessary. # Heat the palm oil in a separate pot. Add the diced okra and start frying. # Add some meat stock to the okra from time to time. Stir until you notice the okra start to draw. This process should take a maximum of 5 minutes to avoid overcooking the okra. Add hot water if necessary to get the consistency you like. # When the okra is very elastic, add the chopped vegetables and stir well. Add the meat and fish, ground crayfish, pepper, and salt to taste. Stir well. # Cover the pot and leave to simmer and it is ready to be served. == Notes, tips, and variations == * You can use frozen okra if that's all you have, but fresh okra is better. * To make the okra very smooth, use a blender and blend until it's pureed. You can also cut it with a knife into smaller pieces to make it chunky, use a grater with a large hole shredder, or chop with a food processor. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] mdelk1hii6qekbjn4j0n8w6gua8759c 4095714 4095713 2022-08-24T09:23:22Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} '''Nigerian okra soup''', also called '''ila alasepo''', is a stewed okra soup. It is a very popular delicacy among the Yoruba ethnic group of western Nigeria. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Stockfish|Stockfish]] (Norwegian unsalted dried fish) * Nigerian smoked [[Cookbook:Dryfish|dryfish]] * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]], in small chunks * Water * 250 g (8.8 oz) [[Cookbook:Okra|okra]], finely diced * Red [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * [[Cookbook:Pumpkin|Pumpkin]] leaves or [[Cookbook:Spinach|spinach]], washed and chopped * 1 spoonful [[Cookbook:Ground Crayfish|ground crayfish]] * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Pepper]] * Salt === Optional ingredients === * [[Cookbook:Tripe|Tripe]] * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] * [[Cookbook:Shrimp|Shrimp]] == Procedure == # Soak the dry fish and stockfish in water, then debone them. Cut into pieces. # Starting with the toughest meat first, cook all the meat and fish until done. Add water sparingly and top up as necessary. # Heat the palm oil in a separate pot. Add the diced okra and start frying. # Add some meat stock to the okra from time to time. Stir until you notice the okra start to draw. This process should take a maximum of 5 minutes to avoid overcooking the okra. Add hot water if necessary to get the consistency you like. # When the okra is very elastic, add the chopped vegetables and stir well. Add the meat and fish, ground crayfish, pepper, and salt to taste. Stir well. # Cover the pot and leave to simmer and it is ready to be served. == Notes, tips, and variations == * You can use frozen okra if that's all you have, but fresh okra is better. * To make the okra very smooth, use a blender and blend until it's pureed. You can also cut it with a knife into smaller pieces to make it chunky, use a grater with a large hole shredder, or chop with a food processor. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] kra46laeupdpjl1oicz10lipzxwyygo 102 446007 4095715 4067825 2022-08-24T09:25:12Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} [[File:Afang Soup.jpg|thumb|Afang Soup]] '''Afang soup''' is a Nigerian dish primarily made by the Efik people but enjoyed by all Nigerians. It is made with a large amount of waterleaf, as well as the herb okazi. It is similar to edikang ikong soup. == Ingredients == * Nigerian [[Cookbook:Dryfish|dryfish]], soaked and deboned * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]], cut in pieces * Kanda (cow skin) * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]], diced * [[Cookbook:Bouillon Cube|Bouillon cubes]] * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Ground pepper]] * [[Cookbook:Ground Crayfish|Ground crayfish powder]] * [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|Palm oil]] * 1 bunch [[Cookbook:Waterleaf|waterleaf]], washed and chopped small * [[Cookbook:Afang|Afang]] (okazi) leaves, ground or pounded * 1 cup [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|periwinkles]] * Salt == Method of preparation == # Break the soaked and deboned fish into small pieces. # Boil the beef and kanda with the diced onions and bouillon cubes in a very small quantity of water. Remember to start cooking the kanda first because it is tougher. # When the meat is cooked, add the fish pieces, pepper, and crayfish. Cook until there is very little liquid left in the pot. # Remove the meat and fish and place in a bowl or another container, leaving the stock in the pot. # Add the palm oil and waterleaf to the pot. Cook on medium heat for about 3 minutes without stirring. # Add the ground afang leaves, periwinkles, and salt to taste. Leave to simmer until the vegetables are soft and mushy. # Add the meat and fish back into the pot. Stir well and serve. == Notes, tips, and variations == * In Nigerian markets, the sellers of shredded okazi have a machine for grinding it. You can also grind it with your blender with a small quantity of water. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 4wovw2su2y8ayxqbjl4q2gu41penaff 4095716 4095715 2022-08-24T09:25:50Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} [[File:Afang Soup.jpg|thumb|Afang Soup]] '''Afang soup''' is a Nigerian dish primarily made by the Efik people but enjoyed by all Nigerians. It is made with a large amount of waterleaf, as well as the herb okazi. It is similar to edikang ikong soup. == Ingredients == * Nigerian [[Cookbook:Dryfish|dryfish]], soaked and deboned * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]], cut in pieces * Kanda (cow skin) * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]], diced * [[Cookbook:Bouillon Cube|Bouillon cubes]] * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Ground pepper]] * [[Cookbook:Ground Crayfish|Ground crayfish powder]] * [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|Palm oil]] * 1 bunch [[Cookbook:Waterleaf|waterleaf]], washed and chopped small * [[Cookbook:Afang|Afang]] (okazi) leaves, ground or pounded * 1 cup [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|periwinkles]] * Salt == Method of preparation == # Break the soaked and deboned fish into small pieces. # Boil the beef and kanda with the diced onions and bouillon cubes in a very small quantity of water. Remember to start cooking the kanda first because it is tougher. # When the meat is cooked, add the fish pieces, pepper, and crayfish. Cook until there is very little liquid left in the pot. # Remove the meat and fish and place in a bowl or another container, leaving the stock in the pot. # Add the palm oil and waterleaf to the pot. Cook on medium heat for about 3 minutes without stirring. # Add the ground afang leaves, periwinkles, and salt to taste. Leave to simmer until the vegetables are soft and mushy. # Add the meat and fish back into the pot. Stir well and serve. == Notes, tips, and variations == * In Nigerian markets, the sellers of shredded okazi have a machine for grinding it. You can also grind it with your blender with a small quantity of water. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] 56lj2oddliwwvfz7616a08l9pav9pg3 102 446473 4095709 4068754 2022-08-24T08:46:22Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Removing [[:c:File:Abak_Utama_soup.png|Abak_Utama_soup.png]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Túrelio|Túrelio]] because: [[:c:COM:L|Copyright violation]]: Image taken from https://cookpad.com/uk/recipes/4863031-efere-abak-atama-soup, uploade wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipe}} '''Abak soup''' is an indigenous soup among the Ibibio people of Nigeria. It features atama leaves and [[Cookbook:Oil Palm Fruit|palm fruit]] concentrate, the latter of which makes the dish resemble banga soup. == Variation I == === Ingredients === * [[Cookbook:Oil Palm Fruit|Oil palm fruits]] or canned oil palm fruit concentrate * Dryfish or smoked fish * Unshelled [[Cookbook:Periwinkle (mollusc)|periwinkles]] * Assorted [[Cookbook:Meat|meat]] and [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] * [[Cookbook:Ponmo|Ponmo]], washed and cut into small pieces * Stockfish * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]], sliced * Stock cubes * Ground [[Cookbook:Crayfish|crayfish]] * Fresh ata rodo ([[Cookbook:Habanero|habanero]] or scotch bonnet chiles), blended to a paste * Atama leaves * [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] === Procedure === # If using fresh palm fruit, process them to extract the juice. Set aside. # Debone, soak, and clean both the dryfish fish. Rinse in cold water, making sure they are free from sand, and break them into small pieces. # Cut periwinkles with the blunt side of a knife, and wash thoroughly until the water runs clear. # Transfer the periwinkles to a pot of water, and boil with a pinch of salt for about a while. Drain off the water and set the periwinkles aside. # Place the meat, ponmo, and stock fish in a pot. Cover them with as little water as possible, then add the onion and the stock cubes. Cover and cook until tender. # Add the deboned dryfish. # Boil the palm fruit juice/concentrate in a separate pot until oil floats to the surface. # Add all the ingredients, assorted meats, fish, and salt to taste. Stir gently and leave to simmer. == Variation II == === Ingredients === * [[Cookbook:Goat|Goat]] meat (optional), washed * Cow [[Cookbook:Tripe|tripe]] (shaki) (optional), washed * [[Cookbook:Ponmo|Ponmo]] (optional), washed * Assorted meat, washed * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]] * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]] * Salt * [[Cookbook:Oil Palm Fruit|Palm fruit]], washed * Uyayak spice * Dried fish (optional), washed and deboned * Bunch of atama leaves * [[Cookbook:Ground Crayfish|Ground crayfish]] * [[Cookbook:Stock|Seasoning cube]] * Pepper === Equipment === * [[Cookbook:Mortar and Pestle|Mortar and pestle]] * Pot * Water === Procedure === # Place meats, ponmo, garlic, and onions in a pot. Season with salt to taste, and rub the meat to make sure the salt is well-distributed. # Cover the meat with water, and bring to a boil. Simmer while you proceed with the next steps. # Boil the palm fruits with a reasonable quantity of water for about 5 minutes. The cooked fruits should be soft and tender. # Drain the cooked palm fruits in a colander. # Pound the palm fruits in a mortar until the shafts are removed. Wash with hot water to extract the palm oil. # Add the extracted palm oil and the uyayak spice to the simmering meat. Add the dried fish if using, and simmer for about 30 minutes. # Stir in the atama leaves, ground crayfish, seasoning cube, and salt to taste. By now the palm fruit oil extract would be thicken along the process. # Cover, and cook for 5 minutes. Serve. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] bc9pduiyu1h9il1h0os2itn0adwtpih 0 446577 4095671 4060484 2022-08-24T06:06:57Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki In JSON, the syntax is similar to Javascript, as it was derived from Javascript, although now it is independent and separate language. {{BookCat}} 89ep168bmujpm74wbyoqq0iv1wz0ukg 0 446846 4095502 4070368 2022-08-23T18:46:40Z PeterEasthope 660399 Incorporated the ETH Oberon license by reference rather than value. wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Oberon/ETH Oberon/License}} ==ETH Bluebottle/Aos/A2 License== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| [https://svn-dept.inf.ethz.ch/svn/lecturers/a2/trunk/source/License.Text https://svn-dept.inf.ethz.ch/svn/lecturers/a2/trunk/source/License.Text] ETH Bluebottle/Aos/A2<br /> Copyright (c) 2002-2016, Computer Systems Institute, ETH Zurich<br /> All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: o Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. o Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. o Neither the name of the ETH Zurich nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. }} ==Project Oberon, Revised Edition 2013== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| [http://www.projectoberon.net/wirth/ProjectOberon/license.txt http://www.projectoberon.net/wirth/ProjectOberon/license.txt] Book copyright (C)2013 Niklaus Wirth and Juerg Gutknecht; software copyright (C)2013 Niklaus Wirth (NW), Juerg Gutknecht (JG), Paul Reed (PR[/PDR]). Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software and its accompanying documentation (the "Software") for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHORS DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES OR LIABILITY WHATSOEVER, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE DEALINGS IN OR USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. }} {{BookCat}} mdf5oimxzl7qldwi2xylq2b00rpus7v 0 447056 4095678 4072307 2022-08-24T06:09:14Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki ==History== Retro Games Ltd. developed the system, announcing it in September of 2017.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Linder |first1=Brad |title=C64 Mini retro game console coming in 2018 for $70 (with 64 games pre-loaded) |url=https://liliputing.com/2017/09/c64-mini-retro-game-console-coming-2018-70-64-games-pre-loaded.html |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Liliputing |date=29 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="Announcement"/> The C64 Mini was released in 2018.<ref name="Release">{{cite news |last1=Campbell |first1=Colin |title=Retro Commodore 64 Mini will launch in U.S. in October |url=https://www.polygon.com/2018/7/23/17605438/c64-mini-thec64-mini-release-date-us |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Polygon |date=23 July 2018}}</ref> The system had a European release on March 29th, 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Linder |first1=Brad |title=C64 Mini coming March 29th for $70 |url=https://liliputing.com/2018/01/c64-mini-coming-march-29th-70.html |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Liliputing |date=31 January 2018}}</ref><ref name="Release"/> The official US and Canadian release date was October 9th, 2018.<ref name="Release"/> The system cost $69.99 United States Dollars.<ref name="Announcement">{{cite news |last1=Nistor |first1=Codrut |title=C64 Mini retro console coming next year for US$70 |url=https://www.notebookcheck.net/C64-Mini-retro-console-coming-next-year-for-US-70.253334.0.html |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Notebookcheck |language=en}}</ref> ==Technology== ===Hardware=== The system has two host USB ports.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cooper |first1=D. |title=The C64 Mini review: Nostalgia’s not enough |url=https://www.engadget.com/2018-04-06-c64-mini-review.html |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Engadget |date=April 6, 2018}}</ref> The system is powered through a separate micro-USB port.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lambrechts |first1=Stephen |title=The C64 Mini review |url=https://www.techradar.com/reviews/the-c64-mini |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=TechRadar |date=9 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref> The system has an HDMI port for audio and video output.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sheehan |first1=Gavin |title=Review: The C64 Mini |url=https://bleedingcool.com/games/review-the-c64-mini/ |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=Bleeding Cool News And Rumors |date=10 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref> The system outputs video at a resolution of 720p.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ogilvie |first1=Tristan |title=The C64 Mini Review |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/2018/03/30/the-c64-mini-review |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=IGN |date=30 March 2018 |language=en}}</ref> The aesthetic "keyboard" on the the console has no movable keys and it is non-functional.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bradley |first1=Alan |title=C64 Mini review: "A charming package that falls just short of greatness" |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/c64-mini-review/ |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=gamesradar |date=21 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> ===Software=== The system supported either an virtual on screen keyboard or a USB keyboard.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Belam |first1=Martin |title=C64 Mini review – let's play Everyone's a Wally! |url=https://www.theguardian.com/games/2018/mar/28/c64-commodore-64-mini-review-everyones-a-wally-boulder-dash-speedball |access-date=9 June 2022 |work=the Guardian |date=28 March 2018 |language=en}}</ref> ==References== {{Reflist|2}} {{Status|50%}} {{Bookcat}} __NOTOC__ 8iqd3ncakk91tczqnfqrp5uktg5k08v 0 447121 4095668 4073176 2022-08-24T06:05:51Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 wikitext text/x-wiki In [[Turkish/Nominal Sentences]], it was claimed that there was no Turkish equivelant for the verbs ''to be'' and ''to have''. This is only partially true. The verb ''imek'', which is only arguably a verb, functions similar to the verb ''to be'' in Western languages. ''imek'' may be appended to noun phrases, or verbs with a tense or mood declension to convey its meaning. The details of this construction shall be discussed in this article. == Declension of ''imek'' == ''imek'' is never literally used in a Turkish sentence, one of its 4 forms is used instead. These 4 forms are: * [[Turkish/Imperfective Past|idi]] * [[Turkish/Evidential Copula|imiş]] * [[Turkish/Conditional Copula|ise]] * [[Turkish/Converbs#iken|iken]] All of these forms have complex meanings and use cases, and will thus be covered in their respective articles. == ''imek'' as a suffix == However, ''imek'' is rarely used as an independent word. Most of the time, the words ''idi'', ''imiş'', ''ise'' and ''iken'' turn respectively into the suffixes ''-(y)dı'', ''-(y)mış'', ''-(y)sa'' and ''-(y)ken''. All forms except ''-(y)ken'' obey vowel harmony. Suffix versions of ''imek'' are unstressed. {| style="width: 60%" | width="20%" | {|{{Turkish/Table|width=100%|||columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|kır|break}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|gör|break}}{{tr/suff|müş|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|se|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|ısıt|break}}{{tr/suff|acak|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|mış|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|gez|break}}{{tr/suff|er|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ken|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |} | width="4020" | {|{{Turkish/Table|width=100%|||columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|ev|house}}{{tr/suff|de|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydi|color=b|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|Ahmet'in|Ahmet's}} {{tr/word|annesi|mother|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|yse|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|ödev|homework}} {{tr/word|için|for|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|miş|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|küçük bir|a small}} {{tr/word|çocuk|child|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|ken|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |} |} An exception is ''ise'', which is used often as a separate word when it is used as the conjunction ''on the other hand'' instead of its usual meaning. * Ayşe işleri bitirmek için çok çalışıyor, Kerem ise yatıp dinleniyordu. == Which phrases can ''imek'' be used with? == In principle, any phrase that can function as the predicate of the sentence can take ''imek''. === Noun phrases === ''imek'' may append to any noun or noun construction in nominative. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|çocuk|child}}{{tr/suff|tu|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|Beyza'nın|Beyza's}} {{tr/word|öğretmeni|teacher|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|ymiş|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |}Locative and Ablative nouns and noun phrases may also take ''imek'', as discussed in [[Turkish/Cases]]. Accustive and Dative nouns on the other hand cannot. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|otel|child}}{{tr/suff|de|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ymiş|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|Azra'nın|Azra's}} {{tr/word|takımı|team|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|ndan|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|dı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |}Postpositional phrases may also combine with ''imek''. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|senin|you}} {{tr/word|için|for|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|ymiş|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|sıcak|hot}} {{tr/word|gibi|like|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|ydi|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|Büşra|Büşra}}{{tr/suff|'yla|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|yken|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |}Particles like ''değil'', ''var'', ''yok'' and ''mı/mi/mu/mü'' combine with ''imek'' freely. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|gerekli|required}} {{tr/word|değil|not|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|di|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|işiniz|your work}} {{tr/word|var|exists|color=darkgreen}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |} === Verbs === Bare verbs cannot combine with ''imek'' directly, only declined verbs can. Most tenses and the necessative mood combine freely with ''imek''. However, the past tenses and the conditional mood combine only with some forms of ''imek''. The exact cases where this is allowed is discussed in their respective articles. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|mış|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|tı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|acak|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|tı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ar|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|dı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|malı|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |}The question particle mı/mi/mu/mü intervenes between the tense suffix and ''imek''. {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=20%|columns=1}} ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mu|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydu|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|mış|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mı|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|acak|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mı|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ar|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mı|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|malı|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mı|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=b|dash=no}} {{tr/suff|mı|color=gold|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|ydı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |} == Declining for person == All forms of ''imek'' except ''iken'' are declined for person. The declensions are as follows: {|{{Turkish/Table|||width=80%|columns=4}} ! {{tr/word|ben|I|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|m|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|muş|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|um|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|m|color=purple|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|sen|you|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|n|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|muş|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sun|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|n|color=purple|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|o|he/she|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|muş|color=lightblue|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|biz|we|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|k|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|muş|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|uz|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|k|color=purple|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|siz|you|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|du|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|nuz|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|muş|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sunuz|color=purple|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|nız|color=purple|dash=no}} |- ! {{tr/word|onlar|they|color=purple}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|lar|color=purple|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|dı|color=lightblue|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|lar|color=purple|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|mış|color=lightblue|dash=no}} | {{tr/word|yap|do}}{{tr/suff|ıyor|color=b|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|lar|color=purple|dash=no}}{{tr/suff|sa|color=lightblue|dash=no}} |} When ''imek'' is used in a third person plural question sentence, mı/mi intervenes between ''lar/ler'' and ''imek'', as in ''yapıyorlar mıymış''. == The full verb ''olmak'' == While ''imek'' has only 4 declensions, more tenses are often required. In order to use a noun phrase or declined verb in any other tense, the fully-fledged verb ''olmak'' may be used. This construction is to be covered in greater detail in [[Turkish/Free Auxiliaries]].{{Turkish/TOC}} 77de7tq9rpkuoon7v94vf05efykvfua 102 447220 4095710 4078894 2022-08-24T09:17:18Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Watermelon Smoothie is a hydrating and healthful beverage. == Ingredients == # [[Cookbook:Watermelon|Watermelon]] # [[Cookbook:Milk|Milk]] == Equipment == # Medium sized bowl # Blender # Cup == Procedures == * Step 1: Cut the watermelon into small pieces after removing the seeds. To make a puree, combine all of the ingredients in a blender. Drain the blended watermelon through a sieve. In a mixing dish, combine the drained puree of watermelon with the watermelon smoothie made with fresh milk. To blend, stir everything together. Your watermelon smoothie is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] cshiwppww08y2jfkfzipkb6xxki3r9b 4095711 4095710 2022-08-24T09:19:03Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Watermelon Smoothie is a hydrating and healthful beverage. == Ingredients == # [[Cookbook:Watermelon|Watermelon]] # [[Cookbook:Milk|Milk]] == Equipment == # Medium sized bowl # Blender # Cup == Procedures == * Step 1: Cut the watermelon into small pieces after removing the seeds. To make a puree, combine all of the ingredients in a blender. Drain the blended watermelon through a sieve. In a mixing dish, combine the drained puree of watermelon with the watermelon smoothie made with fresh milk. To blend, stir everything together. Your watermelon smoothie is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Beverage recipes]] mmpj2zjrsx5m76kzhsrzp990r0q07tr 4095712 4095711 2022-08-24T09:19:59Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Watermelon Smoothie''' is a hydrating and healthful beverage. == Ingredients == # [[Cookbook:Watermelon|Watermelon]] # [[Cookbook:Milk|Milk]] == Equipment == # Medium sized bowl # Blender # Cup # Knife == Procedures == * Step 1: Cut the watermelon into small pieces after removing the seeds. To make a puree, combine all of the ingredients in a blender. Drain the blended watermelon through a sieve. In a mixing dish, combine the drained puree of watermelon with the watermelon smoothie made with fresh milk. To blend, stir everything together. Your watermelon smoothie is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Beverage recipes]] j5m49t8emgdfijc6aq5ud7eypmyoabo 0 447330 4095663 4086461 2022-08-24T06:04:10Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {{minecraft/mob|cat=Secret|intro=Mobs summoned with cheats, used for adventure maps.|health=Unkillable, hit on creative to remove.|spawning=With commands. Only available on bedrock edition.|des=They can be given text, buttons with commands and run commands when the ui is opened or closed. You can also change their apperience. Summon by typing the following in the chat window: <code>/summon npc <nowiki>~~~</nowiki></code>. Npcs can be modified by changing commands and dialog. When giving it commands, it may run them when a button is pressed or when the dialog is opened or closed. The commands can be separated with a new line, unlike when using command blocks. A new identifier becomes available: <code>@initiator</code>. This identifier selects the player that interacted with the npc.}} {{bookCat}} sq14rizs17sd38mxognn2rpja2k5brq 4095665 4095663 2022-08-24T06:04:41Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {{minecraft/mob|cat=Secret|intro=Mobs summoned with cheats, used for adventure maps.|health=Unkillable, hit on creative to remove.|spawning=With commands. Only available on bedrock edition.|des=They can be given text, buttons with commands and run commands when the ui is opened or closed. You can also change their appearance. Summon by typing the following in the chat window: <code>/summon npc <nowiki>~~~</nowiki></code>. Npcs can be modified by changing commands and dialog. When giving it commands, it may run them when a button is pressed or when the dialog is opened or closed. The commands can be separated with a new line, unlike when using command blocks. A new identifier becomes available: <code>@initiator</code>. This identifier selects the player that interacted with the npc.}} {{bookCat}} ly0od6cm5xp6ft2y0o2k38z42mq3aw2 3 447393 4095467 4095349 2022-08-23T16:09:32Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Why Create Vampires? */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories? <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. 4aepfqlisns4xwc1c8mtgan85z9f2ie 4095468 4095467 2022-08-23T16:10:18Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Why Create Vampires? */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. ohhfl5zwx3gk3fviu1ygcw4jydep51f 4095471 4095468 2022-08-23T16:26:24Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who History will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustice. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) 2jx5yeo1m735z3cfmm3r1vfmwfx9z7u 4095473 4095471 2022-08-23T16:36:38Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ added paragraph wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the original Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character Dracula is well known, yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 18-- jaim32nfrwdqr9n91ctir6weggna05d 4095474 4095473 2022-08-23T16:39:41Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> 1nhji7wuz03ewk575b0zc4e581h9yto 4095479 4095474 2022-08-23T16:56:18Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ Caption text |- ! Header text |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |} 021014zhnvr9chlaejdf8js068e269s 4095480 4095479 2022-08-23T17:02:36Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ added source information and blank table wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ Caption text |- ! Header text |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |- | Example |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 laxvotp6ahow76kt4cs7aj6hsfzm2bc 4095481 4095480 2022-08-23T17:10:02Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 sib14e15kk2pvovx8icoq91haekcflq 4095482 4095481 2022-08-23T17:17:46Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: 1428 - 1431 |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: December 1476 - January 1477 |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 <br> <br> Wikipedia.com [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler] t0zd2lhj3tfpw1z86c5ahguc15rs13r 4095483 4095482 2022-08-23T17:19:03Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: 1428 - 1431 |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: December 1476 - January 1477 |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 <br> <br> Wikipedia.com [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler]<br> THANKS [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:19, 23 August 2022 (UTC) fhekr7g9gnp6hutnqe5edphssby1l16 4095484 4095483 2022-08-23T17:25:36Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Zombie by Margaret Atwood == '''Zombie''' is a poem by the world famous poet Margaret Atwood. Her poem can be found in her book <u>'''Dearly'''</u>, a collection of her new poems. I hope to post a critical essay on 'Zombie' by Margaret Atwood, as a example of critical analysis in Literature. I am certain that I can fairly reprint a few lines from the poem, yet I'm not sure if I can post the entire poem. Any suggestions? Thanks~~ [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 18:04, 25 June 2022 (UTC) <br> There you have it: zombie. <br> Didn't you always suspect? <br> "Poetry is the past <br> that breaks out in our hearts" <br> like a virus, like an infection. <br> <br> The quote within the poem: "Poetry is the past that breaks out in our hearts..." is taken from the poet Rilke. <br> ==NEW EDITS!== NEW TOPIC: [ I left these paragraphs under CREATE VAMPIRES / History and Folklore ] History, meaning inquiry, or knowledge acquired from the past by investigation, may stem from Greek historia, according to Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History History is related to folklore, yet is essentially different. Folklore are stories about a particular culture, yet Folklore, and similar legends, are told from a subjective perspective, and are not validated by external sources. Folklore and legends are classified as cultural heritage. History is not myth, mainly for reasons that involve telling a story about events that have happened in the past, and then gathering supporting evidence used to validate one's history. The study of History is a major discipline in academic fields. The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. Imaginative young readers today, could greatly benefit from Creative Writing classes offered in many Public High Schools. Creative writing classes are controversial classes in academia, yet in general, helpful to students in public schools. Creative writing programs are developing. In many public schools, creative writing classes are related to Language classes, and Art classes. Creative writing is not a discipline in academic fields. Create Vampire is a free wikibook intended as a guide, and as a non-fictional resource for people fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! TIP: Before creating a vampire character, you could ask yourself if you want your vampire to reflect stories based in Folklore, gathered from events that happened to actual people, or you may prefer to create a vampire from your imagination. Perhaps a imaginary creation who possesses non-human traits? I edited this major paragraph Create Vampires / History and Folklore / Create Vampires?: <BR>CREATE VAMPIRES? In a world where people desire to make a lot of money, in the shortest amount of time. In a world where bank robbery is illegal, yet grave-robbery is not...? In a world populated by individuals who seemed ruled by greed, vampires and other monsters are sometimes spoken into some tangible, often frightening existence. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) If we exist in a world where characters could be spoken into existence, and allowed to linger in unusual fields bound and un-bound... If characters could linger, losing human characteristics and form, linger like ghost populating flat white spaces, if characters could attain atypical motion, yet exist like zombies without the ability to reason, or exist like demons without kindness, or exist like vampires, with constant hunger, sharing kindness with the hungry ghost who linger with desires to be fed, if such empty planes were populated by hungry, unreasoning, lingering atypical creations, mere works of the imagination, would their monster's tale be worthy of note? I hope to add this paragraph [somewhere after "The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories..."] The nature of the vampire shifted from folklore stories, that often contained warnings, to mutated stories about pale monsters and occult-ish blood lettings. It is as if the horrific stories about the tragic events that happened to some people, horror stories that were traditionally passed orally from person to person, started to pass culturally from one region to another region, finally emerging (centuries later) from the author's imagination in tangible, written form, vastly distorted, yet eerily relevant, with the mysterious ability to capture the imagination of young readers. <BR>Thanks. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:24, 13 August 2022 (UTC) == I will miss Pi zero. == Although this is a personal response, in no way related to "Create Vampires," I have recently learned of Wikibooks' loss. Pi zero was a great guide, and I will miss his guidance when I am loss on Wikibooks. He was a special person online. Now I wonder who will remind me to avoid ORIGINAL RESEARCH? LOL. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 15:54, 15 August 2022 (UTC) == Why Create Vampires? == I added 5 new paragraphs to a new page: Why Create Vampires? <br> Contributions from Wikibookians interested in these subjects, especially vampires, are welcomed! <br> <br> [new section] What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood? What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do? These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you? Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit! Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty. In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, reflect the society and times you observe and write about. Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone. Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. <br> <br> <br> I WILL SLOWLY ADD MORE INFORMATION TO THIS SECTION [NOT ON MAIN PAGE] Why Create Vampires? / Warning! <br> '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' <br> <br> Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. <br> Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, <br> almost un-loveable, and very problematic.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS:<br> |- ! Traits !! !! Characteristics |- | Pale / Deadly pale || || Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- | Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth || || Predator personality |- | Thin || || Alpha Male type |- | Black hair / Brown Hair || || "Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- | Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. || || |} <BR> Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination?<br> <BR> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <BR> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers.<BR> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Supernatural Vampire Traits |- ! Traits that are supernatural !! Mythological Creature |- | Immortality <br>Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning<br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing || [[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} <br> Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] <br> who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, <br> which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested <br> in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote The Vampyre, a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his The Vampire in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. Tip: Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> <br> Sources: <br> [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/|https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 <br> [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957|https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com <br> [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid|https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> Thanks [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:03, 19 August 2022 (UTC) == DROPPING MY RACIAL BAGGAGE == <br> MY PERSONAL INFORMATION SEEMS TO BELONG ON MY DISCUSSION PAGE.<br> Dropping My Racial Baggage <br> On my body I have two birthmarks. One is a darker brown than my normally brown body, the other is a yellowish-brown birthmark, lighter than most of my brown body. I always knew my family was blended, we merged and emerged from attractive dark brown and yellowish-brown relatives who could pass as white because of their facial features. Today, I’m sure they could blend with tan Americans, meaning Americans who are a lighter brown in skin complexion and appearance. I always thought my family was most like the family from The Cosby Show, a popular family TV Show. On The Cosby Show, Bill Cosby’s TV father was not embarrassed by the members of his family who came in a range of shades, from dark brown to almost-white. The fact was that families with extended family members felt comfortable, and popular, claiming all the members of their family! This was ideal. Some people wanted to celebrate. The 1980s were diverse and positive times for family Entertainment. As opposed to foreign cultural notions of people checking one of two boxes: black or white, and away from similar subversive cultural norms … black and tan? The composition by Duke Ellington comes to mind… I consider most Americans in a range between dark brown and tan. When people ask me my race, I always say “brown,” because I am a brown woman, or to be technically correct, I am a multi-colored, 4th dimensional woman. Most people do not want to be super-technical (by acknowledging the 4th dimension of space-time), yet people seem to want to live reasonable lives. For example, why can’t the box of 8 colors describe the colors we see when we look at other people? Perhaps crayons’ manufacturers, CRAYOLA, did need to make several flesh colored crayons and market colors that people appear to be, ranging from dark brown to light brown. After watching America’s Top Model, at least 13 seasons, I realized that most people can see beyond the simple “black” or “white” description, yet there are people who will describe a brown, or a tan person as either “black” or “white.” Humans calling people “black” or “white” use to mildly bother me, I remember when I roomed with a Jewish person, (a student who ate pepperoni pizza with few problems), a young woman who re-named me “black” every time I spoke with her, I remember feeling puzzled, then resentful. My third-grade Teacher never labeled me black, the other African-Americans in my High School never left me with the “black” label, nor did a few Native Americans who were called “Asian-Americans,” (…about Native-Americans, I mean we know where America is, but where is Asia?) therefore I was really puzzled. During my “identity growth” years, when I considered the words other people used to label “me,” I was grouped with other teenagers, later, mis-leading college students and other young adults whose mis-labeling of others was either a shameful oversight or ironic (the irony based on previous unexamined cultural biases Americans had failed to question). What is ironic about public expressions of race is the fact that our notions about race are influenced by our culture. For example, in High School, I remember my excitement about the field of Science, a high point after I had read a TIME magazine article that reported Scientist who could trace DNA via. The mitochondrial organelles. What I remember from my Cell Biology books are that the mitochondria are the “power house” of the cell. The article suggested that we could trace our ancestors DNA not just from DNA found in the nucleus, but also through analyzing unique DNA found in the mitochondria. This information made news, in fact, the cover of that TIME magazine was a arty image with a updated image of Adam and Eve. I assume the updated image was to announce the new Science developing to help find our ancestors and discovering our relatives. I remember that I stood in front of my Science class with a issue of TIME magazine in my hand, and I asked the class if they knew “black” people were in the garden of Eden. The arty image on the cover of TIME actually showed people who looked like African-Americans, people with brownish-tan skin, and mid-length curly hair. People in America who looked like the image on the TIME magazine cover were / are called “black” in America. As I gain a greater appreciation for the Arts, especially after I took a few Art appreciation classes, I realize that forcing a racial classification was rude, by asking if the class knew that black people were in the garden of Eden, I exposed my mis-education. It is the ironic mis-education I remember I attached to the arty TIME magazine cover. In my early weeks on my college campus, I would brag about my chosen field: Genetics. Because there was no major in Genetics, I had to settle for a Biology or a Chemistry major. I could take extra classes that focused on Genetics. Other Science students were also interested in Genetics and seemed the types who would follow me into Genetic fields where we would, hopefully, find jobs in Genetics, where we would one day help to cure genetic disorders. That was my teenage dream for my future career. Turns out, reality is less ideal. Although I did find meaningful work later, in a laboratory that studied animal genetics, I basically learned how to use modern Science equipment [a giant lesson needed if Science is to improve our understandings…]. Science equipment is complex, and often, a lack of a good understanding of Science and Technology left Science students with puzzling results… I also worked at a Hospital, and I proudly held a healthy and alert white baby boy whose parents were probably immigrants from China. Technically, I have held white children, and I technically believe that they are a minority, and like other children, small white children should always be protected by adults and by our government. Finally, I use to converse with other students about my hair, or about my complexion [my hair and skin does lighten and darken with sunlight exposure]. Few students believed I needed to allow my hair to be natural, to see the two different hair types (one tight and curly, like a spiral, the other less tight, more wavey), or that my time spent without make-up (concealer) was necessary, yet my time spent without make-up allowed my brown complexion to emerge (in its range of brownness). By studying my genotypic expression, my biological inheritance, my outer surface appeared. I studied myself as I truly would appear without cosmetics, concealers, and hair-straighteners. I did not burn my bra (I did have limits), yet freeing oneself of “surface enhancers” allowed me to feel confident in who I truly was: a healthier, brown woman with black curly hair. I suppose I found myself? Nonsense, how could I ever lose me? I allowed my natural surface appearance to emerge, at least for a brief time in my life. Were college students who were once interested in Genetics as a career path impressed? Probably not. For unknown reasons, the ‘natural’ black chick, or the brown wannabe white-Hippy stereotype seemed to follow me. After exposure to radiation [a safe level] while working in a research laboratory, I did follow a popular “back-to-nature” path where I preferred natural products to “overprocessed” or processes products. My non-racist friends, many blond with sun-kissed brown skin, were typical “white Hippies,” yet I didn’t have to be a wannabe white-Hippy to be a non-racist woman who supported nature, was a Environmentalist, and a supporter of better opportunities for all Americans, regardless of their color, religion or gender! When I went online to share my learnings, gleaned from my factual college experiences, I was treated like a poor black child who couldn’t understand racist online… What? I could look up the definition for racism. [Racism (n): prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a particular racial or ethic group, typically one that is a minority or marginalized]. As I understand the concept, racism is a flawed ideology that simplifies reality, forcing complex humans into limited conceptual categories. I was always against individual racist, preferring my own understanding of the situation from Dr. Martin Luther King’s point-of view, as I remember his message, we should judge a man based on his character [his deeds] and not on the color of his skin. To better fight against racism, I got help from Christians. In general, Christians believe that God has a plan for all of humanity. Many Christians believe that all people are the children of God. In the presence of active Christians on campus, I met actual black people, people with dark brown skin that could be mistook for the color black in bright sunlight. Near “black” people, I felt the color brown, there was no other way to describe my skin’s appearance. I was a brown human, which is what I had been saying since the 3rd grade in my public school! Contact with diversity confirmed my truth. Now that I am a Christian, I do not mentally pick-up racist ideology as being somehow above Christian beliefs and values. I do try to sense a person’s character. Realistically, most people in America struggle to raise their children because it is hard to raise good Christians and good citizens. I am done with dragging around “racial baggage,” I see people and choose religious values to pick-up, humanity to champion. == Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler == Greetings! <br> I am glad people like Pi zero reminded me against original research, because I do not want to walk a mile in a undead man's shoes. I found most sources online and in public libraries [I do not have a insider perspective, nor do I want to become a special "inspiration" for a vampire-person in another special reader's world].<br> I want to create a new section: Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler. <br> <br> '''Dracula behind Vlad - The Impaler''' <br> <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 16:26, 23 August 2022 (UTC) Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the ''original'' Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, '''Dracula''' in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> According to Wikipedia, "Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons." <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: 1428 - 1431 |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: December 1476 - January 1477 |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 <br> <br> Wikipedia.com [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler]<br> THANKS [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 17:19, 23 August 2022 (UTC) jmp80ibypiq31dcwmhfjgeuxaxpt1tt 102 447399 4095672 4089165 2022-08-24T06:07:23Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Nigerian beef macaroni''' is a simple, quick meal that can be prepared for breakfast or dinner. It is a nutritious pasta recipe made with meat and veggies. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]] * Ground [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] * Salt * Whole [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]], peeled * [[Cookbook:Dehydrated Broth|Seasoning cubes]] * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Twisted macaroni [[Cookbook:Pasta|pasta]] * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]] * Onions, diced * [[Cookbook:Tomato|Tomatoes]], diced * Red [[Cookbook:Chiles|chili pepper]], blended * [[Cookbook:Bell Pepper|Bell peppers]], diced * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrots]], diced * [[Cookbook:Green Bean|Green beans]] * [[Cookbook:Nutmeg|Nutmeg]] * 1 cup beef [[Cookbook:Broth|broth]] or water == Equipment == * Pot * Bowl * Chef spoon == Procedure == # Season the beef with pepper, salt, whole onions, and seasoning cube. Cover with water, and simmer until tender. # Drain the meat from the broth, then slice it into little pieces. # Fry the beef should in hot vegetable oil until golden, then set aside. # Boil the macaroni in salted water for 10 minutes. Drain and reserve. # Heat an adequate amount of oil in a frying pan. Add the garlic, ginger, and diced onions. Stir-fry for 10 minutes. # Add the diced tomatoes, blended pepper, bell peppers, carrots, and green beans. Cook for 5 minutes over medium heat. # Stir in the beef broth. Allow it to simmer gently on medium heat—the substance will start to get quite rich and thick. # Add the fried beef and the cooked macaroni, stirring well to combine. # Turn down the heat, and cook the macaroni for over very low heat for 5 minutes, or until it has absorbed all the ingredients and the liquid has reduced. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Pasta recipes]] awo87ax84zsh0heymvt9355ebi1vdlm 4095675 4095672 2022-08-24T06:08:21Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Nigerian beef macaroni''' is a simple, quick meal that can be prepared for breakfast or dinner. It is a nutritious pasta recipe made with meat and veggies. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Beef|Beef]] * Ground [[Cookbook:Pepper|pepper]] * Salt * Whole [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]], peeled * [[Cookbook:Dehydrated Broth|Seasoning cubes]] * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Twisted macaroni [[Cookbook:Pasta|pasta]] * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]] * Onions, diced * [[Cookbook:Tomato|Tomatoes]], diced * Red [[Cookbook:Chiles|chili pepper]], blended * [[Cookbook:Bell Pepper|Bell peppers]], diced * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrots]], diced * [[Cookbook:Green Bean|Green beans]] * [[Cookbook:Nutmeg|Nutmeg]] * 1 cup beef [[Cookbook:Broth|broth]] or water == Equipment == * Pot * Bowl * Chef spoon == Procedure == # Season the beef with pepper, salt, whole onions, and seasoning cube. Cover with water, and simmer until tender. # Drain the meat from the broth, then slice it into little pieces. # Fry the beef should in hot vegetable oil until golden, then set aside. # Boil the macaroni in salted water for 10 minutes. Drain and reserve. # Heat an adequate amount of oil in a frying pan. Add the garlic, ginger, and diced onions. Stir-fry for 10 minutes. # Add the diced tomatoes, blended pepper, bell peppers, carrots, and green beans. Cook for 5 minutes over medium heat. # Stir in the beef broth. Allow it to simmer gently on medium heat—the substance will start to get quite rich and thick. # Add the fried beef and the cooked macaroni, stirring well to combine. # Turn down the heat, and cook the macaroni for over very low heat for 5 minutes, or until it has absorbed all the ingredients and the liquid has reduced. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Pasta recipes]] [[Category:Beef recipes]] heyz12dn5ny9e36h1k62t6inunkvv6f 102 447532 4095664 4081663 2022-08-24T06:04:32Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} There are numerous ways to prepare the tomato soup recipe; some people want their soup to have a thin, creamy, thick, light, or chunky texture. To your tomato soup, you can choose to add milk, meatballs, or chicken veggie broth. may make it with just a few basic ingredients. With fresh organic tomatoes and some herbs like basil, oregano, or parsley, this recipe for low-calorie, low-carb tomato soup is the tastiest tomato soup you will ever make at home. It uses straightforward ingredients and is nutritious. == Ingredients == # Tomatoes # garlic # Onion # Vegetable oil # Basil leaves # sugar # Sugar # Salt == Equipment == # Pot # Cooker # Chopping board # Medium sized bowl == Procedures == * Step 1: Your tomatoes should first be sliced into smaller pieces. The tomatoes combine more easily after being diced. onion, then leave everything else aside. Put some vegetable oil in a pot and heat it up before adding the chopped onions and garlic. Until it becomes aromatic and transparent, saute. Add two bay leaves and the newly diced tomatoes at this point, and simmer for another 10 minutes, or until the tomatoes are tender. * Step 2: Remove the bay leaves and turn off the heat when the tomatoes are tender. After allowing it to cool, purée it smoothly. Put the tomato paste that has been mixed back into the pan. A bit of salt, a teaspoon of sugar, a teaspoon of dried oregano, and some beef stock should be added first. You can use beef or chicken stock. Stir to thoroughly blend all the ingredients after adding them, then cook for 15 minutes or until the mixture thickens. * Step 3: Take off from the heat and your tomato soup is ready [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] rl2mkf75up615fmzwadvax9ucmoir5r 4095666 4095664 2022-08-24T06:05:25Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} There are numerous ways to prepare the tomato soup recipe; some people want their soup to have a thin, creamy, thick, light, or chunky texture. To your tomato soup, you can choose to add milk, meatballs, or chicken veggie broth. may make it with just a few basic ingredients. With fresh organic tomatoes and some herbs like basil, oregano, or parsley, this recipe for low-calorie, low-carb tomato soup is the tastiest tomato soup you will ever make at home. It uses straightforward ingredients and is nutritious. == Ingredients == # Tomatoes # garlic # Onion # Vegetable oil # Basil leaves # sugar # Sugar # Salt == Equipment == # Pot # Cooker # Chopping board # Medium sized bowl == Procedures == * Step 1: Your tomatoes should first be sliced into smaller pieces. The tomatoes combine more easily after being diced. onion, then leave everything else aside. Put some vegetable oil in a pot and heat it up before adding the chopped onions and garlic. Until it becomes aromatic and transparent, saute. Add two bay leaves and the newly diced tomatoes at this point, and simmer for another 10 minutes, or until the tomatoes are tender. * Step 2: Remove the bay leaves and turn off the heat when the tomatoes are tender. After allowing it to cool, purée it smoothly. Put the tomato paste that has been mixed back into the pan. A bit of salt, a teaspoon of sugar, a teaspoon of dried oregano, and some beef stock should be added first. You can use beef or chicken stock. Stir to thoroughly blend all the ingredients after adding them, then cook for 15 minutes or until the mixture thickens. * Step 3: Take off from the heat and your tomato soup is ready [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Tomato recipes]] p83qgys3yh4kllkwvlw3fnexto2xh2w 4095669 4095666 2022-08-24T06:06:10Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} There are numerous ways to prepare the tomato soup recipe; some people want their soup to have a thin, creamy, thick, light, or chunky texture. To your tomato soup, you can choose to add milk, meatballs, or chicken veggie broth. may make it with just a few basic ingredients. With fresh organic tomatoes and some herbs like basil, oregano, or parsley, this recipe for low-calorie, low-carb tomato soup is the tastiest tomato soup you will ever make at home. It uses straightforward ingredients and is nutritious. == Ingredients == # Tomatoes # garlic # Onion # Vegetable oil # Basil leaves # sugar # Sugar # Salt == Equipment == # Pot # Cooker # Chopping board # Medium sized bowl == Procedures == * Step 1: Your tomatoes should first be sliced into smaller pieces. The tomatoes combine more easily after being diced. onion, then leave everything else aside. Put some vegetable oil in a pot and heat it up before adding the chopped onions and garlic. Until it becomes aromatic and transparent, saute. Add two bay leaves and the newly diced tomatoes at this point, and simmer for another 10 minutes, or until the tomatoes are tender. * Step 2: Remove the bay leaves and turn off the heat when the tomatoes are tender. After allowing it to cool, purée it smoothly. Put the tomato paste that has been mixed back into the pan. A bit of salt, a teaspoon of sugar, a teaspoon of dried oregano, and some beef stock should be added first. You can use beef or chicken stock. Stir to thoroughly blend all the ingredients after adding them, then cook for 15 minutes or until the mixture thickens. * Step 3: Take off from the heat and your tomato soup is ready [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Tomato recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] j3vktym2558h8s9vlgeur6tgzhoz25n 102 447566 4095658 4081651 2022-08-24T05:58:33Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Potato Soup is a thick, cheesy soup that is made with potatoes, sour cream, and meat. It is then topped with cheese and chives. It can be piled up with things like cheese, potatoes in chunks, and your preferred vegetables. Here is a step-by-step guide to make the best homemade loaded potato soup recipe that is creamy, delicious, and filled with bacon and cheese. == Ingredients == # Potatoes # cedar # Cheese # Milk # Pepper # Ground garlic # Onion # Salt # corn flour # Bacon # Chicken broth == Equipment == # Paper towel # Immersion blender # Pot # Bowl # Knige(diving and chopping of onion and potatoes) == Procedures == * Step 1: Stir-frying the bacon over medium heat will cause it to brown and become crispy. If your bacon doesn't have any fats, you can add a teaspoon of oil. When the bacon is crispy, remove it from the heat and let it drain on some paper towels. If you don't want to use bacon, you could also use ham or chicken. * Step 2: Add some butter and some finely chopped onion to the same saucepan. Add three minced garlic cloves to the onion after cooking it for 2 minutes to make it aromatic. Our potato soup will thicken by adding 1/4 cup of flour and stirring. Add the diced potatoes and 4 cups of chicken broth at this point. To prevent the saltiness of your potato soup, use low sodium chicken broth. * Step 3: When the potatoes are soft and pliable, add some whole milk, cover the saucepan, and boil for 15 to 20 minutes. When the potatoes are tender, you can blend half of the soup with an immersion blender and leave the other half unblend before combining them. This will give your potato soup a creamy, thick consistency. * Step 4: Add salt and freshly ground pepper. In addition, mix in half of the crispy bacon and the sour cream before covering the pan and simmering for 10 minutes. your potato soup is ready to be served when hot. # [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] trugvc2i3jaju7da8lyp7dka35fkgmv 4095659 4095658 2022-08-24T05:59:14Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Potato Soup is a thick, cheesy soup that is made with potatoes, sour cream, and meat. It is then topped with cheese and chives. It can be piled up with things like cheese, potatoes in chunks, and your preferred vegetables. Here is a step-by-step guide to make the best homemade loaded potato soup recipe that is creamy, delicious, and filled with bacon and cheese. == Ingredients == # Potatoes # cedar # Cheese # Milk # Pepper # Ground garlic # Onion # Salt # corn flour # Bacon # Chicken broth == Equipment == # Paper towel # Immersion blender # Pot # Bowl # Knige(diving and chopping of onion and potatoes) == Procedures == * Step 1: Stir-frying the bacon over medium heat will cause it to brown and become crispy. If your bacon doesn't have any fats, you can add a teaspoon of oil. When the bacon is crispy, remove it from the heat and let it drain on some paper towels. If you don't want to use bacon, you could also use ham or chicken. * Step 2: Add some butter and some finely chopped onion to the same saucepan. Add three minced garlic cloves to the onion after cooking it for 2 minutes to make it aromatic. Our potato soup will thicken by adding 1/4 cup of flour and stirring. Add the diced potatoes and 4 cups of chicken broth at this point. To prevent the saltiness of your potato soup, use low sodium chicken broth. * Step 3: When the potatoes are soft and pliable, add some whole milk, cover the saucepan, and boil for 15 to 20 minutes. When the potatoes are tender, you can blend half of the soup with an immersion blender and leave the other half unblend before combining them. This will give your potato soup a creamy, thick consistency. * Step 4: Add salt and freshly ground pepper. In addition, mix in half of the crispy bacon and the sour cream before covering the pan and simmering for 10 minutes. your potato soup is ready to be served when hot. # [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Potato recipes]] 8oe91fcz082jo9r0594pzkv0s8ovcrp 4095660 4095659 2022-08-24T05:59:59Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Potato Soup is a thick, cheesy soup that is made with potatoes, sour cream, and meat. It is then topped with cheese and chives. It can be piled up with things like cheese, potatoes in chunks, and your preferred vegetables. Here is a step-by-step guide to make the best homemade loaded potato soup recipe that is creamy, delicious, and filled with bacon and cheese. == Ingredients == # Potatoes # cedar # Cheese # Milk # Pepper # Ground garlic # Onion # Salt # corn flour # Bacon # Chicken broth == Equipment == # Paper towel # Immersion blender # Pot # Bowl # Knige(diving and chopping of onion and potatoes) == Procedures == * Step 1: Stir-frying the bacon over medium heat will cause it to brown and become crispy. If your bacon doesn't have any fats, you can add a teaspoon of oil. When the bacon is crispy, remove it from the heat and let it drain on some paper towels. If you don't want to use bacon, you could also use ham or chicken. * Step 2: Add some butter and some finely chopped onion to the same saucepan. Add three minced garlic cloves to the onion after cooking it for 2 minutes to make it aromatic. Our potato soup will thicken by adding 1/4 cup of flour and stirring. Add the diced potatoes and 4 cups of chicken broth at this point. To prevent the saltiness of your potato soup, use low sodium chicken broth. * Step 3: When the potatoes are soft and pliable, add some whole milk, cover the saucepan, and boil for 15 to 20 minutes. When the potatoes are tender, you can blend half of the soup with an immersion blender and leave the other half unblend before combining them. This will give your potato soup a creamy, thick consistency. * Step 4: Add salt and freshly ground pepper. In addition, mix in half of the crispy bacon and the sour cream before covering the pan and simmering for 10 minutes. your potato soup is ready to be served when hot. # [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Potato recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] l2bv3dehi35nhfwttnem0fah17oc60j 102 447619 4095654 4081947 2022-08-24T05:54:16Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Eggs and potatoes recipe is a light and simple breakfast idea that anyone would love to try out for a simple meal == Ingredients == * Potatoes * Egg * Tomatoes * Onion * Thyme * Curry * Seasoning cubes * Vegetable oil. * Salt == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Cooker * Frying pan * Knife * Whisker == Procedures == # Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and onions should all be finely diced and set aside. Olive oil should be added to a pan that is already hot and being heated over medium-high heat. Use a spatula to whisk for two minutes after adding your diced potatoes. Add the onions and garlic powder, then stir for a further two minutes. # Add some diced tomatoes and chopped peppers, cover, and cook for three minutes while stirring occasionally. Stir in the seasoning cube, thyme, curry, and salt after seasoning the potatoes. Heat the room only moderately. In a skillet, crack eggs over the potatoes. Shake the pan to gently move the eggs to all sides. Don't stir the mixture. When the eggs are set and thickened and no runny liquid egg is left, simmer them covered for 2 minutes. If you'd like, add a few thinly sliced green peppers. Remove the potato and egg from the heat, and then your potato and Egg breakfast is ready * [[Category:Recipes]] 1fux2uusszn39frptsoaa5z3umguh92 4095655 4095654 2022-08-24T05:55:13Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Eggs and potatoes recipe is a light and simple breakfast idea that anyone would love to try out for a simple meal == Ingredients == * Potatoes * Egg * Tomatoes * Onion * Thyme * Curry * Seasoning cubes * Vegetable oil. * Salt == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Cooker * Frying pan * Knife * Whisker == Procedures == # Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and onions should all be finely diced and set aside. Olive oil should be added to a pan that is already hot and being heated over medium-high heat. Use a spatula to whisk for two minutes after adding your diced potatoes. Add the onions and garlic powder, then stir for a further two minutes. # Add some diced tomatoes and chopped peppers, cover, and cook for three minutes while stirring occasionally. Stir in the seasoning cube, thyme, curry, and salt after seasoning the potatoes. Heat the room only moderately. In a skillet, crack eggs over the potatoes. Shake the pan to gently move the eggs to all sides. Don't stir the mixture. When the eggs are set and thickened and no runny liquid egg is left, simmer them covered for 2 minutes. If you'd like, add a few thinly sliced green peppers. Remove the potato and egg from the heat, and then your potato and Egg breakfast is ready * [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 7fpk93lnj1318pymmder7rgcfbnyj4a 4095657 4095655 2022-08-24T05:57:27Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Eggs and potatoes recipe is a light and simple breakfast idea that anyone would love to try out for a simple meal == Ingredients == * Potatoes * Egg * Tomatoes * Onion * Thyme * Curry * Seasoning cubes * Vegetable oil. * Salt == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Cooker * Frying pan * Knife * Whisker == Procedures == # Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and onions should all be finely diced and set aside. Olive oil should be added to a pan that is already hot and being heated over medium-high heat. Use a spatula to whisk for two minutes after adding your diced potatoes. Add the onions and garlic powder, then stir for a further two minutes. # Add some diced tomatoes and chopped peppers, cover, and cook for three minutes while stirring occasionally. Stir in the seasoning cube, thyme, curry, and salt after seasoning the potatoes. Heat the room only moderately. In a skillet, crack eggs over the potatoes. Shake the pan to gently move the eggs to all sides. Don't stir the mixture. When the eggs are set and thickened and no runny liquid egg is left, simmer them covered for 2 minutes. If you'd like, add a few thinly sliced green peppers. Remove the potato and egg from the heat, and then your potato and Egg breakfast is ready * [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Egg recipes]] 3ow16tuguoh17mr54cg6z0oo4m9elaa 102 447627 4095652 4081948 2022-08-24T05:52:42Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} The shrimp fried rice recipe is incredibly tasty and healthy for everyone. You can use any vegetable you have on hand to make it, and once the rice is cooked, everything else will be ready quickly. For this recipe, soy sauce is essential because it adds flavor and color. In addition to making shrimp fried rice appetizing, soy sauce gives the rice a lovely light golden hue. This recipe works well with leftover white rice as well == Ingredients == * Rice * Shrimps * Vegetable oil * Pepper * Seasoning cubes * Salt * Vegetable oil * garlic * Onion * Ginger * Soy sauce * Carrots * Egg == Procedures == # Sprinkle a little salt and pepper over the shrimp, then set them aside for five minutes. 1 tablespoon of vegetable oil should be added to a nonstick pan or wok that has been heated to medium. Stir-fry the shrimp for 30 seconds after which you should flip them over and cook the side that is facing up until it is just barely pink, but not overdone. Leave enough oil in the pan after removing the shrimp, then add the whisked egg and softly fried it before breaking it up into little pieces and removing it to a different plate. # When the garlic, ginger, and onions are aromatic, add them to the oil along with the bell peppers, green peas, beans, and carrots. Add the fried rice spice, season with salt, and saute for 2 minutes, turning periodically, or until the vegetables begin to soften. The scrambled eggs are added back into the vegetables along with the cooked rice; soy sauce is then appropriately added and mixed into the mixture. Until the rice is well hot, spread it evenly around the pan's surface. Make sure the soy sauce and vegetables are evenly distributed over the rice. # Stir the cooked shrimp back into the rice to combine. After checking for salt, stir the rice occasionally as it cooks over medium heat until it is heated through. Remove the shrimp fried rice from the heat and serve it with a cold beverage. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] cvhxengxcie02e6net5s8h3zw9zlmi3 4095653 4095652 2022-08-24T05:53:23Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} The shrimp fried rice recipe is incredibly tasty and healthy for everyone. You can use any vegetable you have on hand to make it, and once the rice is cooked, everything else will be ready quickly. For this recipe, soy sauce is essential because it adds flavor and color. In addition to making shrimp fried rice appetizing, soy sauce gives the rice a lovely light golden hue. This recipe works well with leftover white rice as well == Ingredients == * Rice * Shrimps * Vegetable oil * Pepper * Seasoning cubes * Salt * Vegetable oil * garlic * Onion * Ginger * Soy sauce * Carrots * Egg == Procedures == # Sprinkle a little salt and pepper over the shrimp, then set them aside for five minutes. 1 tablespoon of vegetable oil should be added to a nonstick pan or wok that has been heated to medium. Stir-fry the shrimp for 30 seconds after which you should flip them over and cook the side that is facing up until it is just barely pink, but not overdone. Leave enough oil in the pan after removing the shrimp, then add the whisked egg and softly fried it before breaking it up into little pieces and removing it to a different plate. # When the garlic, ginger, and onions are aromatic, add them to the oil along with the bell peppers, green peas, beans, and carrots. Add the fried rice spice, season with salt, and saute for 2 minutes, turning periodically, or until the vegetables begin to soften. The scrambled eggs are added back into the vegetables along with the cooked rice; soy sauce is then appropriately added and mixed into the mixture. Until the rice is well hot, spread it evenly around the pan's surface. Make sure the soy sauce and vegetables are evenly distributed over the rice. # Stir the cooked shrimp back into the rice to combine. After checking for salt, stir the rice occasionally as it cooks over medium heat until it is heated through. Remove the shrimp fried rice from the heat and serve it with a cold beverage. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Rice recipes]] dxv4hzqj910f4y366pfvdf68w0nt99t 102 447633 4095648 4089254 2022-08-24T05:49:12Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} The ideal substitute for tomato stew is '''carrot stew'''. Although it is less popular in Nigeria and more of an international cuisine, you can use carrots to produce a simple tomato-free stew that tastes just as good and flavorful as the traditional tomato stew. This simple vegetable doesn't have an odd flavor and doesn't dominate the flavor of other components in stews. It can be used in a variety of stew recipes. This specific tomato-free stew combines both carrots and bell peppers; the blended carrot adds a lot of texture and volume to the stew, much like tomatoes would have done; once the carrots and peppers have been boiled to become soft, it makes it easy to blend without much difficulty and without adding water, since they are already soft. In this scenario, frying the stew and getting everything ready won't take too long. == Ingredients == * Meat * Salt * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Pepper]] * [[Cookbook:Stock Cube|Stock cubes]] * Whole [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]], peeled * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrots]] * [[Cookbook:Chiles|Chile peppers]] * Diced onion * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Chopped onion * [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]], minced * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Bay Leaf|Bay leaves]] * Nigerian curry powder * [[Cookbook:Thyme|Thyme]] == Procedure == # Season the meat with salt, pepper, and stock cube. Transfer to a pot with whole onions, cover with water, and cook until very tender. # Remove the meat from the pot, and reserve the liquid (stock) used to cook it. # Cut the meat into smaller pieces, and fry it in oil until golden brown on all sides. # Chop the carrots. Combine them with the chile peppers and an equal amount of diced onions in a pot. Cover with water, and simmer until the carrots are tender. Drain the liquid out, and blend the vegetables to a purée. # Heat 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil in a pan, and add the chopped onions, ginger, and garlic. Cook for one minute. # Add the puréed vegetable mixture, and cook on medium heat for 10 minutes. # Add bay leaves, and season with curry, thyme, salt, and 2 stock cubes. # Stir in enough of the reserved meat stock to achieve your desired consistency. Cover the pot, and cook for 10 minutes, stirring occasionally. # Mix in the fried meat, and simmer for 5 minutes. # Adjust the seasoning if necessary, and remove the bay leaves. # Remove from the heat, and serve with boiled rice or other sides. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] efwtuic4jel0ncoyg9i8lh1ucjv39nw 4095649 4095648 2022-08-24T05:49:50Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} The ideal substitute for tomato stew is '''carrot stew'''. Although it is less popular in Nigeria and more of an international cuisine, you can use carrots to produce a simple tomato-free stew that tastes just as good and flavorful as the traditional tomato stew. This simple vegetable doesn't have an odd flavor and doesn't dominate the flavor of other components in stews. It can be used in a variety of stew recipes. This specific tomato-free stew combines both carrots and bell peppers; the blended carrot adds a lot of texture and volume to the stew, much like tomatoes would have done; once the carrots and peppers have been boiled to become soft, it makes it easy to blend without much difficulty and without adding water, since they are already soft. In this scenario, frying the stew and getting everything ready won't take too long. == Ingredients == * Meat * Salt * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Pepper]] * [[Cookbook:Stock Cube|Stock cubes]] * Whole [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]], peeled * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrots]] * [[Cookbook:Chiles|Chile peppers]] * Diced onion * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Chopped onion * [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]], minced * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Bay Leaf|Bay leaves]] * Nigerian curry powder * [[Cookbook:Thyme|Thyme]] == Procedure == # Season the meat with salt, pepper, and stock cube. Transfer to a pot with whole onions, cover with water, and cook until very tender. # Remove the meat from the pot, and reserve the liquid (stock) used to cook it. # Cut the meat into smaller pieces, and fry it in oil until golden brown on all sides. # Chop the carrots. Combine them with the chile peppers and an equal amount of diced onions in a pot. Cover with water, and simmer until the carrots are tender. Drain the liquid out, and blend the vegetables to a purée. # Heat 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil in a pan, and add the chopped onions, ginger, and garlic. Cook for one minute. # Add the puréed vegetable mixture, and cook on medium heat for 10 minutes. # Add bay leaves, and season with curry, thyme, salt, and 2 stock cubes. # Stir in enough of the reserved meat stock to achieve your desired consistency. Cover the pot, and cook for 10 minutes, stirring occasionally. # Mix in the fried meat, and simmer for 5 minutes. # Adjust the seasoning if necessary, and remove the bay leaves. # Remove from the heat, and serve with boiled rice or other sides. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Carrot recipes]] 5weoavng8x9xlzifa6qb6cek8mars0l 4095650 4095649 2022-08-24T05:50:39Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} The ideal substitute for tomato stew is '''carrot stew'''. Although it is less popular in Nigeria and more of an international cuisine, you can use carrots to produce a simple tomato-free stew that tastes just as good and flavorful as the traditional tomato stew. This simple vegetable doesn't have an odd flavor and doesn't dominate the flavor of other components in stews. It can be used in a variety of stew recipes. This specific tomato-free stew combines both carrots and bell peppers; the blended carrot adds a lot of texture and volume to the stew, much like tomatoes would have done; once the carrots and peppers have been boiled to become soft, it makes it easy to blend without much difficulty and without adding water, since they are already soft. In this scenario, frying the stew and getting everything ready won't take too long. == Ingredients == * Meat * Salt * [[Cookbook:Pepper|Pepper]] * [[Cookbook:Stock Cube|Stock cubes]] * Whole [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]], peeled * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrots]] * [[Cookbook:Chiles|Chile peppers]] * Diced onion * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Chopped onion * [[Cookbook:Ginger|Ginger]], minced * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Bay Leaf|Bay leaves]] * Nigerian curry powder * [[Cookbook:Thyme|Thyme]] == Procedure == # Season the meat with salt, pepper, and stock cube. Transfer to a pot with whole onions, cover with water, and cook until very tender. # Remove the meat from the pot, and reserve the liquid (stock) used to cook it. # Cut the meat into smaller pieces, and fry it in oil until golden brown on all sides. # Chop the carrots. Combine them with the chile peppers and an equal amount of diced onions in a pot. Cover with water, and simmer until the carrots are tender. Drain the liquid out, and blend the vegetables to a purée. # Heat 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil in a pan, and add the chopped onions, ginger, and garlic. Cook for one minute. # Add the puréed vegetable mixture, and cook on medium heat for 10 minutes. # Add bay leaves, and season with curry, thyme, salt, and 2 stock cubes. # Stir in enough of the reserved meat stock to achieve your desired consistency. Cover the pot, and cook for 10 minutes, stirring occasionally. # Mix in the fried meat, and simmer for 5 minutes. # Adjust the seasoning if necessary, and remove the bay leaves. # Remove from the heat, and serve with boiled rice or other sides. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Carrot recipes]] [[Category:Stew recipes]] 13ik1gb1z0stcg8dddxfkbam727r96u 102 447642 4095644 4090527 2022-08-24T05:46:33Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Coconut milk''' is the liquid extracted from ripe fresh coconuts. When a small amount of water is additionally added to the pressing process, the flavor is very delicious. It supplies substantial amounts of fat, the majority of which is in the form of medium-chain saturated fatty acids, namely the kind known as lauric acid. Coconut milk is a wonderful alternative to cow's milk for those who are lactose intolerant, because it is lactose free. == Ingredients == * Large [[Cookbook:Coconut|coconut]] * Water == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Blender * Knife * Fine mesh == Procedures == # Crack open the coconuts and drain out the clear juice. # Use a knife to separate the coconut flesh from the pod. If necessary, rinse the coconut flesh under running water before cutting it into cubes. # Put the coconut flesh in a blender with the water, and process for a full minute at the maximum speed to create a smooth paste. If you don't have a blender, chop up the coconut flesh into manageable pieces, and grate them to a smooth paste. # Put the blended coconut in a bowl, add 1 cup of water, and combine with your hands. # Drain the milk by pouring the blended coconut milk over a very fine sieve. To remove every drop of liquid from the sieve, press with your hand. # The coconut milk will be strained out when you add another cup of water and the coconut flesh back to the dish. # Use the coconut milk right away or store it in the refrigerator. Always shake the coconut milk thoroughly before using. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] pzgt9k9rz90mo3s1m2m208d0ykdg4ej 4095646 4095644 2022-08-24T05:47:13Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Coconut milk''' is the liquid extracted from ripe fresh coconuts. When a small amount of water is additionally added to the pressing process, the flavor is very delicious. It supplies substantial amounts of fat, the majority of which is in the form of medium-chain saturated fatty acids, namely the kind known as lauric acid. Coconut milk is a wonderful alternative to cow's milk for those who are lactose intolerant, because it is lactose free. == Ingredients == * Large [[Cookbook:Coconut|coconut]] * Water == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Blender * Knife * Fine mesh == Procedures == # Crack open the coconuts and drain out the clear juice. # Use a knife to separate the coconut flesh from the pod. If necessary, rinse the coconut flesh under running water before cutting it into cubes. # Put the coconut flesh in a blender with the water, and process for a full minute at the maximum speed to create a smooth paste. If you don't have a blender, chop up the coconut flesh into manageable pieces, and grate them to a smooth paste. # Put the blended coconut in a bowl, add 1 cup of water, and combine with your hands. # Drain the milk by pouring the blended coconut milk over a very fine sieve. To remove every drop of liquid from the sieve, press with your hand. # The coconut milk will be strained out when you add another cup of water and the coconut flesh back to the dish. # Use the coconut milk right away or store it in the refrigerator. Always shake the coconut milk thoroughly before using. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Coconut recipes]] 0ok9399gv8e3344qh22zvpjyxjvae3e 4095647 4095646 2022-08-24T05:47:48Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} '''Coconut milk''' is the liquid extracted from ripe fresh coconuts. When a small amount of water is additionally added to the pressing process, the flavor is very delicious. It supplies substantial amounts of fat, the majority of which is in the form of medium-chain saturated fatty acids, namely the kind known as lauric acid. Coconut milk is a wonderful alternative to cow's milk for those who are lactose intolerant, because it is lactose free. == Ingredients == * Large [[Cookbook:Coconut|coconut]] * Water == Equipment == * Medium sized bowl * Blender * Knife * Fine mesh == Procedures == # Crack open the coconuts and drain out the clear juice. # Use a knife to separate the coconut flesh from the pod. If necessary, rinse the coconut flesh under running water before cutting it into cubes. # Put the coconut flesh in a blender with the water, and process for a full minute at the maximum speed to create a smooth paste. If you don't have a blender, chop up the coconut flesh into manageable pieces, and grate them to a smooth paste. # Put the blended coconut in a bowl, add 1 cup of water, and combine with your hands. # Drain the milk by pouring the blended coconut milk over a very fine sieve. To remove every drop of liquid from the sieve, press with your hand. # The coconut milk will be strained out when you add another cup of water and the coconut flesh back to the dish. # Use the coconut milk right away or store it in the refrigerator. Always shake the coconut milk thoroughly before using. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Coconut recipes]] [[Category:Milk recipes]] 5bm4vznam3y1sbyi8jtmi4ehppd7esx 102 447644 4095640 4082053 2022-08-24T05:43:44Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Any beverage—alcoholic or not—that includes small bits of fruit, soft drinks, or fruit juice is referred to as a fruit punch. Citrus fruits (orange and lemon) are the most popular fruits used to produce fruit punch, although other fruits including apple, cucumber, strawberries, peaches, paw paws, and pineapple are also used. Fruit punches come in a variety of flavors, the most popular of which are made with fruits cut into wedges. My personal favorite fruit punch, however, uses fruits cut into medium or smaller cubes. Instead of using wine like I usually do while making fruit punch, I chose to use Zobo drink. == Ingredients == * Zobo leaves * Pineapple * Pawpaw * Cucumber * Apple * Sugar == Procedures == # Rinse the zobo, then place it in a big pot with 2 cups of water, some ginger, and some heat. Boil the zobo for for 30 minutes, or until all of the crimson fluid has been removed. Remove the Zobo from the heat and allow it to cool. Filter the zobo juice using a fine sieve into a basin that is empty and set aside. # Add some sugar to the beverage, then chill it in the refrigerator. If you'd like, you can use any sweetener, such as jolly juice. Cut the fruits into smaller cubes after washing and setting aside the cucumber, apples, and pawpaw. Float the sliced fruits on top of the juice after removing the zobo beverage from the refrigerator. Enjoy serving your zobo fruit punch in your favorite cups with some ice. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] h3xjcpgflbvmhrll61dm71pa86lvn4a 4095641 4095640 2022-08-24T05:44:43Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe}} Any beverage—alcoholic or not—that includes small bits of fruit, soft drinks, or fruit juice is referred to as a fruit punch. Citrus fruits (orange and lemon) are the most popular fruits used to produce fruit punch, although other fruits including apple, cucumber, strawberries, peaches, paw paws, and pineapple are also used. Fruit punches come in a variety of flavors, the most popular of which are made with fruits cut into wedges. My personal favorite fruit punch, however, uses fruits cut into medium or smaller cubes. Instead of using wine like I usually do while making fruit punch, I chose to use Zobo drink. == Ingredients == * Zobo leaves * Pineapple * Pawpaw * Cucumber * Apple * Sugar == Procedures == # Rinse the zobo, then place it in a big pot with 2 cups of water, some ginger, and some heat. Boil the zobo for for 30 minutes, or until all of the crimson fluid has been removed. Remove the Zobo from the heat and allow it to cool. Filter the zobo juice using a fine sieve into a basin that is empty and set aside. # Add some sugar to the beverage, then chill it in the refrigerator. If you'd like, you can use any sweetener, such as jolly juice. Cut the fruits into smaller cubes after washing and setting aside the cucumber, apples, and pawpaw. Float the sliced fruits on top of the juice after removing the zobo beverage from the refrigerator. Enjoy serving your zobo fruit punch in your favorite cups with some ice. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Fruit recipes]] ke0c9tjk8t4ltx0kfu9v39kurxg7k4y 4 447875 4095434 4094487 2022-08-23T12:12:33Z Alexis Jazz 470964 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2022-08-19T20:21:39Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |BookCat || 19 || 2 |- |CleanDeleteReasons || 64 || 3 |- |CommentsInLocalTime || 559 || 5 |- |DeluxeBar || 130 || 6 |- |GetCollection || 499 || 1 |- |Special characters || 115 || 1 |- |SpecialSearch || 641 || 1 |- |Twinklerevert || 547 || 10 |- |Twinkleunlink || 412 || 11 |- |UTCLiveClock || 264 || 3 |- |Welcome || 510 || 9 |- |autodel || 72 || 1 |- |background-awesomeness || 624 || 2 |- |bottomtabs || 400 || 3 |- |colorcats || 637 || 5 |- |commons-file || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |contribsrange || 282 || 4 |- |edittop || 536 || 4 |- |extlinks || 306 || 3 |- |markAdmins || 46 || 8 |- |markblocked || 28 || 1 |- |massblock || 60 || 2 |- |modrollback || 92 || 3 |- |navpop || 750 || 11 |- |purge || 578 || 9 |- |rightsfilter || 329 || 4 |- |searchbox || 133 || 6 |- |sidebartranslate || 412 || 3 |- |sixtabs || 343 || 0 |- |subject-pages || 471 || 6 |- |subpages || 27 || 3 |- |toolboxcompat || 112 || 1 |- |twinkledelimages || 65 || 1 |- |twinklespeedy || 464 || 12 |- |twinklewarn || 405 || 12 |- |wiked || 601 || 3 |- |wikidialog || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |wkBookCreator || 724 || 3 |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: BookCat,19,2 CleanDeleteReasons,64,3 CommentsInLocalTime,559,5 DeluxeBar,130,6 GetCollection,499,1 Special characters,115,1 SpecialSearch,641,1 Twinklerevert,547,10 Twinkleunlink,412,11 UTCLiveClock,264,3 Welcome,510,9 autodel,72,1 background-awesomeness,624,2 bottomtabs,400,3 colorcats,637,5 commons-file,default,default contribsrange,282,4 edittop,536,4 extlinks,306,3 markAdmins,46,8 markblocked,28,1 massblock,60,2 modrollback,92,3 navpop,750,11 purge,578,9 rightsfilter,329,4 searchbox,133,6 sidebartranslate,412,3 sixtabs,343,0 subject-pages,471,6 subpages,27,3 toolboxcompat,112,1 twinkledelimages,65,1 twinklespeedy,464,12 twinklewarn,405,12 wiked,601,3 wikidialog,default,default wkBookCreator,724,3 --> 9lx1kbflkyti3zdkhwzuzyb69zoy1w1 0 448130 4095438 4088736 2022-08-23T13:26:26Z Reseletti 3117424 wikitext text/x-wiki Today in 2020 Nadia Eghbal’s book ''Working in Public'' was published, the first book on developer burnout in the FLOSS ecosystem. Her analysis breaks with the traditional Open Source propaganda, which assumes that more participation makes projects easier. <noinclude>{{Free Knowledge Culture Calendar/Navigation|July 12|July 14}}</noinclude> i2a0pwkssyfkxa5082t1g3bz84s3nqi 0 448185 4095673 4089354 2022-08-24T06:07:29Z Jellysandwich0 3168881 spelling wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} {{Info|'''Note:''' Every cleaning liquid is formulated differently. Even tap water can have differences from place to place. Read up on the usage and safety instructions for each liquid you use.}} ==Water== Good clean water is an essential part of the cleaning process. ==Hand soap== It is essential to wash your hands between handling dirty and clean dishes. Having and using hand soap by the sink or by the dish pit (With separate handwashing sink) is critical for proper sanitation. ==Detergent== Detergents help you remove bits of food and grease that are stuck on items. Detergent is common in both residential sinks and commercial dishpits. ==Degreaser== Degreasers are chemicals specifically aimed at removing grease from objects. This type of liquid is seen more often in commercial dishpits then in residential settings. ==Bleach== Bleach is good at sanitizing surfaces of harmful microbes. It is harmful to ingest, so you should handle it with care around yourself, and should not allow it to come into direct contact with food. It is important to '''never''' mix bleach with ammonia. Bleach can easily stain your clothing. {{Status|0%}} {{Bookcat}} d8hlfld37098wpvaeu5f1z4z8s34x4i 0 448232 4095704 4095175 2022-08-24T08:28:13Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Monitors */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub}} ==The debugger dock== The debugger dock is the deafult and best way to debug. If a red circle is shown next to it, there is an error to read. If there is a yellow circle, you have a new warning to read. When you open it, you have several tabs: ===Debugger=== This is the tab opened when a fatal error occurs, which is an error that could cause your game to crash in release builds. It shows the "stack frames". This is a ''stack'' of function calls, allowing you to find the source of the error. This is invaluable. To the right of the stack frames show all the variables the script can access, and what they are set to. Above that is a few buttons: *Skip Breakpoints: stops the game being paused on breakpoints until this is repressed. *Copy Error: copy the error to your clipboard. *Step Into: runs the next expression. Enters indented blocks that it would enter anyway. *Step Over: runs the next expression. Skips indented blocks. *Break: pauses the game as if a breakpoint was used. *Continue: resumes the game. ===Errors=== Allows you to see every fatal and non-fatal error and warning that you encountered during the running game. There are a few buttons: *Clear: empties this list. *Expand All: expands every error to see more information. *Collapse All: collapses every error to see less information. Each error may be pressed to go to the script and line the error came from. Double click it to expand or collapse. You can also click the arrow to expand/collapse. Expanding it shows the error and the code stack. ===Profiler=== This allows you to record function call count and how much frame time is used. It is priceless when optimizing your game, and can be used for debugging too. To begin, you must press ''start''. On the right, a chart will generate. Higher up lines means that something takes up a large amount of the game's processing. They should be optimized at some point, as much as possible. To check what is slowing the game down the most, click in the chart in the area with a high peak, and scroll down the left. You will see how many seconds each function call costs, and how many times it was called. If you want a percentage, click on the <code>Mesure:</code> value, and choose <code>Frame %</code>. The <code>Time:</code> has two values: *Inclusive: shows the frame time or percentage of all calls to a function *Self: shows the single largest frame time or percentage during a call. ===Network Profiler=== This allows you to see how much internet is being used by each node. Both how much used in sending, and how much used in reciving. ===Monitors=== This allows you to check performance in a graph. Most useful options to show are: *Time: **FPS: Frames per second. **Process: The amount of time spent every idle frame. **Physics Process: The amount of time spent in the physics frame. *Memory: **Static: How much memory is used for unchanging things. **Dynamic: How much memory used is always changing or code being ran. ===Video RAM=== ===Misc=== This allows you to see the Control node last activated before the game closed, and its node path. ==Script debugging== ==Debug options== ==Debugging editor plugins== {{bookcat}} rtymt8dthyxb4zv5p9iqkyuq00vzoo2 4095705 4095704 2022-08-24T08:33:48Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Monitors */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub}} ==The debugger dock== The debugger dock is the deafult and best way to debug. If a red circle is shown next to it, there is an error to read. If there is a yellow circle, you have a new warning to read. When you open it, you have several tabs: ===Debugger=== This is the tab opened when a fatal error occurs, which is an error that could cause your game to crash in release builds. It shows the "stack frames". This is a ''stack'' of function calls, allowing you to find the source of the error. This is invaluable. To the right of the stack frames show all the variables the script can access, and what they are set to. Above that is a few buttons: *Skip Breakpoints: stops the game being paused on breakpoints until this is repressed. *Copy Error: copy the error to your clipboard. *Step Into: runs the next expression. Enters indented blocks that it would enter anyway. *Step Over: runs the next expression. Skips indented blocks. *Break: pauses the game as if a breakpoint was used. *Continue: resumes the game. ===Errors=== Allows you to see every fatal and non-fatal error and warning that you encountered during the running game. There are a few buttons: *Clear: empties this list. *Expand All: expands every error to see more information. *Collapse All: collapses every error to see less information. Each error may be pressed to go to the script and line the error came from. Double click it to expand or collapse. You can also click the arrow to expand/collapse. Expanding it shows the error and the code stack. ===Profiler=== This allows you to record function call count and how much frame time is used. It is priceless when optimizing your game, and can be used for debugging too. To begin, you must press ''start''. On the right, a chart will generate. Higher up lines means that something takes up a large amount of the game's processing. They should be optimized at some point, as much as possible. To check what is slowing the game down the most, click in the chart in the area with a high peak, and scroll down the left. You will see how many seconds each function call costs, and how many times it was called. If you want a percentage, click on the <code>Mesure:</code> value, and choose <code>Frame %</code>. The <code>Time:</code> has two values: *Inclusive: shows the frame time or percentage of all calls to a function *Self: shows the single largest frame time or percentage during a call. ===Network Profiler=== This allows you to see how much internet is being used by each node. Both how much used in sending, and how much used in reciving. ===Monitors=== This allows you to check performance in a graph. Most useful options to show are: *Time: **FPS: Frames per second. **Process: The amount of time spent every idle frame. **Physics Process: The amount of time spent in the physics frame. *Memory: **Static: How much memory is used for unchanging things. **Dynamic: How much memory used is always changing or code being ran. **Static Max: The maximum static memory reached. **Dynamic Max: The maximum dynamic memory reached. **Msg Buf Max: The memory used by output, including errors and warnings. ===Video RAM=== ===Misc=== This allows you to see the Control node last activated before the game closed, and its node path. ==Script debugging== ==Debug options== ==Debugging editor plugins== {{bookcat}} 3j6kvhpkpcdj5yous7fhgm3w3gx6wwf 4095706 4095705 2022-08-24T08:35:59Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Profiler */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{stub}} ==The debugger dock== The debugger dock is the deafult and best way to debug. If a red circle is shown next to it, there is an error to read. If there is a yellow circle, you have a new warning to read. When you open it, you have several tabs: ===Debugger=== This is the tab opened when a fatal error occurs, which is an error that could cause your game to crash in release builds. It shows the "stack frames". This is a ''stack'' of function calls, allowing you to find the source of the error. This is invaluable. To the right of the stack frames show all the variables the script can access, and what they are set to. Above that is a few buttons: *Skip Breakpoints: stops the game being paused on breakpoints until this is repressed. *Copy Error: copy the error to your clipboard. *Step Into: runs the next expression. Enters indented blocks that it would enter anyway. *Step Over: runs the next expression. Skips indented blocks. *Break: pauses the game as if a breakpoint was used. *Continue: resumes the game. ===Errors=== Allows you to see every fatal and non-fatal error and warning that you encountered during the running game. There are a few buttons: *Clear: empties this list. *Expand All: expands every error to see more information. *Collapse All: collapses every error to see less information. Each error may be pressed to go to the script and line the error came from. Double click it to expand or collapse. You can also click the arrow to expand/collapse. Expanding it shows the error and the code stack. ===Profiler=== This allows you to record function call count and how much frame time is used. It is priceless when optimizing your game, and can be used for debugging too. To begin, you must press ''start''. On the right, a chart will generate. Higher up lines means that something takes up a large amount of the game's processing. They should be optimized at some point, as much as possible. To check what is slowing the game down the most, click in the chart in the area with a high peak, and scroll down the left. You will see how many seconds each function call costs, and how many times it was called. If you want a percentage, click on the <code>Mesure:</code> value, and choose <code>Frame %</code>. The <code>Time:</code> has two values: *Inclusive: shows the frame time or percentage of all calls to a function *Self: shows the single largest frame time or percentage during a single call. ===Network Profiler=== This allows you to see how much internet is being used by each node. Both how much used in sending, and how much used in reciving. ===Monitors=== This allows you to check performance in a graph. Most useful options to show are: *Time: **FPS: Frames per second. **Process: The amount of time spent every idle frame. **Physics Process: The amount of time spent in the physics frame. *Memory: **Static: How much memory is used for unchanging things. **Dynamic: How much memory used is always changing or code being ran. **Static Max: The maximum static memory reached. **Dynamic Max: The maximum dynamic memory reached. **Msg Buf Max: The memory used by output, including errors and warnings. ===Video RAM=== ===Misc=== This allows you to see the Control node last activated before the game closed, and its node path. ==Script debugging== ==Debug options== ==Debugging editor plugins== {{bookcat}} 84nyt2ojyxv1s4vhmwdy5l2z6aondx3 0 448244 4095457 4095361 2022-08-23T15:55:14Z 145.53.237.167 /* Drive */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Query|What is this? Is it a book?}} == Project Hephaistos == Hḗphaistos was the Greek god of metalworking, craftsmen, artisans, and fire. In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was cast off Mount Olympus and lived in exile underneath Mount Etna, later to return to Olympus. He is described as being lame as the result of a congenital impairment, but a craftsman who makes up for his impairment by devicing genial designs. In this Book we will discuss in broad strokes the ideas and designs of "Project Hephaistos", an interstellar starship. Just like its namesake this ship will suffer from being lame and will have to make up for its slowness by utilizing all kinds of crafts. == Why should we reach for the stars? == A common question asked when pondering interstellar travel, is why try this in the first place? After all, there is no reasonable expectation of any kind of trade with distant colonies, a mission that under enormous costs at the very edge of our abilities would bring a handful of humans to another star system would not alleviate any population problems on earth, and all the resources committed to this singular project could surely be used back at home? There are some arguments for a mission like it: * Survival of species-level extinction events * knowledge only obtainable by spreading throughout the galaxy * advancements in technologies necessary for this mission would benefit broader society == Limits of imagination == If we try to envision a realistic future mission to the stars we will always have to start with the technologies we currently have at our disposal. We might speculate about enhancing performance characteristics by some factor or to engineer proven principles on a much larger scale. However if we start speculating about technologies not even in its infancy yet we would soon enter the realm of fentasy. Let's have a look at three examples: Antimatter, Cryosleep, Alcubiere-Warpdrive. For an interstellar mission the Alcubierre-Warpdrive looks most promising: afterall to warp spacetime around the ship would free us from the shackles of this peski speed limit of the universe, the ship could travel with any speed needed, without the inhabitants even feeling any acceleration. Some mathematical work has been done regarding the energy requirements and the possible solutions of the spacetime geometries, so why should we ignore this? The answer is simple: it would require negative energies, we don't even know if this is physically possible. No one has ever created a warp bubble nor is it even so much as a proven possibility. The case for antimatter is slightly better. We do know it exists, we regularly produce it. We even have stored minuscule amounts of it. So surely it's only a matter of engineering to create a dedicated antimatter factory and drive concepts like "Antimatter Catalysed Fusion" (AimStar) to become possible? The ships would still be bound by the universal speed limit, but could come arbitrarily close to it? so why not a ship that cruises at 99% the speed of light? There is no experimental evidence for any kind of successful reanimation after freezing a complex organism. If we want to avoid just using magic fantasy technology we will have to limit ourselves to technologies that have a physically sound foundation, have already small-scale applications, and could conceivably be upscaled. Inherently this will lead to us missing quite a lot of interesting developments! in fact we will be in a situation like Jules Verne, using the steam-powered technology of his time to envision submarines and space travel in a near future while completly obvious of any advances in electric engineering, computation and nuclear physics. So any kind of space ship we will discuss on the basis of todays technology will necessarily turn out to be a kind of steam-punk contraption. == The challenge == <blockquote>Space [...] is big. Really big. You just won't believe how vastly hugely mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it's a long way down the road to the chemist, but that's just peanuts to space.</blockquote> Douglas Adams Size comparison (star=salt crystal, size of a galaxy, collision with andromeda), Speed comparison (fastest man-made object), {| class="wikitable" |+ fastest man made object in space |- ! Name !! Started (flight time) !! Distance !! Current Speed !! time for 1 ly !! Header text |- | Voyager 1 || Example || 61,200 km/h || 17,600 years || Example || Example |- | Voyager 2 || Example || 55,300 km/h || Example || Example || Example |- | Pioneer 10 || Example || 12,300 km/s || Example || Example || Example |- | Pioneer 11 || Example || 40,400 km/h || Example || Example || Example |- | Parker Solar Probe || Example || 692,000 km/h|| 1,560 years || Example || Example |- | New Horizons || Example || 47,000 km/h|| Example || Example || Example |} Now if we are honest we have to admit none of those probes was explicitly build and launched to reach interstellar space. Their mission was to visit planets in our own solar system during the span of a few years, a mission they all very successfully performed. This begs the question, which kind of speed could we achieve if we wanted to? So lets ponder which speed we could attain if we used the most powerful rocket that ver existed, NASAs Saturn V. But instead of using all its energy to lift thousands of tons from earth, lets start the journey with a fully tanked Rocket already in space. To answer these kind if Questions, "How much speed can we obtain using a specific rocket" we will use a more than 100 year old equation: The '''classical rocket equation''', or '''ideal rocket equation''' It is credited to the Russian scientist [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]] who independently derived it and published it in 1903, although it had been independently derived by several other scientists as well. [[File:Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.svg|thumb|right|A rocket's required mass ratio as a function of effective exhaust velocity ratio]] The maximum change of velocity of the vehicle, <math>\Delta v</math> (with no external forces acting) is: <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = I_\text{sp} g_0 \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f},</math> where: * <math>v_\text{e} = I_\text{sp} g_0</math> is the effective exhaust velocity; **<math>I_\text{sp}</math> is the specific impulse in dimension of time; **<math>g_0</math> is standard gravity; * <math>\ln</math> is the natural logarithm function; * <math>m_0</math> is the initial total mass, including propellant, a.k.a. wet mass; * <math>m_f</math> is the final total mass without propellant, a.k.a. dry mass. Given the effective exhaust velocity determined by the rocket motor's design, the desired delta-v, and a given dry mass <math>m_f</math>, the equation can be solved for the required propellant mass <math>m_0 - m_f</math>: <math display="block">m_0 = m_f e^{\Delta v / v_\text{e}}.</math> The necessary wet mass grows exponentially with the desired delta-v. what if we put a Sturn V in orbit, attach our most efficient engine, which speed can we reach?) All that remains to do yo answer our question is to find the exhaust velocity, the dry and wet mass of each stage, and then plug these numbers into th equation: {| class="wikitable" |+ Saturn V |- ! Stage !! rocket engine !! exhaust velocity !! dry mass !! wet mass |- | S-IC|| Rocketdyne F-1 || 3km/s || 137,000 kg || 2,214,000 kg |- | S-II|| Rocketdyne J-2|| 4.13 km/s || 36,000 kg || 480,000 kg |- | S-IVB || Rocketdyne J-2 || 4.13 km/s || 13,500 kg|| 119,000 kg |} Now of course since all stages are together at the beginning, we will have to add all the masses of all remaining stages for each of the engines. So when stage 1 begins its burn and throws hot exhaust gas with a velocity of 3 km/s behind the rocket, the wet mass of the whole rocket will be: 2813000 kg. When stage 1 ends, the remaining mass will be the dry-mass of stage 1 plus the total mass of the still remaining stages. <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 3km/s \ln \frac{2813000kg}{736000kg} = 4.02 km/s</math> <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 4.13km/s \ln \frac{599000kg}{49500kg} = 10.2 km/s</math> <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 4.13km/s \ln \frac{119000kg}{13500kg} = 8.92 km/s </math> Combined, at the end of all three stages completely exhausted the empty last stage (with its payload) would have attained a speed of 23.14 km/s. Without any possibility to ever slowdown. But of course we could do a bit better! After all, why should we use the less effective engine of the first stage, when we already have more effective ones. Infact we could use Even if we use the best engine at hand, ignore all the problems associated with starting from the surface, construct a 10 times larger rocket then the largest one we have today, fuel it with the most efficient fuel - a one way trip to the nearest star would take ~ thousands (?) years. How can we compare drives? * thrust * specific impulse exhaust velocity - temperature Ion-Engine VASIMIR Oberth Effect Gravitational Slingshot examining the data of the above table shows with currently reachable technologies only nuclear pulse propulsion gives us the slightest chance of propelling anything over interstellar distance that has more mass than a dandelion seed and would arrive in less than a thousand years. Is there a reasonable expectation that we can even buld any kind of technical system that stays functional for decades or even centuries? Several Navies have Ships on active duty which are several decades old, albeit with regular and heavy refits. On the other hand we already have several space probes active for decades which do remarkably well, usually is either the energy source, reaction mass or reaction wheels which limit the lifetime of these devices. All in all the vacuum of space seems to be a remarkably well suited environment for longterm missions. Without the constant barrage of the elements technical systems have stayed functional for decades even if they had been build with mission duration of years in mind. It seems plausible to assume a system planned with a lifetime of centuries, placed in a vacuum, is well within our abilities. The main pitfall will be mechanical systems (actuators) and parts which are in contact with reactive chemicals, i.e. a breathable athomsphere, a.k.a. the habitable areas. == The proposal == === Drive === As the original Project Orion proposed, the main drive will be several thousand nuclear bombs. Build as to be shaped charges, emitting most of their energy in two narrow cones towards and away from the pusher plate. The pusher plate itself is parabolic in shape. The thickness of the plate varies in such a way, that areas which will be hit by the most energetic particles are more massive, while further out the plate is less massiv. This should ensure an equal acceleration of the plate, without to much internal stresses. Extending from the outer edge of the plate will be an magnetic nozzel to harness the energy of particles not within the plate radius. To protect the plate from ablation before each blast the surface needs to be coated in an oil film. All components hich can withstand considerable accerlerations, e.g. surplus material, nuclear charges, reactor, radiators will be placed directly behind the pusher plate and will encounter several g's of acceleration every few minutes. The original Project Orion proposed a series of mechanical shock absorbers between the pusher plate and the remaining structures, instead our design will use an Eddy Current Break or a Linear Induction Motor. With each shockwave the pusher-assembly is rapidly accelerated forward. in the center of the assembly a 5km long keel is situated, in essence a large tower. This tower acts as the moving part of a linear induction motor. Around this keel is a circular node constructed. The node does not physically touch the keel, instead when the keel is rapidly pushed through the node is its momentum is gradually absorbed over the length of the keel. The recupperated energy is then used to move the node back to the fron of the Keel. The node therefore encounters less strong accerleration forces and will serve as the central anchor point for the habitation areas. === Habitation === As we have seen in Chapter X it will be impossible to achieve flight times of less then several decades, on the other hand our ability to build (and test) systems with lifetimes of thousands of years is doubtfull. A flight time of lower digits of centuries however seems feasable for the machine parts. Which leaves the crucial component: the human inhabitants. It seems at the moment safe to assume that extended periods of weightlessness are diametral to human health, and even to plant life. Therefore any longterm habitation, not even to speak of multi generations, genetics of tibetians oxygen partial pressure minimum gravity === Waste break down === === Food production === === Oxygen regeneration === === Psychological effects === [[Image:biosphere2 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Biosphere 2]] [[File:Wiki bio2 sunset 001.jpg|thumb|Biosphere 2 ]] [[Image:Biosphere2 Inside big.jpg|thumb|Biosphere 2, interrior viewed from the thornscrub towards the Ocean sections]] [https://www.closed-worlds.com/bios-3?lightbox=dataItem-jg4l694e BIOS-3] [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~meyer/CISC1600/Materials/Unit3/Sources_Project_3/Lab_Project_3_files/Biosphere2cutaway.jpg BIOSphere] [https://www.vulture.com/2013/08/syd-mead-design-blade-runner-aliens-elysium.html Syd Mead Design] [https://cdnb.artstation.com/p/assets/images/images/040/290/933/large/nichlas-benjamin-5000-final-torus-interior-2.jpg?1628434985 Nichlas Benjamin] [https://i.pinimg.com/originals/c3/d8/85/c3d8856f9d2854b2fa10ec11691552a7.jpg Standford Torus] [[File:1915 Çanakkale Bridge 20220327.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge of Turkey, opened in 2022, has the longest central span (2,023 m) of any suspension bridge.]] Size comparison: Aircraft Carrier, Suspension Bridge, Stanford Torus With staying cables of 1 km length (radius), the habitat torus would have a circumference of 6.3 km. If each habitat ring has a width of 200m, the surface area of each ring would be 1.26 km^2. Employing 3 decks per ring, with a vertical distance of 40m would yield a total of 3.8 km^2., which is the same are of central park in New York. 4 such rings per ship would put the total living area at 15 km^2. [http://islands.unep.ch/Tiarea.htm Land area of Islands] '''Lo''' (sometimes wrongly spelled ''Loh'') is an island in the Torres group of islands, in northern Vanuatu. The island is located 2.25 miles from the Toga Island As of 2009, the population of the island was 210.<ref> {{cite document | url=http://www.spc.int/prism/country/vu/stats/Publications/2009%20Census%20Summary%20release%20final.pdf | title=2009 National Census of Population and Housing: Summary Release | publisher=Vanuatu National Statistics Office | year=2009 | access-date= October 11, 2010}}</ref> It had in 1979 a population of 84 people. [[File:Pitcairn Island Group.svg|Map of the Pitcairn Islands]] Rapa Nui (Easter Island) has a land area of 163.6 km² and sustained a population of 3000-4000. To sustain the caloric intake of a population of 90 people at least 200 acres or 0.8 km^2 are needed. High yield hydroponic and vertical farming not included. One person breathes the oxygen production of around 8 trees. == Sociology == itj4lr5jtgnkfsmgngvetz0sqdx6pkx 4095549 4095457 2022-08-23T21:32:54Z 109.37.130.158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Query|What is this? Is it a book?}} == Project Hephaistos == Hḗphaistos was the Greek god of metalworking, craftsmen, artisans, and fire. In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was cast off Mount Olympus and lived in exile underneath Mount Etna, later to return to Olympus. He is described as being lame as the result of a congenital impairment, but a craftsman who makes up for his impairment by devicing genial designs. In this Book we will discuss in broad strokes the ideas and designs of "Project Hephaistos", an interstellar starship. Just like its namesake this ship will suffer from being lame and will have to make up for its slowness by utilizing all kinds of crafts. == Why should we reach for the stars? == A common question asked when pondering interstellar travel, is why try this in the first place? After all, there is no reasonable expectation of any kind of trade with distant colonies, a mission that under enormous costs at the very edge of our abilities would bring a handful of humans to another star system would not alleviate any population problems on earth, and all the resources committed to this singular project could surely be used back at home? There are some arguments for a mission like it: * Survival of species-level extinction events * knowledge only obtainable by spreading throughout the galaxy * advancements in technologies necessary for this mission would benefit broader society == Limits of imagination == If we try to envision a realistic future mission to the stars we will always have to start with the technologies we currently have at our disposal. We might speculate about enhancing performance characteristics by some factor or to engineer proven principles on a much larger scale. However if we start speculating about technologies not even in its infancy yet we would soon enter the realm of fentasy. Let's have a look at three examples: Antimatter, Cryosleep, Alcubiere-Warpdrive. For an interstellar mission the Alcubierre-Warpdrive looks most promising: afterall to warp spacetime around the ship would free us from the shackles of this peski speed limit of the universe, the ship could travel with any speed needed, without the inhabitants even feeling any acceleration. Some mathematical work has been done regarding the energy requirements and the possible solutions of the spacetime geometries, so why should we ignore this? The answer is simple: it would require negative energies, we don't even know if this is physically possible. No one has ever created a warp bubble nor is it even so much as a proven possibility. The case for antimatter is slightly better. We do know it exists, we regularly produce it. We even have stored minuscule amounts of it. So surely it's only a matter of engineering to create a dedicated antimatter factory and drive concepts like "Antimatter Catalysed Fusion" (AimStar) to become possible? The ships would still be bound by the universal speed limit, but could come arbitrarily close to it? so why not a ship that cruises at 99% the speed of light? There is no experimental evidence for any kind of successful reanimation after freezing a complex organism. If we want to avoid just using magic fantasy technology we will have to limit ourselves to technologies that have a physically sound foundation, have already small-scale applications, and could conceivably be upscaled. Inherently this will lead to us missing quite a lot of interesting developments! in fact we will be in a situation like Jules Verne, using the steam-powered technology of his time to envision submarines and space travel in a near future while completly obvious of any advances in electric engineering, computation and nuclear physics. So any kind of space ship we will discuss on the basis of todays technology will necessarily turn out to be a kind of steam-punk contraption. == The challenge == <blockquote>Space [...] is big. Really big. You just won't believe how vastly hugely mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may think it's a long way down the road to the chemist, but that's just peanuts to space.</blockquote> Douglas Adams Size comparison (star=salt crystal, size of a galaxy, collision with andromeda), Speed comparison (fastest man-made object), {| class="wikitable" |+ fastest man made object in space |- ! Name !! Started (flight time) !! Distance !! Current Speed !! time for 1 ly !! Header text |- | Voyager 1 || Example || 61,200 km/h || 17,600 years || Example || Example |- | Voyager 2 || Example || 55,300 km/h || Example || Example || Example |- | Pioneer 10 || Example || 12,300 km/s || Example || Example || Example |- | Pioneer 11 || Example || 40,400 km/h || Example || Example || Example |- | Parker Solar Probe || Example || 692,000 km/h|| 1,560 years || Example || Example |- | New Horizons || Example || 47,000 km/h|| Example || Example || Example |} Now if we are honest we have to admit none of those probes was explicitly build and launched to reach interstellar space. Their mission was to visit planets in our own solar system during the span of a few years, a mission they all very successfully performed. This begs the question, which kind of speed could we achieve if we wanted to? So lets ponder which speed we could attain if we used the most powerful rocket that ver existed, NASAs Saturn V. But instead of using all its energy to lift thousands of tons from earth, lets start the journey with a fully tanked Rocket already in space. To answer these kind if Questions, "How much speed can we obtain using a specific rocket" we will use a more than 100 year old equation: The '''classical rocket equation''', or '''ideal rocket equation''' It is credited to the Russian scientist [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]] who independently derived it and published it in 1903, although it had been independently derived by several other scientists as well. [[File:Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.svg|thumb|right|A rocket's required mass ratio as a function of effective exhaust velocity ratio]] The maximum change of velocity of the vehicle, <math>\Delta v</math> (with no external forces acting) is: <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = I_\text{sp} g_0 \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f},</math> where: * <math>v_\text{e} = I_\text{sp} g_0</math> is the effective exhaust velocity; **<math>I_\text{sp}</math> is the specific impulse in dimension of time; **<math>g_0</math> is standard gravity; * <math>\ln</math> is the natural logarithm function; * <math>m_0</math> is the initial total mass, including propellant, a.k.a. wet mass; * <math>m_f</math> is the final total mass without propellant, a.k.a. dry mass. Given the effective exhaust velocity determined by the rocket motor's design, the desired delta-v, and a given dry mass <math>m_f</math>, the equation can be solved for the required propellant mass <math>m_0 - m_f</math>: <math display="block">m_0 = m_f e^{\Delta v / v_\text{e}}.</math> The necessary wet mass grows exponentially with the desired delta-v. what if we put a Sturn V in orbit, attach our most efficient engine, which speed can we reach?) All that remains to do yo answer our question is to find the exhaust velocity, the dry and wet mass of each stage, and then plug these numbers into th equation: {| class="wikitable" |+ Saturn V |- ! Stage !! rocket engine !! exhaust velocity !! dry mass !! wet mass |- | S-IC|| Rocketdyne F-1 || 3km/s || 137,000 kg || 2,214,000 kg |- | S-II|| Rocketdyne J-2|| 4.13 km/s || 36,000 kg || 480,000 kg |- | S-IVB || Rocketdyne J-2 || 4.13 km/s || 13,500 kg|| 119,000 kg |} Now of course since all stages are together at the beginning, we will have to add all the masses of all remaining stages for each of the engines. So when stage 1 begins its burn and throws hot exhaust gas with a velocity of 3 km/s behind the rocket, the wet mass of the whole rocket will be: 2813000 kg. When stage 1 ends, the remaining mass will be the dry-mass of stage 1 plus the total mass of the still remaining stages. <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 3km/s \ln \frac{2813000kg}{736000kg} = 4.02 km/s</math> <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 4.13km/s \ln \frac{599000kg}{49500kg} = 10.2 km/s</math> <math display="block">\Delta v = v_\text{e} \ln \frac{m_0}{m_f} = 4.13km/s \ln \frac{119000kg}{13500kg} = 8.92 km/s </math> Combined, at the end of all three stages completely exhausted the empty last stage (with its payload) would have attained a speed of 23.14 km/s. Without any possibility to ever slowdown. But of course we could do a bit better! After all, why should we use the less effective engine of the first stage, when we already have more effective ones. Infact we could use Even if we use the best engine at hand, ignore all the problems associated with starting from the surface, construct a 10 times larger rocket then the largest one we have today, fuel it with the most efficient fuel - a one way trip to the nearest star would take ~ thousands (?) years. How can we compare drives? * thrust * specific impulse exhaust velocity - temperature Ion-Engine VASIMIR Oberth Effect Gravitational Slingshot examining the data of the above table shows with currently reachable technologies only nuclear pulse propulsion gives us the slightest chance of propelling anything over interstellar distance that has more mass than a dandelion seed and would arrive in less than a thousand years. Is there a reasonable expectation that we can even buld any kind of technical system that stays functional for decades or even centuries? Several Navies have Ships on active duty which are several decades old, albeit with regular and heavy refits. On the other hand we already have several space probes active for decades which do remarkably well, usually is either the energy source, reaction mass or reaction wheels which limit the lifetime of these devices. All in all the vacuum of space seems to be a remarkably well suited environment for longterm missions. Without the constant barrage of the elements technical systems have stayed functional for decades even if they had been build with mission duration of years in mind. It seems plausible to assume a system planned with a lifetime of centuries, placed in a vacuum, is well within our abilities. The main pitfall will be mechanical systems (actuators) and parts which are in contact with reactive chemicals, i.e. a breathable athomsphere, a.k.a. the habitable areas. == The proposal == === Drive === As the original Project Orion proposed, the main drive will be several thousand nuclear bombs. Build as to be shaped charges, emitting most of their energy in two narrow cones towards and away from the pusher plate. The pusher plate itself is parabolic in shape. The thickness of the plate varies in such a way, that areas which will be hit by the most energetic particles are more massive, while further out the plate is less massiv. This should ensure an equal acceleration of the plate, without to much internal stresses. Extending from the outer edge of the plate will be an magnetic nozzel to harness the energy of particles not within the plate radius. To protect the plate from ablation before each blast the surface needs to be coated in an oil film. All components hich can withstand considerable accerlerations, e.g. surplus material, nuclear charges, reactor, radiators will be placed directly behind the pusher plate and will encounter several g's of acceleration every few minutes. The original Project Orion proposed a series of mechanical shock absorbers between the pusher plate and the remaining structures, instead our design will use an Eddy Current Break or a Linear Induction Motor. With each shockwave the pusher-assembly is rapidly accelerated forward. in the center of the assembly a 5km long keel is situated, in essence a large tower. This tower acts as the moving part of a linear induction motor. Around this keel is a circular node constructed. The node does not physically touch the keel, instead when the keel is rapidly pushed through the node is its momentum is gradually absorbed over the length of the keel. The recupperated energy is then used to move the node back to the fron of the Keel. The node therefore encounters less strong accerleration forces and will serve as the central anchor point for the habitation areas. === Habitation === As we have seen in Chapter X it will be impossible to achieve flight times of less then several decades, on the other hand our ability to build (and test) systems with lifetimes of thousands of years is doubtfull. A flight time of lower digits of centuries however seems feasable for the machine parts. Which leaves the crucial component: the human inhabitants. It seems at the moment safe to assume that extended periods of weightlessness are diametral to human health, and even to plant life. Therefore any longterm habitation, not even to speak of multiple generations, requires artificial gravity. The only possible way to create artificial garvity known to us is by acceleration. Indeed according to general relativity there is no discernable difference between a uniformly accelerated frame of reference, and a frame of reference in a gravitational field. However since we cannot accelerate the ship with any appreachable fraction of g during the whole flight we will have to resort to the trick of using rotation. Since in an rotating container all objects are constantly forced to deviate from the straight lines they would naturally follow, they will constantly feel an acceleration, usually known as centripedal force. For given radius and a given rotation rate the centripedal force can be calculated using: How much gravity is neccessary? Natural deviation on earth is between x and y m/s², Astronauts on the lunar surface encountered z m/s². We have to rely on some speculation here, but it seems fairly safe to assume an artificial gravity of 80% g will be enough to remidy most harmful effects. ==== Population size ==== the lowest possible bound would be a population of 1 woman, birthing in each generation 1 child, at all times there would be 3 to 4 generations alive. This lowest bound gives zero margin for error, accidental death, inability of pregnancies and so on. On the other hand by population genetics its estimated a population of 300 - 500 people could contain enough diversity to avoid inbreeding. However this bound can be lowered if we consider transporting banks of frozen sperm, eggs and embryos. ZZZZ <ref>missing</ref>calculates in his paper a population size of 140. An interesting approach would be to look at small isolated societies on earth to get an estimate on which number of peoples makes a sustainable population. Jesides, Inuit, Rapa Nui, {{To do|popultion size and isolation of isolated communities}} To be on the safe side we propose a population of 300 with an average age distribution of... ==== Food production ==== An healthy human male needs 2500 calories a day, ccording to ZZZZ a healthy diet of mostly vegetables, supplemented with some poultry and eggs requires roughly 1 acre or 4050 m. Our total population of 300 people would require therefore a minimum 1.22 km of land area. However with vertical farming and hydroponics some of the traditional farming area could be substituted. To create a surface wih 80% gravity we will consider a stanford torus design, in essense a gigantic ferris wheel whose constant rotation provides the centripedal force of gravity. As a benchmark of possible torus measurements we can look at current suspension bridges. The currently longest suspension bridge (by central span) is the Çanakkale Bridge of Turkey with a central span of roughly 2 km. Engineering a "bridge" with a circumference of 6km suspended from a central node seems feasable. With staying cables of 1 km length (radius), the habitat torus would have a circumference of 6.3 km. If each habitat ring has a width of 200m, the surface area of each ring would be 1.26 km^2. Employing 3 decks per ring, with a vertical distance of 40m would yield a total of 3.8 km^2., which is the same are of central park in New York. 4 such rings per ship would put the total living area at 15 km^2. ==== Waste break down ==== ==== Oxygen regeneration ==== oxygen partial pressure genetics of tibetians Population Genetics === Psychological effects === [[Image:biosphere2 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Biosphere 2]] [[File:Wiki bio2 sunset 001.jpg|thumb|Biosphere 2 ]] [[Image:Biosphere2 Inside big.jpg|thumb|Biosphere 2, interrior viewed from the thornscrub towards the Ocean sections]] [https://www.closed-worlds.com/bios-3?lightbox=dataItem-jg4l694e BIOS-3] [http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~meyer/CISC1600/Materials/Unit3/Sources_Project_3/Lab_Project_3_files/Biosphere2cutaway.jpg BIOSphere] [https://www.vulture.com/2013/08/syd-mead-design-blade-runner-aliens-elysium.html Syd Mead Design] [https://cdnb.artstation.com/p/assets/images/images/040/290/933/large/nichlas-benjamin-5000-final-torus-interior-2.jpg?1628434985 Nichlas Benjamin] [https://i.pinimg.com/originals/c3/d8/85/c3d8856f9d2854b2fa10ec11691552a7.jpg Standford Torus] [[File:1915 Çanakkale Bridge 20220327.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge of Turkey, opened in 2022, has the longest central span (2,023 m) of any suspension bridge.]] Size comparison: Aircraft Carrier, Suspension Bridge, Stanford Torus [http://islands.unep.ch/Tiarea.htm Land area of Islands] '''Lo''' (sometimes wrongly spelled ''Loh'') is an island in the Torres group of islands, in northern Vanuatu. The island is located 2.25 miles from the Toga Island As of 2009, the population of the island was 210.<ref> {{cite document | url=http://www.spc.int/prism/country/vu/stats/Publications/2009%20Census%20Summary%20release%20final.pdf | title=2009 National Census of Population and Housing: Summary Release | publisher=Vanuatu National Statistics Office | year=2009 | access-date= October 11, 2010}}</ref> It had in 1979 a population of 84 people. [[File:Pitcairn Island Group.svg|Map of the Pitcairn Islands]] Rapa Nui (Easter Island) has a land area of 163.6 km² and sustained a population of 3000-4000. To sustain the caloric intake of a population of 90 people at least 200 acres or 0.8 km^2 are needed. High yield hydroponic and vertical farming not included. One person breathes the oxygen production of around 8 trees. == Sociology == g0vy28k8dxdkfaifuylsyv6zrpltyfd 0 448312 4095456 4095356 2022-08-23T15:53:06Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Why Create Vampires? */ Rewrote the introduction for enhanced clarity. wikitext text/x-wiki == Why Create Vampires? == <br> What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?<br> What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? <br> What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?<br> These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular <br> with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?<br> <br> Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to <br> gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. <br> Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. <br> Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!<br> <br> Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty.<br> In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people <br> to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, <br> your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, <br> reflect the society and times you observe and write about.<br> <br> Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, <br> in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.<br> Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, <br> emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, <br> or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. <br> <br> Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, almost un-loveable, and very problematic. {| class="wikitable" |+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS: !Traits ! !Characteristics |- |Pale / Deadly pale | |Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- |Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth | |Predator personality |- |Thin | |Alpha Male type |- |Black hair / Brown Hair | |"Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- |Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. | | |} Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination? {| class="wikitable" |+Supernatural Vampire Traits !Traits that are supernatural !Mythological Creature |- |Immortality <br> Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning <br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing |[[File:"Le_Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. <br> <br> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <br> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. <br> <br> Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? <br> Sources: [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''"How do you spell vampire?"''' <br> <br> link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]<br> {{BookCat}} 5ob3abzu536t1fzcvhx3bs2vg7oodt5 4095465 4095456 2022-08-23T16:06:21Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Why Create Vampires? */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Why Create Vampires? == <br> What would happen if you woke-up one day with a horrible craving for blood?<br> What if you woke up, then slowly realized that you were invisible, would you get dressed out of habit? <br> What if you woke-up one day both hungry and invisible? What would you do?<br> These are questions writers may consider when approaching fictional narratives. Stories about ghosts, angels, zombies and vampires are popular <br> with modern readers, yet why do people write about vampires? Should you?<br> <br> Perhaps writing creatively about a fascinating subject is a bit of a dream. In order to first figure out what to write, some people may choose to <br> gather together with other writing students to consider and experiment with ideas and techniques of use to other Writers. <br> Classes that encourage creative writing, may encourage exploration of fascinating subjects, such as vampires. <br> Exploration of unusual subjects can be rewarding to the creative spirit!<br> <br> Creative writing is a self-developmental process involving your creativity, using established techniques of the Writer’s craft, shaped by your level of honesty.<br> In creative writing classes, your story is not just your creative expression, each story you take time to write is similar to a window allowing people <br> to share in the communication process. You don’t just share common norms about spelling, grammar, or idiomatic expressions used by normal people, <br> your story can share information about how a group of people reacted to life-altering events, meaning your stories can in a general sense, <br> reflect the society and times you observe and write about.<br> <br> Because every writer is advised to “write what you know,” you may willingly look for safe ways to write what you know, creatively, <br> in a non-factual manner that may not share factual information, yet will express your emotions, or will reflect the feelings of everyone.<br> Creative writing is about telling a story, in a expressive, original manner. Techniques like tone, meaning how to express the right mood, <br> emotional intensity, or level of humor, meaning how we tell the story using the right tone to a reader who is unable to hear you, <br> or hear the people your story will reflect, may become easier after we have developed better writing skills. <br> <br> Creative writing is a subject about developing better writing skills, and allowing honest expression, often in non-factual, creative ways. <br> <br> Writers who write about the vampires from their imagination maybe following their own personal creative spirit. '''WARNING: <u>Vampires of the imagination in action!</u>''' Giving warnings against vampires of the imagination maybe a useful device writers could explore. Typical vampires of the imagination are not friendly characters, they seem to possess unusual traits and characteristics, they are not popular, almost un-loveable, and very problematic. {| class="wikitable" |+COMMON VAMPIRE-IMAGINATION TRAITS + CHARACTERISTICS: !Traits ! !Characteristics |- |Pale / Deadly pale | |Enjoy isolation / Loner personality |- |Long fangs / Fang-ish teeth | |Predator personality |- |Thin | |Alpha Male type |- |Black hair / Brown Hair | |"Energy Vampire" : Negativity, overly dramatic, hostile rages, complaints and sad stories. |- |Re-animated corpse with failing body issues. | | |} Vampires of the imagination that seem to be re-animated, walking corpses, some with dominate alpha-male behaviors and sharp cuspids, could be a terror, a monster, or a walking nightmare to a town, or neighborhood. It is easy for Writers to warn their readers against such a vampire [...of the imagination], yet what about vampires with subtle negative energy influences? What of Energy vampires and other less monster-ish vampires of the imagination? {| class="wikitable" |+Supernatural Vampire Traits !Traits that are supernatural !Mythological Creature |- |Immortality <br> Drinking blood <br> Sunlight Poisoning <br> Heightened senses <br> Morphing |[[File:"Le_Vampire".jpg|thumb|"Le Vampire"]] |} Vampire stories found in Eastern European Folklore often warn people against evil characters, or of a evil character [the antagonist] who in a malicious manner seeks to harm innocent people. Regardless of the motive, the methods are of drugging [poisoning] the victim, which often leads to the innocent person getting buried alive, and / or having their graves robbed by grave-robbers interested in robbing the rich. Many Eastern European folk stories have warnings against grave-robbers! <br> <br> Some traits for vampires of the imagination are obviously supernatural, yet other vampires of the imagination possess normal traits, yet are described as displaying unusual behaviors. In 1819, John Polidore wrote '''The Vampyre''', a fictional piece that is noted as having introduced vampires of modern Fiction. The Poet Rudyard Kipling wrote in his '''The Vampire''' in 1897 "To a rag and a bone and a hank of hair," it is implied that Kipling's vampire is realistic, thus mostly made up. <br> <br> '''Tip:''' Typically, humans have four cuspids in their mouth. Two on the bottom, and two on the top left and right side of the mouth. <br> These are the sharpest, longest teeth, they have a pointed edge and have been called "vampire teeth" by some Writers. <br> <br> Perhaps Juliet in William Shakespeare's play: Romeo and Juliet could be described by some people as a vampire of the imagination. Does William Shakespeare describe physical traits that would support this claim or unusual interpretation? Do the characters act in ways that may influence, or inspire, future imaginative vampire stories?<br> Sources: [[https://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/%7Chttps://healthpsychologyconsultancy.wordpress.com/2012/07/13/the-energy-vampire-personality-type/]] wordpress.com Reviewed: 8/19/2022 [[https://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957%7Chttps://theconversation.com/five-vampire-traits-that-exist-in-the-natural-world-104957]] theconversation.com [[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid%7Chttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuspid]] www.dictionary.com <br> link: [[Create Vampires /Vam-Pai-Yer]] '''"How do you spell vampire?"''' <br> <br> link: [[Create Vampires/Alternative Spelling]]<br> {{BookCat}} 8n8w4nau3pp49o1rohmo98qg4tmqubh 0 448331 4095595 4095396 2022-08-24T00:55:38Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> research suggests aerobic exercise, which improves cardiorespiratory fitness, is an effective treatment for depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia (32–36) through both physiological and psychological mechanisms, and may be comparable or superior to other common treatments, such as psychotherapy and pharmacology Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} 1g6fc1fijc1i41jl2p2kzpdzx9011oa 4095598 4095595 2022-08-24T01:16:19Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == == '''What were the basic results?''' == == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == == '''Further information/resources''' == == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} rmhgenhq6678ct0kz42ut0z7ifdv329 4095599 4095598 2022-08-24T01:23:38Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on sample of 8 males who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} du8t5i3lbxa4tmx0p52i3scedtk48zu 4095600 4095599 2022-08-24T01:24:54Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == == '''What were the basic results?''' == == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == == '''Further information/resources''' == == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} pia3d0e28eep3yju1kkxur87j23hvwa 4095601 4095600 2022-08-24T01:33:08Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} nrj3o5rj3ebq1t9vyjae7mpzm61sa63 4095605 4095601 2022-08-24T01:50:25Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers utilised local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense For support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury. Participants were told to refrain from exercise at least 24 h prior to the first testing session until completion of all four testing sessions. All testing was performed in the morning between 7:00–11:00 am and each participant was measured within the same hour of their initial testing session. On the initial testing day participants completed two questionnaires including the Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise tool and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS). Participants also performed a familiarization protocol relating to the physiological and biological sampling (saliva) protocol to be used. Cardiorespiratory fitness was then measured in the ETL through a maximal exercise test. Finally, participants underwent a whole-body DEXA scan situated in the Health Hub. The DEXA scan was incorporated into this study to accurately measure body fat percentage, which is associated with inflammation [30]. Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} r9yhyn2q17czwnuigpqpoon1siexnwe 4095606 4095605 2022-08-24T01:52:48Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers utilised local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense For support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury. Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. All testing was performed in the morning between 7:00–11:00 am and each participant was measured within the same hour of their initial testing session. On the initial testing day participants completed two questionnaires including the Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise tool and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS). Participants also performed a familiarization protocol relating to the physiological and biological sampling (saliva) protocol to be used. Cardiorespiratory fitness was then measured in the ETL through a maximal exercise test. Finally, participants underwent a whole-body DEXA scan situated in the Health Hub. The DEXA scan was incorporated into this study to accurately measure body fat percentage, which is associated with inflammation [30]. Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} ex79kmwaozjsebelbvatls9w0bbrlk9 4095607 4095606 2022-08-24T01:53:51Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers utilised local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense For support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref name="Article"> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. <ref name="Article"> All testing was performed in the morning between 7:00–11:00 am and each participant was measured within the same hour of their initial testing session. On the initial testing day participants completed two questionnaires including the Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise tool and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS). Participants also performed a familiarization protocol relating to the physiological and biological sampling (saliva) protocol to be used. Cardiorespiratory fitness was then measured in the ETL through a maximal exercise test. Finally, participants underwent a whole-body DEXA scan situated in the Health Hub. The DEXA scan was incorporated into this study to accurately measure body fat percentage, which is associated with inflammation [30]. Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} 6e8wytln5ug8qbhp0fgh16od8bqyfpq 4095608 4095607 2022-08-24T01:54:48Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers utilised local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense For support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref><ref name="Article"> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. <ref><ref name="Article"> All testing was performed in the morning between 7:00–11:00 am and each participant was measured within the same hour of their initial testing session. On the initial testing day participants completed two questionnaires including the Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise tool and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS). Participants also performed a familiarization protocol relating to the physiological and biological sampling (saliva) protocol to be used. Cardiorespiratory fitness was then measured in the ETL through a maximal exercise test. Finally, participants underwent a whole-body DEXA scan situated in the Health Hub. The DEXA scan was incorporated into this study to accurately measure body fat percentage, which is associated with inflammation [30]. Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} mjna43sflddb2ix0xog0guevmmjpcuf 4095609 4095608 2022-08-24T01:55:50Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers utilised local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense For support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref name="Article" /> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. <ref name="Article" /> All testing was performed in the morning between 7:00–11:00 am and each participant was measured within the same hour of their initial testing session. On the initial testing day participants completed two questionnaires including the Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise tool and the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS). Participants also performed a familiarization protocol relating to the physiological and biological sampling (saliva) protocol to be used. Cardiorespiratory fitness was then measured in the ETL through a maximal exercise test. Finally, participants underwent a whole-body DEXA scan situated in the Health Hub. The DEXA scan was incorporated into this study to accurately measure body fat percentage, which is associated with inflammation [30]. Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} 85fvy9u5mhksz7emezgpar5i5ad97li 4095611 4095609 2022-08-24T02:09:15Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers recruited through local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense Force support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref name="Article" /> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. Participants were asked to complete two questionaries, the Exercise and Support Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise screening tool and the (DASS) Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale.<ref>Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA). Adult Pre-Exercise Screening System (APSS). [Internet] Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> <ref>Health Focus Clinical Psychology Services. Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale DASS (-42) [internet]. Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> Participants cardiorespiratory fitness was measured, and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan was conducted.<ref name="Article" /> All testing was undertaken at the same time of day <ref name="Article" /> Three days later, participants returned to the ETL for the exercise intervention during which they completed a vigorous intensity boxing session. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire immediately before the boxing session and after 30 min of recovery. Physiological testing and saliva sampling were then performed immediately before the boxing session and during the 30 min recovery. Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} l0kpw2cyoj9a8pvoe74sgnr83aluhla 4095637 4095611 2022-08-24T05:39:14Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participants selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers recruited through local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense Force support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref name="Article" /> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sessions, four in total. Participants were asked to complete two questionaries, the Exercise and Support Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise screening tool and the (DASS) Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale.<ref>Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA). Adult Pre-Exercise Screening System (APSS). [Internet] Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> <ref>Health Focus Clinical Psychology Services. Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale DASS (-42) [internet]. Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> Participants cardiorespiratory fitness was measured, physiological and saliva samples obtained and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan was conducted.<ref name="Article" /> Three days after control measurements were obtained the participants returned to UC to commence the study. Participants were asked to complete a further DASS questionnaire prior to the activity which consisted of a vigorous boxing session. Physiological, saliva samples, along with a further DASS questionnaire, were undertaken 30 minutes post exercise. Further samples and questionnaires were obtained 24 and 48 hours post-exercise. <ref name="Article" /> Participants returned 24 and 48 h after the boxing session to complete the DASS questionnaires and have physiological measurements and biological samples taken again. * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} ifef2xb4g8pt40rymz8dr5aqsf7nb1k 4095681 4095637 2022-08-24T06:14:38Z Ted Wesley 3398645 wikitext text/x-wiki This Wikipage is a critical appraisal of the research article " Acute Physiological Responses Following a Bout of Vigorous Exercise in Military Soldiers and First Responders with PTSD: An Exploratory Pilot Study" by Kathryn E Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McKune. This Wikipage was prepared as an assessment for the unit Health, Disease and Exercise at the University of Canberra, Semester 2, 2022. <ref name="Article">Speer KE, Semple S, McKune AJ. Acute physiological responses following a bout of vigorous exercise in military soldiers and first responders with PTSD: An exploratory pilot study. Behav Sci. 10 (2):59.</ref> == '''What is the background to the research?''' == Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental illness as classified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5-TR (DSM-5-TR) with the following broad diagnostic criteria (several sub-criteria are described under criteria A-E): A.    The person was exposed to death, threatened death, actual or threatened serious injury, or actual or threatened sexual violence. B.    The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced. C.    Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli after the trauma. D.    Negative thoughts or feelings that began or worsened after the trauma. E.    Trauma-related arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma. F.    Symptoms last for more than 1 month. G.    Symptoms create distress or functional impairment. H.    Symptoms are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.<ref>US Department of Veteran Affairs (US DVA) PTSD: National Center for PTSD [internet]. United States of America: US DVA; 2020. Available from <nowiki>https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/dsm5_ptsd.asp</nowiki></ref> In addition PTSD sufferers often experience isolation, distrust, relationship difficulties, and communication issues. A cadre at a higher risk of developing PTSD during their lifetime are past and present members of the armed services, police, paramedics, firefighters and other first responders.<ref>Geronazzo-Alman L, Eisenberg R, Shen S, Duarte CS, Musa GJ, Wicks J, Fan B, Doan T, Guffanti G, Bresnahan M, Hoven CW. Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City's first responders. Compr Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;74:134-143.</ref><ref>Farr OM, Sloan DM, Keane TM, Mantzoros CS. Stress- and PTSD-associated obesity and metabolic dysfunction: a growing problem requiring further research and novel treatments. Metabolism [Internet]. 2014 Dec; 63(12):1463-8</ref> Persistent exposure to traumatic events, including personal risk, is an unfortunate and unavoidable result of the role of the first responder or military personnel.<ref name="McKeon"> McKeon G, Steel Z, Wells R, Newby JM, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S. Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: a protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. BMJ Open [Internet]. 2019 Sep 11; 9(9).</ref> Cumulatively these factors limit the ability or likelihood of sufferers engaging in a suitable level of physical activity, in turn increasing the risk of co-morbidities such as Cardiovascular Disease, Type II Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, concurrent mental illnesses, substance abuse, and self harm/suicide.<ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin First Responders: Behavioural Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. [internet] May 2018.</ref> Those suffering from PTSD are less likely to participate in physical activity and will engage in a more sedentary lifestyle. Previous research into the link between physical activity and symptoms of long term PTSD has identified that an increase in physical activity may not only reduce PTSD symptoms but could also decrease the risk of the co-morbidities .<ref>Rosenbaum S, Sherrington C, Tiedemann A. Exercise augmentation compared with usual care for post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 May;131(5):350-9.</ref><ref>Coughlin SS. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Cardiovascular Disease. ''Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal''. [internet] 2011; 5 164-70. </ref><ref>Rosenbaum S, Tiedemann A, Sherrington C, ''et a''l. Assessing physical activity in people with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility and concurrent validity of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire– short form and actigraph accelerometers. ''BMC Research Notes'' [internet] 2014; 7''',''' 576. </ref><ref name="McKeon" /> Exercise as a treatment for PTSD is less likely to be associated with the stigma often found with mental injuries and psychological and pharmacological treatments.<ref name="Hegberg">Hegberg N, Hayes J, Hayes S. Exercise Intervention in PTSD: A Narrative Review and Rationale for Implementation. Front Psychiatry: Sec. Mood Disorders. 21 March 2019.</ref> A 2017 meta-analysis specifically focusing on stigma in mental health found that a third of first responders experience or perceive stigma to some level in conjunction with mental injury.<ref name="McKeon" /><ref>Haugen P, McCrillis A, Smid G, Nijdam M. Mental health stigma and barriers to mental health care for first responders: A systematic review and meta-analysis, J Psychiatric Res. 2017; Volume 94,Pages 218-229.</ref> Research indicates exercise is a readily available, functional, low-cost alternative, comparable or superior treatment for PTSD.<ref name="Hegberg" /> == '''Where is this research from?''' == The researchers and subsequent authors of this article, Kathryn Speer, Stuart Semple and Andrew J McCune, are from the Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science at the University of Canberra (UC). All authors have a significant library of previously published literature, much in the field of sport and exercise science, with focus on this topic or in relation to broader mental health issues. The research undertaken in this article was funded by Fearless Outreach. The article processing charge was funded by UC, with the study approved by the UC Human Research Ethics Committee, Research Ethics, and Integrity Review Board. No conflicts of interest were declared by any author.<ref name="Article" /> == '''What kind of research was this?''' == This research project was a pilot study conducted on a sample of 8 males, aged 20 to 75 years, who were either currently serving armed forces personnel, first responders or military veterans. The sample consisted of two groups, a control group without PTSD and a group with a PTSD diagnosis, both consisting of equal participants (''n''=4).<ref name="Article" /> A pilot study is undertaken to identify the feasibility of undertaking future research, by testing criteria such as designs, strategies, methodology, measures and participant compliance, whilst also fine-tuning hypotheses and identifying areas that may prove problematic.<ref>Moore CG, Carter RE, Nietert PJ, Stewart PW. Recommendations for planning pilot studies in clinical and translational research. Clin Transl Sci. 2011 Oct;4(5):332-7.</ref> Additionally the pilot study will often obtain information to guide calculation of a sample size for the main project, as well as statistical measures including mean and standard deviation (SD).<ref>In J. Introduction of a pilot study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2017 Dec;70(6):601-605. doi: 10.4097/kjae.2017.70.6.601. Epub 2017 Nov 14.</ref> Therefore, it is important the pilot study process and outcomes are transferrable and adaptable for subsequent studies. == '''What did the research involve?''' == Participant selection and initial data collection was undertaken between June and November 2017. Researchers recruited through local advertising, in conjunction with informational flyers posted at various hospitals, allied health clinics, mental health support services and other agencies including the Australian Defense Force support service. Candidates were compared against a number of exclusion criteria, including renal disease, metal implants and a history of musculoskeletal injury.<ref name="Article" /> Participants were asked to refrain from any exercise in the 24 hours prior to the study commencing until cessation of all sampling sessions. Participants were asked to complete two questionnaire, the Exercise and Support Science Australia (ESSA) adult pre-exercise screening tool and the (DASS) Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale.<ref>Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA). Adult Pre-Exercise Screening System (APSS). [Internet] Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> <ref>Health Focus Clinical Psychology Services. Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale DASS (-42) [internet]. Accessed 24 August 2022.</ref> Participants cardiorespiratory fitness was measured, physiological and saliva samples obtained and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan was conducted.<ref name="Article" /> Three days after control measurements were obtained the participants returned to UC to commence the study. Participants were asked to complete a further DASS questionnaire prior to the activity which consisted of a vigorous boxing session. Physiological, saliva samples, along with a further DASS questionnaire, were undertaken 30 minutes post exercise. Further samples and questionnaires were obtained 24 and 48 hours post-exercise. <ref name="Article" /> *Was the methodology the best approach? What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? Consistent make-up Broad age gaps Is decrease in HRV solely linked to PTSD sufferers, is the change comparable to other studies Variability across exposures and psychological and pharmacological treatments HRV from Exercise vs from adrenalin dump? Relevance of DASS 30 mins after? Study too short? 4 days? == '''What were the basic results?''' == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == '''What conclusions can we take from this research?''' == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) Taken together, the findings suggest that those with low levels of PTSD who engage in vigorous-intensity activity may see the most profound effects on hyperarousal symptoms, whereas there may be more widespread symptom effects as PTSD severity increases. [Hegberg] For example, studies that failed to detect a significant association measured exercise with a single-item questionnaire or variable (e.g., assessing engagement in exercise or not, or number of days per week of exercise), whereas studies that have found significant effects used validated, multiple-item exercise assessment measures. A single-item measure does not capture frequency, intensity, and time (duration) and type of exercise, and therefore may not be adequate to assess behaviors that promote alterations in cardiorespiratory fitness or the effectiveness of aerobic exercise. '''Exercise Only''' Another article published from these data (57) suggested that participants with lower fitness at baseline, measured using the YMCA ergometer bike test which assesses submaximal VO2 maximum, reported a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms compared to their higher-fit peers (β = 0.10, ''p'' < 0.10). [Hegberg] == '''Practical advice''' == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == '''Further information/resources''' == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == '''References''' == {{BookCat}} j0ob2t4drmaseehd2rp1rmwohjx6bcp 0 448337 4095586 4095382 2022-08-23T23:16:37Z ZN1234 3397450 wikitext text/x-wiki This critique is of the research article: Mary L. Filipi, M. Patricia Leuschen, Jessie Huisinga, Lorene Schmaderer, Jeanna Vogel, Daryl Kucera, Nick Stergiou; Impact of Resistance Training on Balance and Gait in Multiple Sclerosis. ''Int J MS Care'' 1 April 2010; 12 (1): 6–12.<ref name=":0">Mary L. Filipi, M. Patricia Leuschen, Jessie Huisinga, Lorene Schmaderer, Jeanna Vogel, Daryl Kucera, Nick Stergiou; Impact of Resistance Training on Balance and Gait in Multiple Sclerosis. ''Int J MS Care'' 1 April 2010; 12 (1): 6–12.</ref> == What is the background to this research? == Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disorder which disrupts the function of the central nervous system. MS is the result of damage to myelin sheath (demyelination). Demyelination disrupts the communication between the motor and sensory pathways within the brain, and this can result in a decline in motor and cognitive functions such as losing the ability to walk, vision impairments, pain and difficulty with thinking and memory<ref>Oh J, Vidal-Jordana A, Montalban X. Multiple sclerosis: clinical aspects. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2018;31(6).</ref>. In Australia, MS is the most common neurological disorder for those aged 20-40 and it affects women 3 times more than men (see the MS website linked for more information on prevalence in Australia).<ref>MS Australia. What is Multiple Sclerosis (MS)? [Internet]. Australia: MS Australia; 2022 [cited 2022 Aug 17] Available from: https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/</ref> Specifically, when MS contributes to disability, the burden of disease is high and individuals often have a lowered quality of life and are less physically active. MS commonly affects an individuals ability to walk unassisted and interferes with their balance and motor control<ref>MS Australia. Executive Summary: Health Economic Impact of Multiple Sclerosis in Australia in 2017 [Internet]. Australia: University of Tasmania. Menzies Institute of Medical Research; 2018 August [cited 2022 August 21]. Available from: https://www.msaustralia.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/executive-summary_health-economic-impact-of-ms-in-australia-in-2017-report_ms-research-australia.pdf</ref>. With this, a pharmaceutical approach to treatment is effective in reducing relapses, however improving the level of disability and disease burden on the individual there is mixed evidence to suggest it is somewhat ineffective (add reference<ref>xxx</ref>). Consequently, exercise interventions prescribed for MS have often been discouraged as it is believed it can worsen symptoms and increase the rate of progression. It remains underutilised in as intervention within the MS population, however, there is moderate evidence to suggest that resistance training has been supported to minimise loss of functional capacity<ref name=":0" />. The chosen article aims to determine if resistance training is an effective exercise intervention that improves gait and balance and overall improves quality of life and reduces the burden of disease<ref name=":0" />. '''''NOTE TO SELF: I need to add more to this: more evidence/explanation is needed exploring the effectiveness of resistance training and exercise in the MS population on balance and gait.''''' == Where is the research from? == The journal article was published in the International Journal of MS care, this databased in peer-reviewed and is the primary publication site for research related MS from MS care centres on a global level. The article was published from the University Medical Centre of Nebraska under the Multiple Sclerosis Centre. This database aims to publish original research articles that address clinical issues in order to explore the disease from a multidisciplinary point of care<ref>International Journal of MS Care [Internet]. Cleveland: MJH Life Sciences. 1998 - [cited 2022 Aug 23]. Available from: https://meridian.allenpress.com/ijmsc/pages/About-IJMSC</ref>. The primary author Mary L. Filipi is a nurse practitioner specialist with more than 20 years experience and is based in Nebraska, she graduated with honours in 1997. Mary has an interest in exploring the therapies and there effectiveness related to MS, and has published several papers exploring different clinical aspects. Therefore, the academic team is well published and reliable. == What kind of research was this? == The study was a nonrandomised, nonblinded prospective cohort study of 45 patients, however, the results from the first 33 participants to enrol in the study were recorded. == What did the research involve? == Participants were allocated into groups based on their level of perceived disability using the Expanded Disability Status Scale score (EDSS). Two groups were used in the study based on fitting into the following score from the EDSS: little or no disability (EDSS score 1.0–4.0) and mild-to-moderate disability (EDSS score 4.5–6.5). All subjects were able to walk independently, others required assistance from a walking cane. However, there was specific criteria needed for the study, 1 specific aspect was that all participants had to walk 25 feet without a cane or bracing Twice weekly, 50 minute resistance training program for 6 months, baseline measures were taken at the beginning of the study, and then again at 3 months and 6 months. before and after study as natural history studies have shown the the physical decline for MS when left untreated is difficult to collect normative data for. resistance program: 5-10 min warm up and cool down, 30 minutes total of resistance training 30 seconds to complete exercise with 30 seconds rest 2-3 sets of each exercise. there were different stations for each exercise. 3 overall phases: phases 1 strength development, phase 2 balance and strength development, phase 3 balance and strength development with a unilateral focus. this allowed the researches to focus on specific concerns for MS rather than general conditioning. Evaluation instruments: Modified Fatigue Impact Scale (MFIS), the Modified Fall Efficacy Scale (MFES), the Berg Balance Scale (BBS), the Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite (MSFC), the Neuro-Com Balance Master. As well as a three dimensional biomechanical gait analysis was also take before and after the intervention to identify any positive or negative changes in knee power during midstance and hip power during the terminal stance of the gait cylce. '''''NOTE to self:''''' '''''- cut down''''' '''''- investigate reliability/validity of the evaluation instruments''''' '''''- explore limitations to using the prospective cohort study critiques: selection bias, no follow up after study, does not encompass a broad range of MS impact, doesn't cover, severe, mostly moderate but also no the early stages, adherence was really long 6 months. no injuries or disease regressions were reported.''''' == What were the basic results? == == What conclusions can we take from this research? == == Practical advice == == Further information/resources == == References == Add in the references using this code <references /> (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}}) e45q97u4sowz46k0ag942dwu7fhq1q4 0 448342 4095734 4095023 2022-08-24T10:30:19Z Rauter B 3399194 wikitext text/x-wiki == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, Within the referenced article, the overseeing concept is to potentially recognised and validate exercise as a rehabilitation tool on oxidative stress within head and neck cancer patients following chemotherapy. * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) {{BookCat}} 9ln5hufcgs2ljpjwou2hqqc3gbiid3s 2 448351 4095506 4095425 2022-08-23T19:14:29Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Wikibookaholic test */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{essay}} {{infobox| label5=Type|data5=Addiction| label7=Cause|data7=wikibooks.org| label10=Risk factor|data10=Having a computer, having too much free time, existing.| label15=Treatement|data15=There is no treatment. This contagious disease is incurable. Exept by great effort.| label20=Medication|data20=Turning off the WiFi.| }} A '''Wikibookaholic''' is somebody who is addicted to Wikibooks. Wikipedia [[w:WP:Wikiholic|has an article on this]], but represents Wikipedia more than Wikibooks. Below are questions. Answer them to gain points. ==Wikibookaholic test== #You viewed Wikibooks today? (1 - in case you hadn't noticed, this test ''is'' on Wikibooks) #You edited Wikibooks today? (1) ##You edited Wikibooks at least once in the last hour? (2) ###You are editing Wikibooks '''as you are reading this'''! (5 - impressive!) #You spend 50% of your time online in Wikibooks? (25) ##70%? (60) ###You ''only ever'' use Wikibooks? (100) #You revert vandalism? (5) ##Just to get the points? (-35) #You are a vandal? (-50) #You check your watchlist once a day? (2) ##Twice a day? (3) ###Ten times a day or more? (10) ##Is it set as your start page? (15) #You check recent changes every day? (2) ##Five times a day? (5) ###Ten times or more? (15) ##Is it bookmarked? (3) ###Set as your start page? (15) #You invited friends over to Wikibooks? (-1 for each one who became a vandal, 1 for each reader, and 5 for each editor) #You fight trolls? (2) ##For breakfast? (4) ###Before breakfast? (6) ####Late at night and/or midnight? (10) #You edited before 8am? (5) ##From 7am? (2) ###From 6am? (4) ####From 5am? (6) #You gave yourself 17 points in that last question as it is always 7, 6, and 5am ''somewhere'' in the world? (17 for cleaverness) #You press "random page" every day? (3) ##Did you once get to a page you edited? (5) ###Made? (20) ##You pressed it and found yourself on the same page twice in a row? (1) ##You're upset because you only got one point for that last question, because the odds for that happening are about {{NUMBEROFBOOKS}} to one? (1 - that really is a ripoff) #You edit and eat at the same time? (5) ##You put your food down to edit? (7) ###You're food spoiled while you were editing? (10 - right, I'm dragging you to the nearest wikiclinic) #You wikiprepend "Wiki" to some words? (5) ##Wikifor '''wikievery''' wikiword? (10) ###Wikiand wikiyou wikican wikiactually wikiread wikiit!? (100) #You worrythat your score is too high and will do something after "a few more edits"? (15) ##A hundred edits later and you never even tried? (25) #You spotted the typo above and want to fix it, but you're worried that you will lose your place if you do? (3) ##You fix it anyway? (20 - please revert it though, it's there on purpose) #You greave the loss of editing privileges when you are perma-blocked? (12) ##A temporary block? (20) ###That lasts less than a week? (50) ####You greave if you are blocked for 24 hours!!? (500 - you got serious problems) #You feel depressed when you are inactive for a full day? (5 - real life is quite important) #You feel ashamed if your edit count this month is lower than last months? (10) ##You strive to make up for it by doing more edits next month? (15) #You edited this page? (10) ##You [[User:L10nM4st3r|made]] this page? (100) #You broke some sort of rule to edit Wikibooks? (20) ##You got caught? (5) ###You carried on anyways? (25) #You are ashamed with your score? (q) ##Is it too big? (5) ##Or too small? (3) #You dream of editing Wikibooks? (5) ##You dream it every night? (10) ##You actually edit while sleeping? (20) #Something you one thought is important is suffering because of your addiction to Wikibooks? (10) #You almost end emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (5) ##You ''actually'' end a few emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (10) ###Most emails? (15) ####All? (30) ###Without realizing? (50) #You add links in most sentences to Wikibooks policies? (5) #You are an admin? (10) #You are a bureaucrat? (50) #You are [http://enwikibooks.wikiscan.org/users one of the top hundred] active users? (10) ##You are not one of the top hundred, but you want to be? (10) ##You want to reach the top? (50) ###You ''actually'' tried (or are trying)? (10) ####You gave up? (-50) #You randomly help other users? (10) #As soon as you get you hands on a computer or phone, you're straight on Wikibooks? (20) ##Even though you have important work to do? (25) #You once tried to edit old emails to give it the most up-to-date information? (5) ==Point chart== {|class="wikitable" |- |Less than 1||You must be a vandal! |- |1 - 10||You are safely away from this addiction. For now. |- |11 - 80||You are a regular contributor. Rest in peace. |- |81 - 350||Uh-oh! You are addicted! |- |351 - 700||There is still hope! |- |751 - 1500||You are so addicted to Wikibooks, it is about time you try and treat it... |- |1501 - 2800||You are fatally addicted to Wikiboks. There is little hope now. |- |2801 or more||I mean... We have [[WB:AGF|a policy]] that prevents me from accusing you of cheating! :D |} mv4spa6irx67vh6yze7jeaho1bdsn8t 4095510 4095506 2022-08-23T19:27:40Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 +5 for editing as I am reading the page... wikitext text/x-wiki {{essay}} {{infobox| label5=Type|data5=Addiction| label7=Cause|data7=wikibooks.org| label10=Risk factor|data10=Having a computer, having too much free time, existing.| label15=Treatement|data15=There is no treatment. This contagious disease is incurable. Exept by great effort.| label20=Medication|data20=Turning off the WiFi.| }} A '''Wikibookaholic''' is somebody who is addicted to Wikibooks. Wikipedia [[w:WP:Wikiholic|has an article on this]], but represents Wikipedia more than Wikibooks. Below are questions. Answer them truthfully to gain Wikibookaholic points. ==Wikibookaholic test== #You viewed Wikibooks today? (1 - in case you hadn't noticed, this test ''is'' on Wikibooks) #You edited Wikibooks today? (1) ##You edited Wikibooks at least once in the last hour? (2) ###You are editing Wikibooks '''as you are reading this'''! (5 - impressive!) #You spend 50% of your time online in Wikibooks? (25) ##70%? (60) ###You ''only ever'' use Wikibooks? (100) #You revert vandalism? (5) ##Just to get the points? (-35) #You are a vandal? (-50) #You check your watchlist once a day? (2) ##Twice a day? (3) ###Ten times a day or more? (10) ##Is it set as your start page? (15) #You check recent changes every day? (2) ##Five times a day? (5) ###Ten times or more? (15) ##Is it bookmarked? (3) ###Set as your start page? (15) #You invited friends over to Wikibooks? (-1 for each one who became a vandal, 1 for each reader, and 5 for each editor) #You fight trolls? (2) ##For breakfast? (4) ###Before breakfast? (6) ####Late at night and/or midnight? (10) #You edited before 8am? (5) ##From 7am? (2) ###From 6am? (4) ####From 5am? (6) #You gave yourself 17 points in that last question as it is always 7, 6, and 5am ''somewhere'' in the world? (17 for cleaverness) #You press "random page" every day? (3) ##Did you once get to a page you edited? (5) ###Made? (20) ##You pressed it and found yourself on the same page twice in a row? (1) ##You're upset because you only got one point for that last question, because the odds for that happening are about {{NUMBEROFBOOKS}} to one? (1 - that really is a ripoff) #You edit and eat at the same time? (5) ##You put your food down to edit? (7) ###You're food spoiled while you were editing? (10 - right, I'm dragging you to the nearest wikiclinic) #You wikiprepend "Wiki" to some words? (5) ##Wikifor '''wikievery''' wikiword? (10) ###Wikiand wikiyou wikican wikiactually wikiread wikiit!? (100) #You worrythat your score is too high and will do something after "a few more edits"? (15) ##A hundred edits later and you never even tried? (25) #You spotted the typo above and want to fix it, but you're worried that you will lose your place if you do? (3) ##You fix it anyway? (20 - please revert it though, it's there on purpose) #You greave the loss of editing privileges when you are perma-blocked? (12) ##A temporary block? (20) ###That lasts less than a week? (50) ####You greave if you are blocked for 24 hours!!? (500 - you got serious problems) #You feel depressed when you are inactive for a full day? (5 - real life is quite important) #You feel ashamed if your edit count this month is lower than last months? (10) ##You strive to make up for it by doing more edits next month? (15) #You edited this page? (10) ##You [[User:L10nM4st3r|made]] this page? (100) #You broke some sort of rule to edit Wikibooks? (20) ##You got caught? (5) ###You carried on anyways? (25) #You are ashamed with your score? (q) ##Is it too big? (5) ##Or too small? (3) #You dream of editing Wikibooks? (5) ##You dream it every night? (10) ##You actually edit while sleeping? (20) #Something you one thought is important is suffering because of your addiction to Wikibooks? (10) #You almost end emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (5) ##You ''actually'' end a few emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (10) ###Most emails? (15) ####All? (30) ###Without realizing? (50) #You add links in most sentences to Wikibooks policies? (5) #You are an admin? (10) #You are a bureaucrat? (50) #You are [http://enwikibooks.wikiscan.org/users one of the top hundred] active users? (10) ##You are not one of the top hundred, but you want to be? (10) ##You want to reach the top? (50) ###You ''actually'' tried (or are trying)? (10) ####You gave up? (-50) #You randomly help other users? (10) #As soon as you get you hands on a computer or phone, you're straight on Wikibooks? (20) ##Even though you have important work to do? (25) #You once tried to edit old emails to give it the most up-to-date information? (5) ==Point chart== {|class="wikitable" |- |Less than 1||You must be a vandal! |- |1 - 10||You are safely away from this addiction. For now. |- |11 - 80||You are a regular contributor. Rest in peace. |- |81 - 350||Uh-oh! You are addicted! |- |351 - 700||There is still hope! |- |751 - 1500||You are so addicted to Wikibooks, it is about time you try and treat it... |- |1501 - 2800||You are fatally addicted to Wikiboks. There is little hope now. |- |2801 or more||I mean... We have [[WB:AGF|a policy]] that prevents me from accusing you of cheating! :D |} ap9rhidne227eq3dpr13ijt0ue657rm 4095512 4095510 2022-08-23T19:36:33Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Wikibookaholic test */ good to know wikitext text/x-wiki {{essay}} {{infobox| label5=Type|data5=Addiction| label7=Cause|data7=wikibooks.org| label10=Risk factor|data10=Having a computer, having too much free time, existing.| label15=Treatement|data15=There is no treatment. This contagious disease is incurable. Exept by great effort.| label20=Medication|data20=Turning off the WiFi.| }} A '''Wikibookaholic''' is somebody who is addicted to Wikibooks. Wikipedia [[w:WP:Wikiholic|has an article on this]], but represents Wikipedia more than Wikibooks. Below are questions. Answer them truthfully to gain Wikibookaholic points. ==Wikibookaholic test== #You viewed Wikibooks today? (1 - in case you hadn't noticed, this test ''is'' on Wikibooks) #You edited Wikibooks today? (1) #*You edited Wikibooks at least once in the last hour? (2) #**You are editing Wikibooks '''as you are reading this'''! (5 - impressive!) #You spend 50% of your time online in Wikibooks? (25) #*70%? (60) #**You ''only ever'' use Wikibooks? (100) #You revert vandalism? (5) #*Just to get the points? (-35) #You are a vandal? (-50) #You check your watchlist once a day? (2) #*Twice a day? (3) #**Ten times a day or more? (10) #*Is it set as your start page? (15) #You check recent changes every day? (2) #*Five times a day? (5) #**Ten times or more? (15) #*Is it bookmarked? (3) #**Set as your start page? (15) #You invited friends over to Wikibooks? (-1 for each one who became a vandal, 1 for each reader, and 5 for each editor) #You fight trolls? (2) #*For breakfast? (4) #**Before breakfast? (6) #***Late at night and/or midnight? (10) #You edited before 8am? (5) #*From 7am? (2) #**From 6am? (4) #***From 5am? (6) #You gave yourself 17 points in that last question as it is always 7, 6, and 5am ''somewhere'' in the world? (17 for cleaverness) #You press "random page" every day? (3) #*Did you once get to a page you edited? (5) #**Made? (20) #*You pressed it and found yourself on the same page twice in a row? (1) #*You're upset because you only got one point for that last question, because the odds for that happening are about {{NUMBEROFBOOKS}} to one? (1 - that really is a ripoff) #You edit and eat at the same time? (5) #*You put your food down to edit? (7) #**You're food spoiled while you were editing? (10 - right, I'm dragging you to the nearest wikiclinic) #You wikiprepend "Wiki" to some words? (5) #*Wikifor '''wikievery''' wikiword? (10) #**Wikiand wikiyou wikican wikiactually wikiread wikiit!? (100) #You worrythat your score is too high and will do something after "a few more edits"? (15) #*A hundred edits later and you never even tried? (25) #You spotted the typo above and want to fix it, but you're worried that you will lose your place if you do? (3) #*You fix it anyway? (20 - please revert it though, it's there on purpose) #You greave the loss of editing privileges when you are perma-blocked? (12) #*A temporary block? (20) #**That lasts less than a week? (50) #***You greave if you are blocked for 24 hours!!? (500 - you got serious problems) #You feel depressed when you are inactive for a full day? (5 - real life is quite important) #You feel ashamed if your edit count this month is lower than last months? (10) #*You strive to make up for it by doing more edits next month? (15) #You edited this page? (10) #*You [[User:L10nM4st3r|made]] this page? (100) #You broke some sort of rule to edit Wikibooks? (20) #*You got caught? (5) #**You carried on anyways? (25) #You are ashamed with your score? (q) #*Is it too big? (5) #*Or too small? (3) #You dream of editing Wikibooks? (5) #*You dream it every night? (10) #*You actually edit while sleeping? (20) #Something you one thought is important is suffering because of your addiction to Wikibooks? (10) #You almost end emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (5) #*You ''actually'' end a few emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (10) #**Most emails? (15) #***All? (30) #**Without realizing? (50) #You add links in most sentences to Wikibooks policies? (5) #You are an admin? (10) #You are a bureaucrat? (50) #You are [http://enwikibooks.wikiscan.org/users one of the top hundred] active users? (10) #*You are not one of the top hundred, but you want to be? (10) #*You want to reach the top? (50) #**You ''actually'' tried (or are trying)? (10) #***You gave up? (-50) #You randomly help other users? (10) #As soon as you get you hands on a computer or phone, you're straight on Wikibooks? (20) #*Even though you have important work to do? (25) #You once tried to edit old emails to give it the most up-to-date information? (5) ==Point chart== {|class="wikitable" |- |Less than 1||You must be a vandal! |- |1 - 10||You are safely away from this addiction. For now. |- |11 - 80||You are a regular contributor. Rest in peace. |- |81 - 350||Uh-oh! You are addicted! |- |351 - 700||There is still hope! |- |751 - 1500||You are so addicted to Wikibooks, it is about time you try and treat it... |- |1501 - 2800||You are fatally addicted to Wikiboks. There is little hope now. |- |2801 or more||I mean... We have [[WB:AGF|a policy]] that prevents me from accusing you of cheating! :D |} pilvak58bf2s9ur1dg8ywdtfzvtf9p0 4095514 4095512 2022-08-23T19:39:01Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Point chart */ well... -5000 for mistyping Wikiboks!!! wikitext text/x-wiki {{essay}} {{infobox| label5=Type|data5=Addiction| label7=Cause|data7=wikibooks.org| label10=Risk factor|data10=Having a computer, having too much free time, existing.| label15=Treatement|data15=There is no treatment. This contagious disease is incurable. Exept by great effort.| label20=Medication|data20=Turning off the WiFi.| }} A '''Wikibookaholic''' is somebody who is addicted to Wikibooks. Wikipedia [[w:WP:Wikiholic|has an article on this]], but represents Wikipedia more than Wikibooks. Below are questions. Answer them truthfully to gain Wikibookaholic points. ==Wikibookaholic test== #You viewed Wikibooks today? (1 - in case you hadn't noticed, this test ''is'' on Wikibooks) #You edited Wikibooks today? (1) #*You edited Wikibooks at least once in the last hour? (2) #**You are editing Wikibooks '''as you are reading this'''! (5 - impressive!) #You spend 50% of your time online in Wikibooks? (25) #*70%? (60) #**You ''only ever'' use Wikibooks? (100) #You revert vandalism? (5) #*Just to get the points? (-35) #You are a vandal? (-50) #You check your watchlist once a day? (2) #*Twice a day? (3) #**Ten times a day or more? (10) #*Is it set as your start page? (15) #You check recent changes every day? (2) #*Five times a day? (5) #**Ten times or more? (15) #*Is it bookmarked? (3) #**Set as your start page? (15) #You invited friends over to Wikibooks? (-1 for each one who became a vandal, 1 for each reader, and 5 for each editor) #You fight trolls? (2) #*For breakfast? (4) #**Before breakfast? (6) #***Late at night and/or midnight? (10) #You edited before 8am? (5) #*From 7am? (2) #**From 6am? (4) #***From 5am? (6) #You gave yourself 17 points in that last question as it is always 7, 6, and 5am ''somewhere'' in the world? (17 for cleaverness) #You press "random page" every day? (3) #*Did you once get to a page you edited? (5) #**Made? (20) #*You pressed it and found yourself on the same page twice in a row? (1) #*You're upset because you only got one point for that last question, because the odds for that happening are about {{NUMBEROFBOOKS}} to one? (1 - that really is a ripoff) #You edit and eat at the same time? (5) #*You put your food down to edit? (7) #**You're food spoiled while you were editing? (10 - right, I'm dragging you to the nearest wikiclinic) #You wikiprepend "Wiki" to some words? (5) #*Wikifor '''wikievery''' wikiword? (10) #**Wikiand wikiyou wikican wikiactually wikiread wikiit!? (100) #You worrythat your score is too high and will do something after "a few more edits"? (15) #*A hundred edits later and you never even tried? (25) #You spotted the typo above and want to fix it, but you're worried that you will lose your place if you do? (3) #*You fix it anyway? (20 - please revert it though, it's there on purpose) #You greave the loss of editing privileges when you are perma-blocked? (12) #*A temporary block? (20) #**That lasts less than a week? (50) #***You greave if you are blocked for 24 hours!!? (500 - you got serious problems) #You feel depressed when you are inactive for a full day? (5 - real life is quite important) #You feel ashamed if your edit count this month is lower than last months? (10) #*You strive to make up for it by doing more edits next month? (15) #You edited this page? (10) #*You [[User:L10nM4st3r|made]] this page? (100) #You broke some sort of rule to edit Wikibooks? (20) #*You got caught? (5) #**You carried on anyways? (25) #You are ashamed with your score? (q) #*Is it too big? (5) #*Or too small? (3) #You dream of editing Wikibooks? (5) #*You dream it every night? (10) #*You actually edit while sleeping? (20) #Something you one thought is important is suffering because of your addiction to Wikibooks? (10) #You almost end emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (5) #*You ''actually'' end a few emails with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>? (10) #**Most emails? (15) #***All? (30) #**Without realizing? (50) #You add links in most sentences to Wikibooks policies? (5) #You are an admin? (10) #You are a bureaucrat? (50) #You are [http://enwikibooks.wikiscan.org/users one of the top hundred] active users? (10) #*You are not one of the top hundred, but you want to be? (10) #*You want to reach the top? (50) #**You ''actually'' tried (or are trying)? (10) #***You gave up? (-50) #You randomly help other users? (10) #As soon as you get you hands on a computer or phone, you're straight on Wikibooks? (20) #*Even though you have important work to do? (25) #You once tried to edit old emails to give it the most up-to-date information? (5) ==Point chart== {|class="wikitable" |- |Less than 1||You must be a vandal! |- |1 - 10||You are safely away from this addiction. For now. |- |11 - 80||You are a regular contributor. Rest in peace. |- |81 - 350||Uh-oh! You are addicted! |- |351 - 700||There is still hope! |- |751 - 1500||You are so addicted to Wikibooks, it is about time you try and treat it... |- |1501 - 2800||You are fatally addicted to Wikibooks. There is little hope now. |- |2801 or more||I mean... We have [[WB:AGF|a policy]] that prevents me from accusing you of cheating! :D |} gz16qy45el8sqrc0p7lx0eubl8v02ur 0 448391 4095565 4095370 2022-08-23T22:00:22Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete}} === 6WF Perth === A comprehensive article about 6WF Perth has not yet been prepared for this Wikibook, however the following resources have been assembled in preparation: * [[/Research|Research - 6WF Perth]] - Summary of research to date * [[/Notes|Transcriptions and Notes - 6WF Perth]] - More than 40 transcriptions * [[/Graphics|Photos, QSL cards and other graphics - 6WF Perth]] - Nothing uploaded as yet, but several relevant QSLs held * [[/Wikipedia|Incubator of Wikipedia Article on 6WF Perth]] - Coming real soon now! Key internet links: Maxwell Hull, VK3ZS, Federal Historical Section WIA: biography "Walter Francis Maxwell Howden" in "Amateur Radio" of October 1983<ref>https://worldradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX-AUSTRALIA/IDX/Amateur-Radio/80s/Amateur-Radio-AU-1983628.pdf</ref> Neville Williams' biography in "When I think Back . . ." section of Electronics Australia of December 1996<ref>http://messui.polygonal-moogle.com/valves/NW199612.pdf</ref> Tribute page by Andrew (current 3BQ callsign holder) "A3BQ (VK3BQ) a Very Historic callsign."<ref>https://www.vk3bq.com/2014/10/29/a3bq-vk3bq-callsign/</ref> (includes several other links) Wonderful 41 minute recording of an oral history interview with Max "Maxwell Howden interviewed by Mel Pratt ion 1972 for the Mel Pratt collection" <ref>{{Citation | author1=Howden, Maxwell, 1899-1980 | author2=Pratt, Mel, -1986 | title=Maxwell Howden interviewed by Mel Pratt for the Mel Pratt collection | journal=Mel Pratt collection [sound recording] | publication-date=1972-04-04 | url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/19169227 | access-date=12 February 2021}}</ref> Another excellent 35 minute recording of speech by Max in 1974 to the Radio Amateur's Old Timer's Club about amateur radio late 1910s through 1930s [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VfgofQ-Gu_s&ab_channel=AusRadioHistorian Youtube] Pending further progress on the foregoing, the following lovely article from Melbourne's Table Talk, summarising Max's life to 1927, and accompanied by a wonderful caricature touches briefly on how much Max contributed to the development of wireless in Australia in the 1920s <blockquote>'''Prominent Personalities.''' Written by C. R. Bradish. '''MAX HOWDEN, A RADIO PIONEER.''' Illustrated by L. F. REYNOLDS. WHY Max Howden allowed a good part of his countenance to retire behind a mass of foliage to give zest to the suspicion that he was either learning painting under Max Meldrum or Bolshevism under Zinobiffsky is, of course, his own affair, but the probable explanation is that he was too busy to shave. When a comparative infant in his early twenties cheerfully stays up late, not for the pastimes that keep most of us out of bed, but for the business of experimenting in wireless, shaving is frequently superfluous and may even become a serious interruption to the scientific purposes of life. Anyhow, Max, christened Maxwell by his parents in his baptism, has allowed his beard to grow and is so content with the innovation that he can gaze without any noticeable increase of pulse on the prettiest shaving soap advertisements and all those other subtly-worded communiques offering miraculous safety razors for immaterial prices. Max Howden is an uncommon young man. To the average listener-in who takes his evening fill of talk on beet growing or fowl-raising interspersed with orchestral selections from the works of Professor Whizzbang, the name of Howden is little known, but to the scattered world of experimentalists he is one of the Columbuses of the ether, a fellow of infinite worth and enterprise. What he has done will go down in the records to remind us of an unflinching pioneering spirit in the face of all sorts of difficulties and discouragements. Remember that he took up the problem of long-distance wireless when it was being cradled in the lap of officialdom. Apparatus was crude and expensive, and other conditions governing research were not attractive. At the beginning Max Howden was allowed to experiment under Permit No. 19 issued by the Navy Office. He was keen, and he possessed a patience and perseverance that nothing could affect. At first he employed a double slide tuner and crystal detector and started to pick up the ships and Australian coastal stations — then considered something like an invigorating mental adventure, though it is hardly ten years ago. Howden, a practised reader of Morse, heard the calls going back and forward for several months, all the while developing his apparatus, but never assuaging his consuming thirst for experiment. Soon he was listening to the messages thrown into the void by the V.L.A. station in New Zealand, and with this awoke the ambition to have the whole world of wireless audible and build a machine that would leap oceans and establish two way communication. In 1920 a boon of great price came into his hands. The first shipment of valves, a mean half-dozen in all, was landed in Melbourne, and he was lucky to get one. It may interest the present-day amateur to learn that those valves were 65/ each, which will give some idea of the high cost of wireless to a moderate pocket. With the single valve installed Howden's range of reception was vastly increased. Though he is now hardened to the sensations of discovery and achievement, he can still recall the thrill when he distinctly heard JOC (Japan) on a wave length of 600 metres. After that exploit several other high-powered stations studding the globe practically became next-door neighbors. Among them was POZ, of Nauen, Germany, celebrated be fore and during the war; FL, attached to the Eiffel Tower, Paris; YL, at Lyons, in the South of France; MUU, of Carnarvon, Wales; and NAA, of Arlington, America. By this time Howden was hard at it. To him wireless had attained the proportions of a fashionable vice. Whilst other young men were wearing their feet sore in the company of syncopated dirges, or were sitting up late trying to make four aces grow where one grew before he was among his instruments, experimenting with R valves, Muirhead Amplifying valves and what not, and losing sleep with the stoicism popularly associated with scientific work. Hereabouts he built his own audio frequency transformer to use additional amplication and received his first transmitting licence, he first practising on a wave length of 400 to 440 metres. Shortly after the Government kept that wave length exclusively for commercial purposes, and amateurs were then only permitted to play with a wave length not exceeding 250 metres. That did not deter Master Howden. As he proved afterwards, no arbitrary rules about wave lengths could keep a resourceful expert isolated from the world abroad. As a matter of fact, just about the height of the first trans-Pacific tests his own specially designed simplex receiver picked up 23 American amateur stations on a 200-metre wavelength, which was an unprecedented patch of purple in the history of wireless experiment in this country. Thereafter he settled down to experiments in transmission, and he and others, including the brilliant Maclurcan, of Sydney, collectively developed shortwave apparatus. His first great success, after infinite endeavor, was to signal through to California. This happened on November 2, 1924, with a wave length of only 87 metres, and Howden's elation in the circumstances can be imagined. Two nights later 1SF (Boston) reported that a message from Howden had leapt the Pacific and the American continent and had been picked up intact. But an even finer triumph was to follow. A little after five in the morning of November 13, the same year, Mr Simmonds, a clever English amateur, officially known as G2OD, heard his call, and in a few seconds he was talking to Simmonds — which was the first two-way wireless communication between England and Australia. That is not the full story of his work, but it must suffice. It indicates in some measure the temperament of the man and the cool, relentless striving that has won him his position in this strange new science. A curious man, this, with a face paled by long vigils and with eyes lighted by the fanaticism of one who has dedicated a life to a passion. The technics of wireless slip off his tongue as glibly as the prayers of a Buddhist monk, and I doubt if he has in recent years ever mentioned any other subject with animation. He has that strange gift of concentration on one thing which marks men of high talent.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article146842335 |title=Prominent Personality MAX HOWDEN |newspaper=[[Table Talk]] |issue=3112 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=29 December 1927 |accessdate=8 February 2021 |page=17 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> {{BookCat}} n0u9qwooc95dp4lnovt1y6d7qk4kq8g 0 448392 4095508 4095423 2022-08-23T19:15:58Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 01 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} rajy6it11l9hgy2lvu9nfpcdt5km9pt 4095509 4095508 2022-08-23T19:24:12Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 01 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} kvnb95uzwhx2ah04zzd6cftxvl5nwvm 4095511 4095509 2022-08-23T19:28:49Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 01 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} dn14mvdamog94c0q1huysk26uwxrvrp 4095515 4095511 2022-08-23T19:40:56Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The Westralian Farmers' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The Westralian Farmers. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The Westralian Farmers, Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the Westralian Farmers, an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} ka1b0nbd8r8o4dtjoze46xzglrb85tm 4095516 4095515 2022-08-23T19:45:22Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The Westralian Farmers' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The Westralian Farmers. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The Westralian Farmers, Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the Westralian Farmers, an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 6s11j1z7kttba3lvwa8fewlkry839bb 4095522 4095516 2022-08-23T20:16:12Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The Westralian Farmers' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The Westralian Farmers. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The Westralian Farmers, Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the Westralian Farmers, an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of Westralian Farmers, Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 6259khp92zciig4ecxy2fi70tedk5qg 4095523 4095522 2022-08-23T20:24:26Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The Westralian Farmers' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The Westralian Farmers. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The Westralian Farmers, Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the Westralian Farmers, an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of Westralian Farmers, Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AMD COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} cpjcu84tfww0cz4d412ckdfqiqiqc0d 4095525 4095523 2022-08-23T20:25:43Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The Westralian Farmers' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The Westralian Farmers. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The Westralian Farmers, Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the Westralian Farmers, an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of Westralian Farmers, Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 5tub3g97uob3ov2g1jyxyl0oo0wbwav 4095528 4095525 2022-08-23T20:42:29Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the SEALED RADIO SETS. (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, with-out first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident men-tioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of af-fairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length ap-plying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, pro-vided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer de-signs a set, and takes one made to his de-sign to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the Westralian Farmers Station commences, every dealer will be in-formed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set ad-justed to this wave and take it to the in-spector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer col-lects the fee required by the Westralian Farmers for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most ele-mentary principles of a radio receiver. Any-one can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary state-ment being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 20q9kxl9x3wvogqxe0rs0zzcdrrduqy 4095530 4095528 2022-08-23T20:46:00Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio set as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 7ju4x3cjsbmga7mwgnrbd16moqyiz62 4095536 4095530 2022-08-23T21:12:05Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Daily News journalist fooled by Government and AWA propaganda and finds supporters of the sealed set scheme (see also a knowledgeable response in letter to editor next day) <blockquote>'''"SEALED" RADIO SETS. DO THEY GRANT A MONOPOLY? VIEWS OF EXPERIMENTERS.''' Complaint was recently made by a man who had made himself a wireless set. After the construction of the apparatus was completed he listened-in to broadcasting with satisfactory results, and when he sought official approval for the use of the plant it was withheld, and the man was called upon to either discard his set or adjust it with the aid of expensive apparatus. This morning a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus were interviewed, and in every case they had no fault to find with the regulations of the Commonwealth. It had been stated by the person making the complaint that no other country but Australia adopted the sealed set system, but one wireless enthusiast said that a somewhat similar system had been in force in Germany for a number of years. There the broadcasting service was under the control of the post office, and the receiving-sets were hired out like telephones. Bank managers, stock brokers, and business men generally had them installed, at their country homes, so that they might continually keep in touch with market fluctuations. "Those people," the experimenter said, "don't mind whether the sets are sealed or not. What they want is the service — and they receive it. I wouldn't mind if the Commonwealth came along and sealed down my telephone. I would still be able to put it to its legitimate use; and it is only the service I want." Another experimenter explained the difference between the two classes of receiving licences. There was the licence granted to the bona-fide experimentalist and the one granted to the man who merely wanted the amusement of musical concerts by radio. It was suggested that if the person complaining was capable of building a set, adjusting and working it, he should have little difficulty in securing an experimentalist's licence which would enable him to receive on any wave length, for his set would not be "sealed." Many of the present experimenters were youths upon whom the payment of a broadcasting fee might fall heavily, and this experimenter suggested that the parents or the tenants of the house might club together and pay the several guineas necessary if they wished to take advantage of the boy's set for the purposes of amusement. It was made quite clear, however, that at the present time there was no obligation to do so. "The ordinary wireless experimenter would not be able to make a receiver with a given wave length," another enthusiast said. "Of the total number of licensees holding experimentalists' "tickets" I don't think more than 5 per cent. could make a receiving set which would meet with the approval of the authorities. By this I mean that there is a large number of boys who "potter around" with a plant, but who are unqualified to construct one to given capacity. Of the serious experimenters, however, and there are many who have given many years' study to the business, I think about 75 per cent. in this State could build a plant which would be approved." One trouble which had been experienced was that the authorities would test any plant put before them, but they would not issue drawings and particulars from which a plant of a given wave length could be constructed. The authorities, it was said, were not anxious to know very much about the "internals" of the plant so long as it stood up to the official test. The purpose of this test, it was explained, was to make sure that electricity would not be discharged from it into the ether and thus cause interference, and secondly to ascertain that the plant was capable of being sealed to one wave length, with about a 10 per cent, tuning allowance. A representative of a company interesting itself in broadcasting said he felt sure they would not object to the use of home made plants so long as the broadcasting fee was paid and the plant had been approved by the authorities. Commenting on the complaints generally, he said if inspection was not insisted upon, cheap and nasty materials could be sold; therefore it was in the interests of those who had receiving sets that the regulations operated. It looked to him as if some opposition from the trade was at the bottom of the complaint. It was admitted that a sealed set was more expensive than an unsealed one. There was an extra cost in producing and complying with official requirements. If a mechanic had a free hand he could make a plant much simpler. Possibly an unsealed set could be made for £16, while a "sealed set" might cost £20. Of course sets could be bought cheaper than that, but they would not receive at any great distance. One hundred and fifty guineas could be spent on a set mounted in a cabinet of Queen Anne style, or with Chippendale legs, but the receiving power would be no better than the £20 one. "If we didn't have some restriction," another experimenter said, "our wireless nights would be filled with squeaks and cat-calls caused by oscillations escaping from the aerial and our musical concerts would largely be spoilt. The sealing of the sets is financially necessary to the broadcasting companies. If sets were unsealed and a broadcasting company started, it would be easy for other firms to supply sets by which their customers could listen in to the original broadcasting company without fee. There was nothing so far as he knew to prevent a person building his own receiving set for use in connection with a broadcasting station so long as it was capable of being sealed to the wavelength employed, and it complied with the other departmental restrictions."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78056913 |title="SEALED" RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,229 |location=Western Australia |date=11 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio set as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} dq9ibvbwtqg4oe1r7gg6fhn0v2948cj 4095556 4095536 2022-08-23T21:46:47Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 03 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Daily News journalist fooled by Government and AWA propaganda and finds supporters of the sealed set scheme (see also a knowledgeable response in letter to editor next day) <blockquote>'''"SEALED" RADIO SETS. DO THEY GRANT A MONOPOLY? VIEWS OF EXPERIMENTERS.''' Complaint was recently made by a man who had made himself a wireless set. After the construction of the apparatus was completed he listened-in to broadcasting with satisfactory results, and when he sought official approval for the use of the plant it was withheld, and the man was called upon to either discard his set or adjust it with the aid of expensive apparatus. This morning a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus were interviewed, and in every case they had no fault to find with the regulations of the Commonwealth. It had been stated by the person making the complaint that no other country but Australia adopted the sealed set system, but one wireless enthusiast said that a somewhat similar system had been in force in Germany for a number of years. There the broadcasting service was under the control of the post office, and the receiving-sets were hired out like telephones. Bank managers, stock brokers, and business men generally had them installed, at their country homes, so that they might continually keep in touch with market fluctuations. "Those people," the experimenter said, "don't mind whether the sets are sealed or not. What they want is the service — and they receive it. I wouldn't mind if the Commonwealth came along and sealed down my telephone. I would still be able to put it to its legitimate use; and it is only the service I want." Another experimenter explained the difference between the two classes of receiving licences. There was the licence granted to the bona-fide experimentalist and the one granted to the man who merely wanted the amusement of musical concerts by radio. It was suggested that if the person complaining was capable of building a set, adjusting and working it, he should have little difficulty in securing an experimentalist's licence which would enable him to receive on any wave length, for his set would not be "sealed." Many of the present experimenters were youths upon whom the payment of a broadcasting fee might fall heavily, and this experimenter suggested that the parents or the tenants of the house might club together and pay the several guineas necessary if they wished to take advantage of the boy's set for the purposes of amusement. It was made quite clear, however, that at the present time there was no obligation to do so. "The ordinary wireless experimenter would not be able to make a receiver with a given wave length," another enthusiast said. "Of the total number of licensees holding experimentalists' "tickets" I don't think more than 5 per cent. could make a receiving set which would meet with the approval of the authorities. By this I mean that there is a large number of boys who "potter around" with a plant, but who are unqualified to construct one to given capacity. Of the serious experimenters, however, and there are many who have given many years' study to the business, I think about 75 per cent. in this State could build a plant which would be approved." One trouble which had been experienced was that the authorities would test any plant put before them, but they would not issue drawings and particulars from which a plant of a given wave length could be constructed. The authorities, it was said, were not anxious to know very much about the "internals" of the plant so long as it stood up to the official test. The purpose of this test, it was explained, was to make sure that electricity would not be discharged from it into the ether and thus cause interference, and secondly to ascertain that the plant was capable of being sealed to one wave length, with about a 10 per cent, tuning allowance. A representative of a company interesting itself in broadcasting said he felt sure they would not object to the use of home made plants so long as the broadcasting fee was paid and the plant had been approved by the authorities. Commenting on the complaints generally, he said if inspection was not insisted upon, cheap and nasty materials could be sold; therefore it was in the interests of those who had receiving sets that the regulations operated. It looked to him as if some opposition from the trade was at the bottom of the complaint. It was admitted that a sealed set was more expensive than an unsealed one. There was an extra cost in producing and complying with official requirements. If a mechanic had a free hand he could make a plant much simpler. Possibly an unsealed set could be made for £16, while a "sealed set" might cost £20. Of course sets could be bought cheaper than that, but they would not receive at any great distance. One hundred and fifty guineas could be spent on a set mounted in a cabinet of Queen Anne style, or with Chippendale legs, but the receiving power would be no better than the £20 one. "If we didn't have some restriction," another experimenter said, "our wireless nights would be filled with squeaks and cat-calls caused by oscillations escaping from the aerial and our musical concerts would largely be spoilt. The sealing of the sets is financially necessary to the broadcasting companies. If sets were unsealed and a broadcasting company started, it would be easy for other firms to supply sets by which their customers could listen in to the original broadcasting company without fee. There was nothing so far as he knew to prevent a person building his own receiving set for use in connection with a broadcasting station so long as it was capable of being sealed to the wavelength employed, and it complied with the other departmental restrictions."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78056913 |title="SEALED" RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,229 |location=Western Australia |date=11 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio set as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== A Dorothy Dixer in the Perth Sunday Times enables new details about 6WF including first advice of actual wavelength <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME. Opening About April.''' A correspondent signing himself S.S. (Perth) asks for information concerning the Westralian Farmers' wireless broadcasting scheme, when it is to commence, the wavelength, times of transmission, etc? Answer. The Westralian Farmers' broadcasting service is to be transmitted on 1250 metres with a power of 5 K.W., and it is expected to commence in April. Amateur transmissions will be as follows:— A. S. Stevens, of 1 Ruth-Street, Perth, every Wednesday, 8 p.m., 430 meters, call signal 6BN; W. E. Coxon, of 306 Bulwer-street, Perth, every Friday and Sunday 8 p.m., 440 meters, call 6AG; C. Cecil, Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie, every Monday and Thursday 8 p.m., call 6AB. In addition, market and weather reports, general news, church services, entertainments, addresses by prominent men, children's bedtime stories, etc., will be broadcasted. Briefly, the service will bring those it serves in direct contact with the outside world. For instance, whereas public men now only address a limited audience in Perth, they will later on speak to thousands of listeners-in throughout the country. With regard to costs. The Farmers will make an annual charge of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. will go to the Commonwealth Government for the set license, £1 is for royalties, and the remainder for operating expenses. The "Mulgaphone," a standard listening-in set prepared by the Farmers, will be marketed for £22, and this will serve two persons within a radius of 600 miles, or more if additional head phones are installed at a cost of £1 7s. 6d. each. A loud talker to serve a larger audience is procurable for £23. A more expensive receiving set is procurable for £35 3s. For fuller information application should be made direct to the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., Perth, for their illustrated booklet "Broadcasting."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071785 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1365 |location=Western Australia |date=9 March 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} ht6g271qd2wnp4x4m2imcd27oqg4bk8 4095560 4095556 2022-08-23T21:51:13Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 02 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Daily News journalist fooled by Government and AWA propaganda and finds supporters of the sealed set scheme (see also a knowledgeable response in letter to editor next day) <blockquote>'''"SEALED" RADIO SETS. DO THEY GRANT A MONOPOLY? VIEWS OF EXPERIMENTERS.''' Complaint was recently made by a man who had made himself a wireless set. After the construction of the apparatus was completed he listened-in to broadcasting with satisfactory results, and when he sought official approval for the use of the plant it was withheld, and the man was called upon to either discard his set or adjust it with the aid of expensive apparatus. This morning a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus were interviewed, and in every case they had no fault to find with the regulations of the Commonwealth. It had been stated by the person making the complaint that no other country but Australia adopted the sealed set system, but one wireless enthusiast said that a somewhat similar system had been in force in Germany for a number of years. There the broadcasting service was under the control of the post office, and the receiving-sets were hired out like telephones. Bank managers, stock brokers, and business men generally had them installed, at their country homes, so that they might continually keep in touch with market fluctuations. "Those people," the experimenter said, "don't mind whether the sets are sealed or not. What they want is the service — and they receive it. I wouldn't mind if the Commonwealth came along and sealed down my telephone. I would still be able to put it to its legitimate use; and it is only the service I want." Another experimenter explained the difference between the two classes of receiving licences. There was the licence granted to the bona-fide experimentalist and the one granted to the man who merely wanted the amusement of musical concerts by radio. It was suggested that if the person complaining was capable of building a set, adjusting and working it, he should have little difficulty in securing an experimentalist's licence which would enable him to receive on any wave length, for his set would not be "sealed." Many of the present experimenters were youths upon whom the payment of a broadcasting fee might fall heavily, and this experimenter suggested that the parents or the tenants of the house might club together and pay the several guineas necessary if they wished to take advantage of the boy's set for the purposes of amusement. It was made quite clear, however, that at the present time there was no obligation to do so. "The ordinary wireless experimenter would not be able to make a receiver with a given wave length," another enthusiast said. "Of the total number of licensees holding experimentalists' "tickets" I don't think more than 5 per cent. could make a receiving set which would meet with the approval of the authorities. By this I mean that there is a large number of boys who "potter around" with a plant, but who are unqualified to construct one to given capacity. Of the serious experimenters, however, and there are many who have given many years' study to the business, I think about 75 per cent. in this State could build a plant which would be approved." One trouble which had been experienced was that the authorities would test any plant put before them, but they would not issue drawings and particulars from which a plant of a given wave length could be constructed. The authorities, it was said, were not anxious to know very much about the "internals" of the plant so long as it stood up to the official test. The purpose of this test, it was explained, was to make sure that electricity would not be discharged from it into the ether and thus cause interference, and secondly to ascertain that the plant was capable of being sealed to one wave length, with about a 10 per cent, tuning allowance. A representative of a company interesting itself in broadcasting said he felt sure they would not object to the use of home made plants so long as the broadcasting fee was paid and the plant had been approved by the authorities. Commenting on the complaints generally, he said if inspection was not insisted upon, cheap and nasty materials could be sold; therefore it was in the interests of those who had receiving sets that the regulations operated. It looked to him as if some opposition from the trade was at the bottom of the complaint. It was admitted that a sealed set was more expensive than an unsealed one. There was an extra cost in producing and complying with official requirements. If a mechanic had a free hand he could make a plant much simpler. Possibly an unsealed set could be made for £16, while a "sealed set" might cost £20. Of course sets could be bought cheaper than that, but they would not receive at any great distance. One hundred and fifty guineas could be spent on a set mounted in a cabinet of Queen Anne style, or with Chippendale legs, but the receiving power would be no better than the £20 one. "If we didn't have some restriction," another experimenter said, "our wireless nights would be filled with squeaks and cat-calls caused by oscillations escaping from the aerial and our musical concerts would largely be spoilt. The sealing of the sets is financially necessary to the broadcasting companies. If sets were unsealed and a broadcasting company started, it would be easy for other firms to supply sets by which their customers could listen in to the original broadcasting company without fee. There was nothing so far as he knew to prevent a person building his own receiving set for use in connection with a broadcasting station so long as it was capable of being sealed to the wavelength employed, and it complied with the other departmental restrictions."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78056913 |title="SEALED" RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,229 |location=Western Australia |date=11 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio set as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Lack of amateur broadcasting activity supports need for 6WF <blockquote>'''WHERE ARE THE AMATEURS? This State's Lethargy.''' What's wrong with the W.A. amateur transmitters? Apparently they are still very shy, and our State, when compared with Melbourne and Sydney, is dead. Why? Buck up, you transmitting licence holders, give us some more entertainment regularly from that idle set. It's up to you to fill in the time between now and broadcasting. If you want to get the public interested in wireless, then there must be something for them to listen to. Sad is the case at the present time. How many times have you been asked the question: "What can I hear if I get a wireless set?" "Oh," you answer, "So-and-So will be sending Fri-day, or Sunday, etc." But you can't tell them that they will hear entertainments any night of the week. Oh, no, the new set is brought home and tried out, and no-thing is heard but static (one thing that regularly transmits). Now then, amateurs, there are enough of you in the city and suburban areas to arrange for transmissions every night. Why not make a move at once? Get together, draw up a "roster," and let W.A. be included on the map.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071021 |title=WHERE ARE THE AMATEURS? |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1362 |location=Western Australia |date=17 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== A Dorothy Dixer in the Perth Sunday Times enables new details about 6WF including first advice of actual wavelength <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME. Opening About April.''' A correspondent signing himself S.S. (Perth) asks for information concerning the Westralian Farmers' wireless broadcasting scheme, when it is to commence, the wavelength, times of transmission, etc? Answer. The Westralian Farmers' broadcasting service is to be transmitted on 1250 metres with a power of 5 K.W., and it is expected to commence in April. Amateur transmissions will be as follows:— A. S. Stevens, of 1 Ruth-Street, Perth, every Wednesday, 8 p.m., 430 meters, call signal 6BN; W. E. Coxon, of 306 Bulwer-street, Perth, every Friday and Sunday 8 p.m., 440 meters, call 6AG; C. Cecil, Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie, every Monday and Thursday 8 p.m., call 6AB. In addition, market and weather reports, general news, church services, entertainments, addresses by prominent men, children's bedtime stories, etc., will be broadcasted. Briefly, the service will bring those it serves in direct contact with the outside world. For instance, whereas public men now only address a limited audience in Perth, they will later on speak to thousands of listeners-in throughout the country. With regard to costs. The Farmers will make an annual charge of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. will go to the Commonwealth Government for the set license, £1 is for royalties, and the remainder for operating expenses. The "Mulgaphone," a standard listening-in set prepared by the Farmers, will be marketed for £22, and this will serve two persons within a radius of 600 miles, or more if additional head phones are installed at a cost of £1 7s. 6d. each. A loud talker to serve a larger audience is procurable for £23. A more expensive receiving set is procurable for £35 3s. For fuller information application should be made direct to the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., Perth, for their illustrated booklet "Broadcasting."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071785 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1365 |location=Western Australia |date=9 March 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} etrc3xuvcke6wzpoah75yqpaqbis8af 4095564 4095560 2022-08-23T21:59:46Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* 1924 03 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==6WF Perth - Transcriptions and notes== ===Key article copies=== <!-- This section is for duplicates of chronological entries which include detailed biographies --> ===Non-chronological material=== <!-- This section is for non-chronological material, principally genealogical --> ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== Westralian Farmers, Ltd. annual meeting 1922 makes no reference to future broadcasting plans but does reference the introduction of the voluntary wheat pool which would lead to greater communication needs for its clients and higher costs, a driver for 6WF establishment <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD.''' The eighth annual general meeting of shareholders in Westralian Farmers, Ltd., was held at Perth, on Thursday evening last, October 12. The chairman of directors (Mr. C. W. Harper) presided, and was supported on the platform by the managing director (Mr. Basil L. Murray), and the following directors:— Messrs. J. Hawter, W. Marwick, J. J. Mather, D. Milne, A. P. Sharp, and C. P. Wansbrough; also the auditor, Mr. S. J. McGibbon. Apologies were received from Mr. Tanner, of Beverley, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton. About 120 shareholders were present, and the meeting, from first to last, was most enthusiastic, the chairman and Mr. Murray from time to time affording every possible information in response to inquiries respecting the annual report and the financial statement. The necessary legal preliminaries having been attended to, Mr. Harper read the annual report. This showed that 6,024 shares had been allotted during the year, making the total number of shares issued 68,193, and on which the sum of £59,534 had been paid. The profit as disclosed by the balance-sheet is £6,353 14s 2d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies, the directors recommend a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. on the paid-up capital of the company as at the 31st May, 1922, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. Notwithstanding the diminished figures in crop insurance, due to the lower insurable value of wheat, a substantial increase has been shown in general insurance business. The year has proved to be a record one for losses (principally hail), thus causing the final profit to be lower than anticipated. The company again handled the entire wheat of the State for the 1921-22 season, with satisfactory results. The total wheat handled for the season was 11, 799,600 bushels. Bearing in mind the rapid development of the South-West, the directors have purchased a central block of land in Bunbury, and intend, at an early date, to erect thereon suitable offices in order that a better service may be rendered to members in that area. The directors also have pleasure in announcing that they have decided to enter fully into the wool business. All the Government wool stores at Northe Fremantle have been purchased outright, and structural alterations are being effected to provide thoroughly up-to-date accommodation for the proper appraisement and storage of wool. An experienced manager, has been secured from one of the largest wool houses in Victoria, and everything possible is being done to make this new branch of the company's activities successful. In March last the wheat growers of the State decided in favor of handling the 1922-23 harvest through a Co-operative Voluntary Pool. Subsequently, upon the decision of the Government being announced that it would not continue the State Wheat Pool, details of the Voluntary Co-operative Pool were completed, and Messrs. A. J. Monger, C. W. Harper, B. L. Murray, and J. S. Teasdale were appointed trustees. The company's tender for handling the coming harvest has been accepted by the trustees. The Australian Producers' Wholesale Co-operative Federation, Ltd., for the formation of which the company was largely responsible, is now firmly established in London, and the volume of business handled, amounting to over £2,500, 000, has fully justified the establishment of this important centre of the Producers' Co-operative Organisation. Three representatives — Messrs. Badcock (South Australia), Ibbot (Victoria), and Trethowan (New South Wales) — have completed arrangements at the Federation office, in London, whereby the Western Australian office participates in the handling of all Australian co-operative wheat sent to London. The arrangements made provide for handling separately the wheat shipped by each State. The report and financial statements having been formally adopted, Mr. Harper and Mr. Basil Murray addressed the meeting. The election of directors resulted in Messrs. Harper and Mather being re-elected, and Dr. Boyd, of Geraldton, added to the board. Mr. McGibbon was re-elected auditor under the same conditions as in the previous year. After some important alterations were made to the articles of association, the proceedings closed with an enthusiastic vote of thanks to the directorate and the staff which were acknowledged by the chairman, Mr. Murray, Mr. Mather, and Mr. Hawter. The progress of the co-operative movement in the State was most favorably commented upon by the shareholders present.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83155321 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLI, |issue=14,819 |location=Western Australia |date=16 October 1922 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== Coxon foreshadows the need for a high powered transmitter at Perth to provide a full broadcasting service to the city <blockquote>'''NEWS AND NOTES.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephony.''' — An interesting address on recent advances in wireless telephony was delivered by Mr. W. E. Coxon at the last meeting of the Astronomical Society. After a brief historical sketch of the subject, the lecturer explained that the recent developments, which had made possible the wireless telephone, and the broadcasting of speeches, news, and concerts, depended mainly on the discovery of the device known as the thermionic valve. This permitted the sending out of a continuous wave, in place of the old wireless system, which consisted of a series of waves of very brief duration. The latter could be used for the transmission of the Morse code of dots and dashes, but could not be adapted to convey the modulations of the voice. The lecturer then gave a demonstration of the instrument, a concert being transmitted from a house in Mt. Lawley. Asked whether the device could not be manufactured in a form suitable for use by country people who had no special knowledge of the subject, Mr. Coxon explained that this depended upon the establishment of a suitable broadcasting station in Perth. As yet this did not exist, and in the meantime wireless concerts could only be enjoyed by people with considerable knowledge of the subject and skill in the delicate adjustments required by a receiving set capable of working in conjunction with low powered transmitting plant. A higher powered broadcasting station would make possible the use of receivers requiring much less adjustment, and consequently adapted to use by people with little technical knowledge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622991 |title=NEWS AND NOTES. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,507 |location=Western Australia |date=31 March 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence announces its registered offices <blockquote>'''PUBLIC NOTICES.''' . . . '''TO THE REGISTRAR OF COMPANIES''', Supreme Court, Perth. Take Notice that the REGISTERED OFFICE of WEST RADIO BROADCASTING COMPANY, LIMITED, is situate at TATTERSALL'S CLUB BUILDINGS, 7 Barrack-street, Perth. Office hours, 9 to 5 p.m. on each week day except Saturday when the hours are from 10 a.m. to 12 noon. Dated this 13th day of July, 1923. RICHARD HAYNES and CO., Solicitors for the above-named Company. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22633284 |title=Classified Advertising |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,596 |location=Western Australia |date=16 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The potential competitor for the 6WF A Class licence registers its company <blockquote>'''NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED.''' The following new company has been registered at the Supreme Court during the past week:— West Radio Broadcasting Company Limited; registered office, Tattersall's Club Buildings, 7 Barrack-street, Perth; authorised capital £10,000, in £1 shares.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60009533 |title=NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1332 |location=Western Australia |date=22 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> The Primary Producers' Association in a circular to its agents and branches details Farmers proposals for a broadcasting service <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. W.A. FARMERS' SCHEME CIRCULAR TO AGENTS AND BRANCHES.''' The following circular, which should be read with interest, has been issued by the Primary Producers' Association to its agents and branches:— Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the last 12 months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless receiving set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market news, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to £20 or £30, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programmes, notifying the date and the hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet made public, sufficient is known to permit of preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Limited has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Ltd. building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant, it will be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set programme to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime talks to children," which are generally fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest. Then perhaps the prices relating to produce, in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the satisfactory sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like yon to see farmers in your district with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to instal the plant immediately the Government Regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in America and England to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to instal receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20, would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles, or something; over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct, These figures are only tentative, and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to instal these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets must be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the Broadcasting Company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published; but taking it for granted that £1 1s will be the licensing fee, and that 1000 farmers were to instal the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 a plant they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so, a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment, so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends, advising them the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth Regulations have been published. For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., '''JOHN THOMSON''', Manager Wheat Department, P.S.— In case there may be a misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied the farmers would be quite unable to return messages. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article207313831 |title=W[?]eless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=544 |location=Western Australia |date=26 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a briefer announcement <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Broadcasting.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, propose to erect at their offices in Perth a "broadcasting" plant and farmers who desire to get the benefit of the news and entertainments which it is proposed to send out daily can purchase through the company home "receivers" with which to "listen in." Apart from getting daily quotations of market prices, concerts, music and other forms of entertainment will be "wirelessed" right to one's fireside and the news of the day may be brought to the breakfast table. Fuller particulars may be obtained from the secretary of the Kulin branch of the Primary Producers' Association, who is anxious to know how many persons in the district are desirous of being joined up wirelessly with the whole of the outside world. The cost is said to be a "a mere bagatelle" compared with the service rendered.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157090343 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=774 |location=Western Australia |date=27 July 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 08===== West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd., a potential competitor to Farmers for the Perth A Class licence, gives a backgrounder on current status of broadcasting in Australia <blockquote>'''WIRELESS TELEPHONY. Broadcasting Situation Explained.''' "The keen interest manifested throughout Australia in broadcasting leaves no room for doubt that within a year or two wireless telephones will be installed in every other home, and "listening-in," both for news and entertainment, will be as general and as popular as it is in England and the United States." This opinion was expressed by Mr. L. W. Matters, who returned to Perth on Sunday, after a visit to the Eastern States, where he inquired into every phase of wireless telephony on behalf of the West Radio Broadcasting Company, Ltd. "As soon as those companies which are organised to operate broadcasting services are ready for business," said Mr. Matters, "there will be a rush of subscribers. In New South Wales and Victoria, I found the people eager for the inauguration of the services, and the companies busy preparing to cope with the demand for apparatus. Broadcasting might have been in operation months ago had Australia followed in the steps of the United Kingdom and America, but, very wisely, I think, the Federal Government decided to keep wireless telephony largely under its control and so obviate the confusion and disorganisation witnessed elsewhere. We are to profit, as a country, from the experience and the mistakes of those nations that could not foresee, when wireless telephony became a practical thing, that a phenomenal demand for it would lead to it getting out of hand, so to speak. To avoid this and assure to the Commonwealth an effective system, the conference of experts was held in Melbourne last May, and what may be called a wireless policy for Australia was devised. All those interested in the matter are satisfied that we now have a system as near perfection as could be framed. The Postmaster-General issued the regulations only last week, and everybody I met is quite satisfied with them." What, broadly, is the general effect or these regulations? "In the first place," Mr. Matters replied, the control of all branches of wireless communication is established by the Post Office. Secondly, wireless telephony is given the status of a public service to be conducted under licence by properly organised bodies, which must show their bona fides and give substantial guarantees that they will do what they claim to do. They must operate their stations for at least five years and give such a service as meets with the approval of the Postmaster-General. In turn, these holders of broadcasting licences are to be protected against "poaching," by being authorised to license the owners of wireless receiving sets. A private owner of a wireless telephone will not be allowed to "listen-in" to several broadcasting stations, unless he has several instruments, each one licensed and adjusted to different transmitting stations. This is the meaning of the "sealed set" instrument. A broadcasting company will be authorised to operate on what is known as a specified "wavelength," and every receiving set that takes the service emanating from that company's station must be adjusted accordingly and sealed. The purpose of this is to assure the broadcasting company, the revenue it ought to receive for the service it renders. A dealer's licence must be obtained by every person desiring to sell the essential parts of wireless telephones. Experimenter's licences will be issued to technical schools, institutions and individuals who are genuinely engaged in experimenting, or giving technical instruction in wireless." Do these regulations render obsolete the instruments already in use? "Not necessarily, but no wireless telephone can, in future, be used unless it is permanently adjusted and sealed, in accordance with the conditions laid down in the regulation, so that its use is restricted to "listening-in" to one broadcasting station only. I have seen a circular purporting to give all details about the system. It speaks of coding the news or information that is broadcasted. This is merely another example of the quaint ideas prevailing regarding wireless telephony and the ignorance of those who have been trying to go ahead before they knew what the system for Australia was to be. There is no need for coding when broadcasted information can go only to those who are entitled to receive it by virtue of their having subscribed to a service, and by reason of the fact that only those instruments "tuned" to one transmitter, can pick up what is sent out. This is a necessary protection for the broadcasting company that spends thousands on its station and the provision of its service." What will be the cost of such a service? "The manufacturing company to which the West Radio Broadcasting Company is affiliated calculates that first-class instruments can be made in Australia and sold to private homes for as low as £7 10s. The service subscription is something that cannot be determined at the moment, but, broadly speaking, the cost will not exceed that of the subscription to the ordinary telephone, and, as the number of subscribers increase, the annual fee will be reduced. In England it is one guinea, and for this sum the subscriber gets a daily service of news of all kinds, and an entertainment programme as well." In conclusion, Mr. Matters stated that some weeks must still elapse before broadcasting on any extensive scale can be inaugurated Australia. "Everybody," he said, "has had to wait for the regulations in order to determine what type of apparatus could be manufactured, and sold, and the Postmaster-General has yet to issue the broadcasting licences, which will be granted only under the stringent conditions referred to. Nevertheless, a practical start should be made in Western Australia at a relatively early date, and when the system is in operation, it will, undoubtedly prove singularly attractive to every householder. The service of the West Radio Company will be organised by the States Press Agency, which has been engaged for the past twenty years in broadcasting news over the ordinary land lines."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22622286 |title=WIRELESS TELEPHONY. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,622 |location=Western Australia |date=15 August 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> At a meeting of WA Wireless Traders, Drummond of Westralian Farmers, Ltd. stands back from a proposal for a co-operative to hold the Perth A Class licence <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. Conference of Traders.''' A meeting of electrical traders and wireless radio importers of Western Australia was held on Friday afternoon, in the rooms of Home Recreations. Ltd., 935 Hay-street. Mr. C. P. Knapton (Kellogg Wireless Supply Co.) presided, and amongst those present were Messrs. W. E. Coxon (Coxon and Co.), Wishart (Wireless Supplies Co.), White (Charles Atkins and Co.), Unbehaun (Unbehaun and Johnstone), Truman (George Wills and Co.), H. C. Little (Little and Co.), Fontaine (Amalgamated Wireless Co.), Drummond (Westralian Farmers, Ltd.), '''Scott''' (Chief Commonwealth Radio Officer of Western Australia), Jackman (Ritchie and Jackman), B. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute of West ern Australia), McGillivray (Muir and Co.), and Hadley (secretary of the Subiaco Wireless Club). The chairman explained that the meeting had been called primarily to bring the wireless traders of Western Australia together to discuss the new Commonwealth regulations controlling broadcasting as affecting Western Australia, and, if necessary, to form an association similar to that of the wireless traders of Victoria, and also to assist generally in the development of wireless, telephony and broadcasting in this State. The great future of wireless in Western Australia was not limited to the mere broadcasting of musical concerts in the metropolitan area, but great benefits would accrue to the settlers in the far north and country centres from a utility service of news items and market reports, etc. Owing to misleading statements which had been made recently it would be essential for those present to assist in propaganda regarding the possibilities of wireless, otherwise there was a great danger of the public being deceived and consequently a setback would occur to the future development of wireless in this State. Mr. Scott (Chief Federal Wireless Officer of Western Australia) said that he was attending the meeting more in a private capacity than in an official one, and, consequently, his remarks were purely unofficial. He sketched the new regulations, and gave a considerable amount of valuable information to the meeting. He laid special stress on the fact that the juvenile experimenters had not been fully protected in the new regulations, and said that the juvenile experimenters of today were the wireless operators of tomorrow. He specially desired that those present when taking future action to develop wireless in Western Australia would make provision for the protection of the juvenile experimenters. Referring to the possibilities of wireless in the North-West and other outlying stations, he mentioned that a considerable amount of misunderstanding had arisen in the minds of many large station owners who were anxious to connect their various outlying stations with the main homestead. Under the regulations, as at present constituted, in many cases it would be necessary for the station owners to either apply for a land station licence, which would mean a considerable outlay in capital, or a broadcasting station to rebroadcast messages received from a broadcasting distributing centre. He had received notice to proceed to Melbourne to further consider the regulations, and would be pleased to address a meeting on his return, when he would most likely have much more information to impart. Mr. Truman spoke strongly in favour of the members forming an association to not only protect the interests of the trade, but also the interests of the public, and the development of wireless generally. He recommended that steps should be taken, if possible, to have the regulations amended to suit the Western Australian conditions. Although the regulations were quite suitable for Victoria and New South Wales, which were densely populated, they were not at all adaptable to this State. If necessary, their Federal representatives should he asked to bring the position before the notice of Parliament. Owing to the small population to work on, it was impossible for broadcasting companies to be formed which would give a return to the investors. There was only room for one broadcasting station, and this must be run by people who must be prepared to be philanthropic and not expect to make profit. As there were a number of firms who had considered broadcasting in Perth, he thought that the traders should amalgamate with them and form one broadcasting company, as losses could be written down under the heading of propaganda and advertising. He moved: — "That this meeting, representing the radio traders of Western Australia, form themselves into an association, called the Wireless Development Association of Western Australia." Mr. McGillivray seconded the motion. Mr. Wishart supported the motion, and referred to the steps which were being taken in Victoria by a similar association, which had been formed by the wireless traders of Melbourne. Mr. Coxon and Mr. White also spoke in support of the motion, which was carried unanimously. Mr. Knapton was elected president, and the following were chosen as a committee:— Messrs. Coxon, Wishart, Truman, McGillivray, and Cohen. The committee were asked to carefully study the regulations, etc., and prepare a report for a full meeting to be called at a later date. Mr. Holt (president of the Wireless Institute) addressed the meeting. He regretted that he could not take an active part in the association, which, he considered, would prove in the future to be one of the corner stones in the development of wireless broadcasting in Western Australia. At the conclusion of the meeting a vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Scott for having attended, and hearty good wishes were extended to him upon his proposed trip to Victoria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22632164 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,628 |location=Western Australia |date=22 August 1923 |accessdate=2 April 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 09===== Westralian Farmers Ltd announces further development of its earlier proposals, already clearly committed <blockquote>'''Wireless Telephony. BROADCASTING STATION. PROPOSED ESTABLISHMENT IN W.A.''' We are in receipt of the following particulars regarding the proposed establishment in W.A. by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., of a wireless broadcasting station, which would be a great boon, not only to farmers, but also to squatters and other residents of the remote places of the State:— Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association. Perth, 8th July, 1923. Owing to the delay in finalising Commonwealth Regulations in Australia, few people are aware of the wonderful strides which have been made in wireless telephony within the past twelve months. A station sending out wireless messages makes such messages public property, and anyone with a wireless set "tuned" to the same wave length can hear the messages, and only by the use of codes can they be protected. This fact has been turned to advantage and stations have commenced to cater for the public by "broadcasting." Wonderful developments are being made, and today market pews, concerts, educational matters, sermons, dance music, and in fact anything of interest to the public is being delivered into space for the enjoyment of anyone in possession of a cheap receiving set which may cost from two or three shillings to twenty or thirty pounds, depending upon the distance from the broadcasting station. It is customary for companies who carry out broadcasting to publish weekly programs, notifying the date and hour at which each item will be given, so that those who are looking for entertainment or information may know exactly when to "listen in" for the item in which they are particularly interested. The Commonwealth Government has almost completed its regulations, and while these are not yet public sufficient is known to permit preliminary arrangements being made. The Wheat Department of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. has been put to heavy expense in telegraphing general information to country sidings, and it is anticipated that under the warehousing scheme proposed for next season the expense will be still heavier. After some consideration it was decided to establish wireless communication with country agents, and a broadcasting station will be established at the Westralian Farmers Limited Building. The main function of this station will be to broadcast to agents information connected with the business. This can be done, according to arrangement, at stated times of the day, and codes will be drawn up applying to any private information which would damage the company or the local co-operative companies if it became public. Having established this plant it would be available for additional work in the evenings. The custom has grown in America and England for a set program to be drawn up for every evening of the week, giving probably between 6.30 and 7 "Bedtime Talks to Children," which are usually fairy tales, to be followed by items from the newspaper of general interest, then perhaps the prices relating to produce in which country friends would be interested, and from 8 p.m. music or any other form of entertainment which may be available, varied on Sundays with sermons being preached in cathedrals or leading churches of the city. We cannot help feeling that a service of this kind installed in Western Australia would be the means of affording a great deal of pleasure to our friends in the country, and also would be of benefit in providing them with early news regarding the price of their produce, upon the sale of which they depend for their living. We would, therefore, like you to see farmers in your districts with a view to letting us have their views on the subject, and if it is likely to meet with success, we propose to install the plant immediately the Government regulations are known. We have cabled to our representatives in England and America to secure for us the most satisfactory agency for the supply of the requisite plant, and as soon as definite information is received we will advise you of the prices. In the meantime would you be good enough to ascertain from your farmer friends whether they would be prepared to install receiving plants which would cost from £10 to £20, or for an exceptional plant £30. The installation costing £20 would be capable of receiving from a distance of 2000 miles or something over from Perth in a direct air line. The cheaper sets range about 100 miles from Perth direct. These figures are only tentative and may be reduced or increased. Any indication we receive from farmers of their willingness to install these sets will be subject entirely to their reconsideration when we obtain correct prices. It is understood that the Commonwealth Government Regulations will provide for the Broadcasting Company to use one wave length only, and that the receiving sets be limited to that wave length. Subscriptions and licenses will be paid through the broadcasting company. Exactly what this will mean we cannot tell until the regulations have been published but taking it for granted that £1/1/- will be the licensing fee and that 1000 farmers were to install the plant, this company considers that for a fee not exceeding £4 per plan, they could afford excellent entertainment throughout the year. It may be that the concerts could be supplied at a less cost than this, and if so a corresponding reduction would be made. Until definite information is received, however, we are not in a position to give concrete costs. Would you kindly see the farmers at the earliest possible moment so that we may be in a position to cable our London friends advising them of the number of sets we are likely to require as soon as the Commonwealth regulations have been published? For the Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thomson, Manager, Wheat Department. P.S.— In case there may be any misunderstanding the messages can only be sent from the broadcasting station, and the receiving sets which would be supplied to farmers, would be quite unable to return messages. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LIMITED. Perth, 24th July, 1923. Circular to Agents and Branches of Primary Producers Association, re Wireless Telephony. Country friends are showing interest in the proposals for wireless telephony, and requests have been made for additional information. The point raised is whether only one person can "listen in" with each instrument, or whether a number of people in the same room can hear the concerts and other matter which is being transmitted. A loud talker can be installed. This is somewhat similar to a gramophone horn, and when in use, anyone in the room can listen to it just as in the case of a gramaphone. It is rather more expensive, however, than the other method and is sometimes considered not to give as pleasant a rendering. Some of its faults have been eliminated and it is now being used very largely. In many cases it is installed with the object of receiving and transmitting to the room dance music, and on Saturday nights in some areas the whole evening is given up to dance music. Halls are fitted with loud talkers for this purpose, and the couples dance to the music of a band 50 to 100 miles away. The cheaper method is for a series of telephone ear pieces with head attachments similar to those used by telephone girls. A strap passes across the head bringing a receiver to each ear so that there is no discomfort in holding the receiver to one ear and straining that ear in order to listen to the music. This method can be adopted to a considerable number of people, but of course, the wiring from one to the other is sometimes in the way. Nevertheless, this method is very popular owing to its cheapness and the excellent results it gives. If there is any other information agents require on this subject, kindly let us know and we will supply it immediately. For The Westralian Farmers Ltd., John Thompson, Manager, Wheat Department.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article233300747 |title=Wireless Telephony. |newspaper=[[The Yalgoo Observer And Murchison Chronicle]] |volume= , |issue=138 |location=Western Australia |date=13 September 1923 |accessdate=19 August 2022 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 10===== At the end of their 1923 annual meeting, Westralian Farmers Ltd quietly announces (Basil Murray, Managing Director) that not only have they been granted the licence for Western Australia's first broadcasting service, but also that contracts had been signed for the installation of the transmitter <blockquote>'''WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. ANNUAL MEETING. CONTINUED EXPANSION OF COMPANY. YEAR'S TURNOVER NEARLY £1,000,000.''' The ninth annual meeting of the Westralian Farmers Ltd. was held on Thursday evening at the registered office of the company, Wellington-street; Mr. C. W. Harper (the chairman) presiding. The accounts for the year ended May 31 last showed receipts £186,180 18s. 7d., compared with £164,288 for the 12 months ended May 31, 1922. The profit at £12,016 was nearly double that for the previous year, but was just a little more than half the amount earned during the twelve months ended May 31, 1921. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies the directors recommended that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company, payable at the registered office, on a date to be fixed by the board. They further recommended that the sum of £5,000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance, £1,604 18s. 1d. be transferred to general reserve. In the balance-sheet the company's assets were given as £278,660 9s., of which land and buildings represented £37,455 6s. 7d.; office furniture, fixtures and fittings, £7,245 3s. 10d.; plant and equipment, £10,050 17s. 8d.; wheat dunnage and roofing, £10,957 3s.; investments, £3,228 1s. 9d.; stocks on hand, £31,282 19s. 8d.; sundry debtors, £145,781 19s. 7d.; charges against future trading, £1,301 0s. 1d.; bills receivable £15,836 13s. 1d.; cash in bank (trust account), £17,212 18s. 9d.; cash on hand and on deposit with State Government; £7,808 5s. On the liabilities side paid-up capital totalled £77,313 15s. 2d.; bonus debentures £8,366; shareholders bonus account, £893 0s. 11d. Other items were reserve account, £11,428 14s. 9d.; provision for outstanding liabilities, £4,221 11s. 9d.; sundry creditors, and deposits on current account, £140,280 12s, 4d.; loans and fixed deposits, £13,208 10s.; bills payable, £519 9s. 1d.; Western Australian bank, £10,412 19s. 1d.; contingent liabilities: Bills under discount, £5,928 6s. The chairman said that during the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which, the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. had been paid. In addition bonus debentures amounting to £4,232 were issued. The directors were particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contended that the numerous applications received indicated the confidence of the farming community in the Company. Their duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased. The trustees had expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the very responsible duties of handling the wheat had been carried out by the company. As indicated in the previous report the company entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the National Council of Wool Selling Brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to clients. The directors considered that the outlook for the coming wool season was exceptionally good, and they anticipated that the department would handle a greatly increased quantity. An agreement had been completed with the Graziers Limited, whereby the company had purchased its assets and goodwill and taken over its business. The Graziers Limited had a very large business in live stock, hides and skins, and it was felt that by the amalgamation the company's stock department would be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Arrangements had also been made to take over the Williams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co., Ltd., and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. A large store had been secured and was being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. It was pleasing to report that legislation dealing with the bonus distribution had now passed both Houses of Parliament, and the company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State were thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. He sounded a note of warning regarding the absolute necessity for securing additional capital owing to the continued expansion of the company and its ramifications. Mr. '''Basil Murray''' (managing director) analysed the balance sheet and profit and loss account, itemising for the information of the shareholders the respective departmental profits and losses and the method of apportioning administrative and overhead costs. The cash turnover for the year was nearly one million sterling which emphasised the satisfactory position of the company. For every one pound invested, shareholders possessed, on actual figures, 60s. The company was in a sounder position than ever before in its history. Although at one time the company essayed to supply everything from a "needle to an anchor" it subsequently decided to confine its operations owing to its restricted capital, to essentially farmers' lines, and his analysis of the year's operations showed the wisdom of that course. The purchase of the Graziers Limited was, in his opinion, a most effective method of consolidating the live stock and hides and skins business of the company, operating closely in connection with the successfully established wool department. The purchase of the premises known as Eastwoods Limited, adjoining the company's property, in Wellington-street, which would ultimately be required for a machinery show room and workshops, was also a very sound and satisfactory investment on account of the shareholders. Owing to an unfortunate oversight the annual report did not contain any reference to the activities of the fruit department and particularly to its export operations and the satisfactory disposal of fruitgrowers' produce through the London house of the Overseas Farmers' Co-operative Federation, and to the exploiting of the fruit market of the Near East. '''He announced that the first licence under Commonwealth Government regulations for wireless broadcasting in this State was to be issued to the company and the board had that day signed contracts for the installation on the company's premises of the necessary apparatus.''' The report and statement of accounts were adopted. Messrs. Warwick, Milne and Tanner were re-elected directors and Mr. Sinclair J. McGibbon was reappointed auditor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31193792 |title=WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,673 |location=Western Australia |date=13 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, a less interpretive version of the annual report <blockquote>'''FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND, CONTINUED. WESTRALIAN FARMERS LTD. Directors' Report.''' The full text of the directors' report submitted at the annual general meeting of shareholders of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., held in Perth on the 11th inst., was as follows:— "Your directors have pleasure in submitting this, their ninth annual report, for the financial year ended May 31, 1923. "During the year 11,577 ordinary and 10,431 bonus shares were allotted, the total number of shares issued being 90,201, on which the sum of £77,312 15s. 2d. has been paid. In addition, bonus debentures amounting to £4232 were issued. "Your directors are particularly pleased with the response given by farmers generally to the new issue of shares, and contend that the numerous applications received indicate the confidence of the farming community in the company. The profit as disclosed by the balance sheet is £12,016 15s. 11d. After providing for redemptions and other contingencies your directors recommend that a dividend at the rate of 7 per cent. be paid on the paid-up capital of the company as at May 31, 1923, payable at the registered office, the date of payment to be left to the discretion of the board. They further recommend that the sum of £5000 be distributed to members in accordance with the articles, as a bonus on trading, and that the balance be transferred to general reserve. "Our duties as sole acquiring agents for the trustees of the Co-operative Wheat Pool were, in comparison with those imposed by the Government in past seasons, considerably increased, the entire responsibility for the care and handling of the wheat being borne by us. The trustees have expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which these very responsible duties have been carried out. As indicated in our former report, we entered the wool business last year, and presented catalogues at each of the sales arranged by the national council of wool selling brokers. Although the business done in this direction was small in this our opening season, your directors can state with every confidence that it was conducted in a manner thoroughly satisfactory to all those clients who entrusted their clips to us. The directors consider that the outlook for the coming wool season is exceptionally good, and they anticipate that the department will handle a greatly increased quantity. "An agreement has been completed with the Graziers Limited whereby your company has purchased its assets and goodwill and takes over its business. Your board desires to express its appreciation of the extremely friendly manner in which the directors of the Graziers Limited have dealt with this matter. The Graziers Limited has a very large business in livestock, hides, and skins, and it is felt that by the amalgamation our Stock Department will be greatly strengthened both in turnover and the personnel of its staff. Owners of livestock can therefore rest assured that any business entrusted to us will be efficiently handled. "Arrangements have also been made to take over the Willlams-Narrogin Farmers' Co-op. Co. Ltd, and for the opening of a branch of the Westralian Farmers Limited at Narrogin. It was felt that this important centre required more vigorous organisation than could reasonably be expected from a local co-operative company. A large store has been secured, and is being put in order for the purpose of carrying sufficient bulk stocks to serve the whole of the surrounding territory. "It is pleasing to be able to further report that legislation dealing with bonus distribution has now passed both Houses of Parliament, and your company, as well as the local co-operative companies throughout the State, are thus enabled to satisfactorily distribute profits as a bonus on trading. "In conclusion, your directors are convinced that the company has progressed on sound and satisfactory lines during the year under review, and is more firmly established than ever throughout the State. They record with keen pleasure their appreciation of the loyal service rendered by the officers and staff, also the generous hospitality extended to the company's representatives during the year by the local co-operative companies and many other friends in the farming community." During the course of the managing director's (Mr. Murray) remarks he announced that he had been advised that in the opinion of the responsible authorities the Westralian farmers Limited was the most suitable applicant for permission to establish a wireless broadcasting system throughout the State, and announced, amidst applause, that the first license in the State under the Commonwealth Government regulations was to be issued to the company. Further announcements would be made at an early date.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58075386 |title=FOR THE MAN ON THE LAND CONTINUED |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1345 |location=Western Australia |date=21 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=5 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thomson of Westralian Farmers paints a detailed picture of background and future of their broadcasting station for a reporter from the Perth Daily News <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN" WIRELESS TELEPHONES FOR FARMERS. BROADCASTING SCHEME NEARING COMPLETION. FEBRUARY WILL SEE IT WORKING.''' Tea had finished on the farm. "Father" stretched himself after his long day's work and walked into the sitting-room, while the remainder of the family, excepting his school-going son, cleared away the table utensils. Filling and lighting his pipe, the farmer reached for a telephone headpiece hidden behind a short curtain. Clipping it over his ears he relapsed into an easy chair, and drew towards him a pad of paper and a pencil in case he wanted to make notes. "The wheat market is rising. An advance of 2d. a bushel is expected within the week," comes a voice over the 200 miles of ether. Other market reports of vital interest was are given to him. Half an hour later the remainder of the family trooped in, and, with the four earpieces, listened to a concert at one of Perth's theatres. On Sunday night the family — probably excepting "Father," who was busy with his books — listened to a sermon by a prominent divine. This, briefly, is the picture painted by Mr. J. Thomson, of the Westralian Farmers Ltd., who this morning explained to a representative of this paper what was being done with their scheme of broadcasting for farmers. "Many years ago, when I was a wheat inspector," he said, "I found it difficult to give farmers up-to-date information concerning markets and other matters. Particularly was this so in the busy part of the year, when the golden grain was pouring in. We all realised that a slight alteration in the wheat market had a tremendous effect on the farmers, because during January and February probably two-thirds of the whole harvest is delivered. If the farmer is out of touch with the markets his income for the year is probably seriously affected. "At that time I had carried out a few experiments in wireless telegraphy, and I could see that in the future the invention would be of considerable value to outback farmers. The discovery of the Armstrong valve, which is in appearance something like an ordinary electric light globe, revolutionised the wireless telephone and made its operation almost as easy as the controlling of a gramophone. "Unfortunately since that discovery Commonwealth regulations prevented any active steps being taken, until the agreement was come to a short time ago. When the regulations came out the Westralian Farmers Ltd. immediately got into touch with the Commonwealth Government and the Amalgamated Wireless Ltd., and a representative of the latter company came to W.A. to investigate the matter. "Mr. Basil Murray, our managing director, has always been enthusiastic over the possibilities of providing farmers who are distant from the centres of civilisation with up-to-date information regarding market fluctuations, and also in providing them with some form of entertainment. He put the matter to many country residents, and found it met with their approval. Backed with this confidence, Mr. Murray placed an order with the Amalgamated Wireless for a 2-3 kilowatt plant. When this became known many pastoralists expressed a desire to join in the scheme, and the consequence is that upon their promise of support a larger plant, a 5-6 kilowatt plant was substituted." "The installation will be in the building of the Westralian Farmers, which is admirably suited for the purpose. The masts of the aerial will stand 180ft. above the top of the roof and the aerial will be 175ft. long. On the top floor the operating room, reception room, and concert room are about to be erected. The concert room is being built in such a manner that there will be no reflection of sound on hard surfaces, and thus the voice will be made distinct. The concert room will be used for broadcasting items when there are no suitable entertainments at theatres in Perth. At the present time consideration is being given to the preparation of a time table allocating to certain hours certain classes of information and amusement. One strong feature of the broadcasting will be the possibility of transmitting to farmers speeches made by notable visitors to the State. "Under Commonwealth regulations dealers in apparatus have to be licensed, and can only supply persons with a licence to "receive." Further, the apparatus must be sealed to a certain wave length, which will correspond to the broadcasting station. Dealers in Western Australia are now anxiously awaiting the declaration of the wave length to enable them to construct plants. In order that farmers may be sure of obtaining suitable receivers, the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who for many years has been experimenting in wireless work, and has attained some fame in Australia for his results. The firm is now importing from England the necessary parts for assembling of instruments for the use of farmers in outback districts." "The cost of a receiving set will depend to a large extent on the distance the farmer is from the broadcasting station. Generally speaking, over a 300-mile radius the set, which we propose to assemble ourselves, will cost in the neighborhood of £20. Other fees for licence, royalty and subscription to the broadcasting station will amount to about £4 4s. "Already we have received several hundred applications from farmers, and we anticipate that by February 1, when we hope to have the plant in operation, we will have at least 1,000 farmers "listening in." "The usual receiving set provides for ordinary batteries which require frequent recharging, but the set we propose to provide is made a little more expensive owing to the fact that it will include a primary battery, which will last six months without recharging. The "dull emitter" valves, too, are nearly double the price of ordinary ones. Those who are electrically inclined and have motor cars of course should find little difficulty in recharging the batteries. "Oh, yes," Mr. Thomson said in conclusion, "this scheme should make conditions on the farms much more happy for all concerned, and should provide the farmer with valuable up to the minute information of the markets." A sample of the apparatus was exhibited. It is certainly no larger than an ordinary table gramophone, and is so simple in operation that a school boy could operate it. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78324280 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLII, |issue=15,139 |location=Western Australia |date=27 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=9 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details of the 6WF service in the West Australian <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. Western Australian Scheme.''' The extension of the use of wireless telephony in broadcasting services is expected to brighten the lot of the farming community, by removing some of the disabilities of isolation. Rapid advances made since the introduction of the Armstrong valve now provide comparatively cheap means for men on the land to keep in touch with current affairs. A service of this kind is to be put in operation by Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and a transmitting plant will be erected on the building occupied by that organisation in Wellington-street, Perth. Following upon recommendations by the representative of Amalgamated Wireless, Ltd., Sydney, a contract has been let for the erection of the necessary aerials, and the installation of the transmitter proper. In addition to operating rooms, accommodation will be made available, so that concerts or addresses may be delivered, specially for broadcasting. It is also intended to take advantage of the visits of notable persons, and to broadcast their utterances. Efforts will be made to arrange for connection with the principal theatres and churches to the same purpose. Originally it was planned to instal a 2-3 kilowat transmitter, capable of being received through average receivers up to 300 miles. As a result of overtures by pastoralists, that plan was abandoned, and it was resolved that the transmitter should have a range of 600 miles, and, accordingly, a 5-6 kilowat transmitter — the maximum power permitted by the Commonwealth Government — will be erected. The masts will rise 180 feet above the roof of the building, and the aerials (squirrel cage type) will be 175 feet long. Fortunately, the position of the building is such that the greatest distribution can be obtained. Numerous patent rights for receiving sets are held in Australia, but, after full investigation, it has been decided that the most economical method of supplying farmers with receivers will be to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and assemble them in Perth. The services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who has taken a leading part in broadcasting in Western Australia, have been secured by the company. Under Mr. Coxon's supervision a sample set has been manufactured, and it is expected that the cost to the farmers will be reduced by one third. The response of the farmers in connection with the scheme has been gratifying, and the general opinion is that the men on the land will benefit materially. The fact that wireless receivers cost no more than ordinary gramophones, and can be used for different purposes, is said to be fully appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article31196850 |title=WIRELESS FOR FARMERS. |newspaper=[[The West Australian]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=6,688 |location=Western Australia |date=31 October 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 11===== Further background from Murray <blockquote>'''LOCAL AND GENERAL.''' . . . '''Wireless Broadcasting.'''— Mr B. L. Murray, in explaining the system, says:— "It had been decided to introduce broadcasting in Australia under certain defined regulations, and the officer appointed to investigate the claims of applicants for licenses to conduct this wireless business had recommended The Westralian Farmers Limited as being the best people to conduct the business in Western Australia. They possessed an ideal building, and a huge mast was to be erected on the roof. Every farmer who purchased a receiver set would be able to enjoy the privileges following this installation of wireless broadcasting. The fact that the board of the Westralian Farmers would settle contracts on the following morning for the establishment of broadcasting in the State would do more to break down the disadvantages and isolation of the farmer than anything else. The advantages of broadcasting were enormous, both for the company and its shareholders."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article204749311 |title=LOCAL AND GENERAL |newspaper=[[The Moora Herald And Midland Districts Advocate]] |volume=9, |issue=558 |location=Western Australia |date=1 November 1923 |accessdate=20 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further announcements, including that a battery will be available for receivers that will only need recharging every six months! <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING. FOR FARMERS.''' A matter of great interest to farmers is the news that the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., are going to instal a wireless broadcasting transmitter on the roof of their building in Wellington Street, Perth, during the first week of February next. This installation will be capable of transmitting messages over a radius of 600 miles, which is the limit set by the Commonwealth Act. In connection with receiving sets for individual farmers, this enterprising company has decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building, thus enabling them to sell the instruments at a cost within the reach of the majority of farmers. We understand that the cost of these sets, which will embody the best material and guarantee good results, will cost approximately £20. Furthermore, the ordinary receiving sets have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight; obviously the recharging of these batteries in the remoter country districts would be very difficult, and in many cases impossible. Therefore, the company has acquired a more expensive battery which will last for six months, and, although costing considerably more than the ordinary battery, will adequately compensate for the increased price, by greater convenience, and more efficient service. Farmers and pastoralists in the remoter districts of the State, will now, by means of wireless, be enabled to keep completely in touch with cur-rent affairs, and to hear immediately of news, concerts, and addresses which take place in the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article211231187 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Tambellup Times]] |volume=IX, |issue=985 |location=Western Australia |date=7 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> News of 6WF travels to Mullewa <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. MULLEWA BRANCH.''' A meeting of this branch was held on Saturday, October 27th. In the absence of the president, Mr. H. B. Peet was voted to the chair. . . . Mr. Raven gave a very interesting address on wireless telephony. When in Perth recently, he had listened in to a wireless demonstration, which was held in a large room, and one could hear every word distinctly, sounding very much like a large gramophone. He detailed the various wave lengths, which carry much faster by night than day, and also stated that a paper had been established, named the "Western Wireless," which no doubt, in time, would attain a wide circulation. Wireless broadcasting was a magnificent enterprise by the Westralian Farmers' Ltd., which meant that all agricultural communities could now be linked by wireless. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66927652 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS' ASSOCIATION. |newspaper=[[Geraldton Guardian]] |volume=XVI, |issue=4233 |location=Western Australia |date=8 November 1923 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Further details about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. PROGRESS OF THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' LTD. INSTALLATION.''' (From "The Primary Producer.") Matters in connection with the establishment of the wireless installation by The Westralian Farmers Ltd. are progressing well. There has been some delay in finalising the matter owing to the difficulty in getting down to bedrock on account of numerous patents and other matters which interfere with free trading in wireless. The firm has, however, at last been able to see daylight, and has definitely ordered a wireless broadcasting transmitter. This will be erected during the first week in February, and will be of sufficient power to transmit messages over a radius of 600 miles. The original intention was to limit this to 300 miles, but at the special request of the pastoralists, who have offered to put up sufficient capital to pay for the additional cost, it has now been decided to erect the strongest permitted to be used under the Commonwealth Act. Farmers are naturally interested in the receiving sets, and the firm is at present engaged upon drawing up the price list, giving full information. We may say that the set standardised by Amalgamated Wireless Ltd. for Australia is called the "Radiola," and is a very high class instrument, the cost of same being £32. As this would be too high priced for many farmers, the firm has secured the services of Mr. W. E. Coxon, who is the leading exponent of wireless transmission in Western Australia, and has gone into the details connected with making his own sets. The Westralian Farmers' Ltd. have decided to import the necessary parts from Great Britain, and to adjust and assemble them in their own building. By this means, after paying all royalties, duty, etc., they will be able to sell to the farmers a broadcasting set at approximately £20. This set will be of such a kind as will guarantee good results to the farmers. It would be possible to cheapen the set by putting other than the best material into it, but it has been decided that this would be wrong policy, as a few pounds difference in the price would not be compensated for by the dissatisfaction which would be caused to the farmers. In other ways the convenience of the farmers outback has been considered. For instance, the ordinary sets sold have storage batteries which have to be recharged at least once a fortnight. The firm is putting in a more expensive primary battery, which will last for six months, but this also entails the use of what are known as dull emitter valves, the cost of which is approximately double that of the ordinary valve. These two items, alone, run into several pounds difference in price, but it is considered that farmers will appreciate the extra convenience, as charging an ordinary storage battery in the country would, in many cases, be impossible, and in most difficult.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article259109413 |title=UIRELESS FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA. |newspaper=[[The Geraldton Express]] |volume=XLV |location=Western Australia |date=21 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Call magazine opines that broadcasting in Australia is coming too slowly and receivers are too expensive (sealed sets) <blockquote>'''BROADCASTING BUNGLERS. How Australia Lags Behind. While All the World is "Listening In" :: The Commonwealth is Still Asleep :: What Broadcasting Will Do :: For Our Scattered Population :: The Government Must Help''' Some months ago we read in the dailies those regulations regarding "wireless" which the Federal authorities deemed it wise to issue. It was the comfortable belief of many that once these regulations were gazetted we would be "broadcasting" in this State. Somehow or other this has not happened. '''HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS LISTENING IN.''' We know from a recently returned visitor to Britain that there are hundreds of thousands of "listeners in" there. Great Britain is supposed to be a slow country. Now, if Britain can support "broadcasting," so can we, on a smaller scale. And the audience is here for it. The Westralian Farmers have announced their intention of supplying "broadcast" messages in the New Year. That is good hearing. But it is not enough. Because this pioneering company says that "receiving sets" will cost £20 each. Now, that is not a large sum but it means an expenditure that many cannot afford — many of those who would like to "listen in" and who really are entitled to benefit from this latest advancement of science. It is from this aspect that we look at broadcasting. '''OUTBACKER'S CHANCE.''' Those of us who are city dwellers probably will have little trouble in getting into touch with the wonders of the air. But are our friends in the country going to be so fortunately situated? Present indications seem to point to this fact:— Listening in is going to be rather an expensive business in this country. If this should be so, it will be regrettable, because there are few countries where "broadcasting" will be better appreciated. It is going to make a wonderful change in the lives of our outback folk. It will not merely amuse them on those dull nights when there is "nothing doing," but it will bring them intimately into touch with those smaller amenities of civilisation that they miss (to some extent) through being out in "the bush." '''WHERE THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD HELP.''' What seems to this paper to be very desirable is that receiving sets should be available at least to outback residents at a very slight cost. Of course this will not happen all at once. But it certainly seems that if ever there was justification for the Federal Parliament to serve the people, here is the time and opportunity. Just think what "broadcasting" is going to mean to Australia! The great problem of our country is to get people settled, really settled, on our vacant spaces. We have many such spaces; we can do with many such settlers. But how are the settlers in the city and the settlers in the country ever to get really into touch? Broadcasting will do this. '''WEARING WIRELESS TELEPHONES.''' This paper believes that in the very near future every citizen of major years will be wearing a wireless telephone in his pocket, just as he wears a watch. That is not an extravagant prophecy. But we can only get there by gradual approaches. Broadcasting will help greatly. It is far past the experimental stage. It is in operation throughout Britain and America. France was in it before Britain woke up. And Germany, as usual, stole America's brains. The South Americans on the Atlantic and Pacific sides of their country are awake to the value of broadcasting. In fact, the Esquimaux of Greenland are listening in to concerts at Stockholm. And we in Australia don't know broadcasting yet. '''A FEW APOSTLES.''' A few earnest seekers after scientific facts are in our midst as a "wireless club." They know a great deal about the possibilities of this wonderful discovery. But they cannot bring it close to the people because that is outside their scope. Our central Government must subsidise receiving sets. Cut out the duty on them. Cut out landing charges. Cut out all "overhead." Let the people have listening-in apparatus at the lowest rates. Then private enterprise will supply them with their entertainment and commercial requirements. '''IT MUST COME.''' Broadcasting must be a big thing in this State. We should all be working together to establish this marvel of science in our midst on the right lines.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210901203 |title=BROADCASTING BUNGLERS |newspaper=[[Call]] |issue=491 |location=Western Australia |date=23 November 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 12===== In West Dukin, the farmers are still waiting on a telephone line, let alone 6WF <blockquote>'''WEST DUKIN NOTES.''' Despite the fact that the Westralian Farmers have nearly finished their arrangements for installing a wireless broadcasting plant, West Dukin farmers take a more practical view of different matters. Whilst admitting that, from a social standpoint, wireless would be an undoubted boon, it cannot be seen how wireless in its present state will benefit the farmer in his occupation. A move was made about two months ago with a view to obtaining a branch telephone installed locally. Arrangements have proceeded satisfactorily and the manager of Telephones, Perth, has given every encouragement to further the scheme. The Telephone Department pointed out that they would be quite prepared to construct a trunk line from Dukin in the direction of West Dukin, at a cost of £1500 providing that the farms were well established and the facility was considered a public necessity. Concerning these two items there is little to be feared as West Dukin is considered to be one of the most progressive districts in the locality. Of eleven farms adjoining, nine are occupied by returned soldiers, this being regarded somewhat as a record. Regarding the question of the telephone being a public necessity there is not a doubt. Every settler in the district has promised to become a subscriber in the event of a line being erected. With a view to discussing the question of telephones, a special meeting of the West Dukin Primary Producers' Association was held at their social club's grounds on the 2nd inst. The meeting was well attended and much enthusiasm was shown over the proposed scheme. After considerable discussion, it was decided to arrange with the Tele phone Department to have an officer visit the locality with a view to inspecting the proposed route, also to discuss the scheme more fully. At the conclusion of the meeting West Dukin Cricket Club held a practice match. What was lacking in form was made up by the spirit displayed. It was decided to issue a challenge to the Booralaming team, the match to eventuate on on the 23rd. inst. Afternoon tea was kindly supplied by the ladies and was much appreciated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article260103948 |title=WEST DUKIN NOTES |newspaper=[[The Northam Advertiser]] |volume=XXXI, |issue=2952 |location=Western Australia |date=8 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Westralian Farmers building the site of a receiver for a broadcast by Coxon <blockquote>'''PEEPS at PEOPLE.''' . . . One of the first in W.A. to sing and speak into a broadcasting wireless set was Peter Roxby, of the W.A.G. Railways. From the installation of Mr. W. E. Coxon, in North Perth, Mr. Roxby and Gwladys Edwards broadcasted mellifluous numbers to all capable of receiving them per the intervening ether. One of the metropolitan receiving sets was in the Westralian Farmers' building, the other being at Mr. Darling's home in South Perth. At both these and hundreds of others the artists were distinctly heard, answers coming from places as far apart as Albany and Meekatharra, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie, Leonora, and Esperance that every note and word of the wireless was heard and enjoyed. Truly Marconi is making the world small!<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071600 |title=PEERS at PEOPLE |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1352 |location=Western Australia |date=9 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In WA all broadcasting roads lead to Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN.''' "Ananias" writes:— Let me trespass on your generosity once again. We are greatly struck by the progress of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting. We want to install a listening-in set, and what we want to know is (1) Where are they sold? (2) What does the cheapest one cost? (3) Is there any literature on the subject as it concerns amateurs? (4) Are there any official restrictions to deter the installation of a wireless receiving set, after the registration fee of 10s. per annum is paid? Hoping this catechism does not worry you too much, and thanking you for past advice. My suggestion is that you write to the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Wellington-street Perth, for full information about their broadcasting wireless scheme. I think that it is only through them you will be able to secure facilities for listening-in. It is useless having a wireless installation unless you are in touch with a distributing system. You can procure books on wireless from any bookseller. Messrs. Alberts and Sons, Ltd., 180 Murray-street, have sent me a long list of the prices ranging from 1s. 6d. to 21s. plus postage. The following are a few: — The Wireless Man, by Collins, 5s., Wires and Wireless, 2s., Radio and Everybody, 8s., Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless, 4s. 6d. The A.B.C. of Radio, 1s. 6d. It must be remembered that wireless work is complicated and one who wishes to understand it must start at the beginning. The scheme being installed by the Westralian Farmers will be like the telephone system. The subscriber need know little or nothing of the reasons, construction and mechanism. He will pay for the installation and the rent of the apparatus, and will simply have to follow the rules given him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37631994 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING AND LISTENING-IN. |newspaper=[[Western Mail]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=1,976 |location=Western Australia |date=13 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another announcement about 6WF <blockquote>'''WIRELESS BROADCASTING.''' The Westralian Farmers, Ltd., have shown their enterprise in the interests of their thousands of country clients, and the community generally, by arranging that the fine building owned and occupied by them in Wellington-street, Perth, shall be known as "Western Australia's First Broadcasting Centre." On the roof of this building will be erected the masts and adjuncts, which will be the only sign of the message flowing from that centre to nearly all parts of Western Australia. The steel masts will rise to a height of 100ft. clear above the building, the span between them being about 170ft. With the transmitting plant of five kilowatts, the maximum allowed under the Commonwealth regulations, messages can reach practically the whole of the population of Western Australia. The distance at which messages can be received is decided not only by the power of the transmitting station, but also by the sensitiveness of the reception plant. With a comparatively simple valve set messages should be received clearly at a distance of 600 miles away, and if conditions are favorable at 800 miles. The limit when cost and difficulty of adjustment make reception prohibitive would be reached at possibly 1500 miles from Perth in a direct air line. The Westralian Farmers, Ltd, have retained the services of that well-known wireless expert, Mr. W. S. Coxon, and are now taking orders for their broadcasting receiver, which will be known as the "Mulgaphone." It is understood that the service will be in operation next February.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58069371 |title=WIRELESS BROADCASTING. |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1353 |location=Western Australia |date=16 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=3 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''KULIN KOMMENTS.''' . . . '''Wireless Telephones.''' The Westralian Farmers, Limited, expects to be ready in February next to start broadcasting and those interested in "listening in" should at once communicate with Mr. L. Ellson (secretary) Primary Producers' Association (Kulin branch) to obtain full particulars for the installation of the necessary instruments. The ad-vantages to be derived from this system are not yet understood in Australia but by reading what is done elsewhere one may get some idea of the benefit of getting market quotations, weather forecasts, concert items, speeches and sermons as well as the news of the world by simply putting a receiver to the ear in one's own house at various times during the day or night.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article157091432 |title=KULIN KOMMENTS. |newspaper=[[Great Southern Leader]] |volume=XV, |issue=795 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=22 August 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A report of the radio scene in Kansas sets high expectations for 6WF in WA <blockquote>'''THE RADIO. MARKET REPORTS SHOUTED TO YOU ON THE FARM.''' Mr H. Griffiths writes as follows: "Sir.— In view of the early initiative of wireless telephony by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., a letter and cutting I have received from a friend of mine in Kansas City, has caused me to compile from them the following article. My friend in writing says: "The cutting I send you makes somewhat startling reading, but it pictures very accurately the effect this wonderful invention is having on town and country life. I know your interest in farming matters, and have sent this as likely to be of interest to your farmer friends." I am sending it along to you (Mr Griffiths continues) for publication. Radio is very near us now, and 'tis time we began to realise what is coming" — '''(Enclosure)''' "This is what caught me." When I moved near the town of Oswego, in Southern Kansas, I went one morning, shortly after settling down, into town to mail a letter by the 10 25. In the mail office from a desk against the wall a radio horn was calling off the livestock markets as distinctly as if it were a man standing there and talking. Says I to myself, "This looks good business to have one of these contraptions on my farm, I'll go and hunt around and see what's doing." I found much more than that for Oswego is fairly saturated with radio. There is a free radio programme every weekday and night in 25 business houses and offices and in 56 homes in the town, and from morning until midnight radio horns are singing, lecturing, telling items of news from every part of the country, shouting base ball scores, and rendering all sorts of musical programmes from everywhere. I went from the Post across to Frick's drug store, and a loud speaker back near the prescription case was calling out the grain markets. Passing Woolverson's drug store, I heard the weather reports coming in. I went into Wilkerson's store for a lead pencil, and I heard a voice from a radio horn telling the condition of the roads. For a half hour that noon in Burge's cafe I ate luncheon to radio music. Between 2 and 3 o'clock that afternoon I went to Loper's barber's shop, and while he shaved me I listened to a popular musical concert. Between 3.30 and 4.30 I went into Van Alstines store and saw 20 women listening to the Kansas City Stars matinee of classical music. Between 7 and 10 concerts were in full blast from Dallas, Forth Worth, Detroit, Davenport, Winnipeg, and Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. I went in next day and arranged for a receiving set to go on my farm, and I found the whole town listening to the baseball score from a game between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs. Oswego is the home of Earl Hamilton, pitcher for the Pirates. I went to his mother's house that day and talked with her, while the radio horn on the piano called off the score and every move of her son in the game. "It's just like I was watching Earl play," said she. '''Fredonia.''' "A year ago we installed a radio set to receive market reports for the country farm bureau and for all towns in the country." We here in Fredonia send the radio service out over the telephone system, much the same way as it is sent over the electric light wires in Oswego. This plan was originated by J A Gustafson, manager of the Fredonia Telephone Company, who went on to inform a reporter, "Every evening we received concerts, and such crowds came to hear them, that we connected a line from the receiving set to our switchboard. Then any of our 1,100 subscribers might call in from their homes and have the operator connect them with our radio set, and without extra cost or any kind of extra equipment, they may hear the market reports, concerts, or whatever is going on." We have 300 subscribers out in the country, and they have our schedule and know when markets are coming in. All they have to do is to listen over the telephone. Our big day is Sunday, when everybody wants to hear the religious services. As an experiment we put a loud speaker in one of our drug stores and attached to a special wire in our telephone cable that was connected with our radio set. This attracted such crowds to the drug store that others wanted it, and we extended the service by putting loud speakers in 60 business places, homes and offices, We have applications from 200 more homes that want the service." '''A Typical Farmer's Opinion of Radio on His Farm.''' Mr E T Wright, of Labette County is cited because he is typical of thousands of farmers who have installed radio sets, not so much for the market reports as to furnish entertainment and banish lonesomeness and isolation. Wright is 70 years old. He has lived on the same farm 50 years, but it's entirely different since radio came. "I'll tell you how I came to instal it," he said. "You see my wife and I are alone; our children are grown up, married, on their own farms; we are getting along in years, so one night last fall as we sat alone, I was reading about radio. I suggested to my wife that this radio service is just the thing we wanted; here we sit alone through these long evenings and all these concerts and lectures are going through the air, over the roof, and we are not hearing any of it. Let's get a radio set and hear what is going on in the world. Ma didn't think much of it; didn't think it would be possible to hear over it, but I was thinking more about her than myself; you know a woman on a farm gets more lonesome than a man. The very next day I went to town and paid 150 dollars for this receiving set." In answer to a query how far he could hear with it Wright replied, "The farthest I ever heard was Havana Cuba. Last night we listened to a Grand opera sung in a theatre in Chicago and it was as clear and loud as if we had been right there." He said he could tune Detroit, Columbus, Minneapolis, Denver and different stations in Texas when he wanted to." Mrs Wright questioned as to whether she liked it said, "I couldn't do without it. It's great company for me, I'm not lonesome any more." Mr Wright continuing said, "A summary of the markets and a little music to liven it up comes in at noon and I can hear it as I eat my dinner; but the best fun is at night twisting the nobs on it and fishing round in the air for different broadcasting stations, it is like fishing in a grab bag for a prize, you don't know what you are going to get. It may be one of those jazz bands down in Dallas or a tune on a fiddle at Columbus, or a grand opera from Chicago or a minstrel troupe from Kansas City, or a speech from a big bug in St. Louis, but the best of all is on Sunday. That was always a lonesome day for us. Now we have some neighbours in and fish around for good music and sermons. We get some fine organ music on Sundays, big church organs that fill the house with music and church choirs singing. Last Sunday I tuned in on five different church services. I like to hear what all these different preachers have to say. There is the latter day saints up in Independence, they are the old Mormons you know, I had read so much against them that I was prejudiced, but I find that they preach the same gospel as others. We get Roman Catholic sermons and Episcopal, Methodist and Baptist, and all denominations and they are all good Christian Doctrine. It makes a man broad in his religious views, when he hears them all. There are no creed lines in the air and so radio services are making people more tolerant; but the best Church Service comes from Atlanta. It's an old fashioned service with the Preacher lining out the hymns, the same old tunes that I used to sing in Church 40 years ago. We sit in front of the horn and join in singing with that congregation down in Atlanta, and when the Preacher prays we all bow our heads too. I trust readers will enjoy this article and be made alive to the closeness of the big change now near. The imagination falters in measuring the full significance of radio. Forces of no less promise have written strange history. In the grain and produce markets alone wonders will be accomplished. It will not be long before the farmer in the field follows the course of the daily market as closely as the merchant on the trading floor. The magic is his, he merely stretches phantom fingers in the air and pulls it down."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article206570857 |title=THE RADIO. |newspaper=[[The Southern Argus And Wagin-arthur Express]] |volume=XVII, |issue=951 |location=Western Australia |date=21 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 (Supplement to Southern Argus) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Another report of the imminent commencement of 6WF, ultimately proving inaccurate <blockquote>'''RURAL TOPICS.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers expect to start broadcasting concerts, market reports, news, etc., per wireless about the end of January. About £10,000 is to be spent on the plant, which is being installed by experts, and which will be, according to reports, stronger than the Applecross station. Mr. A. J. Leckie (Mus. Bac.) is arranging a series of concerts for the year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58068829 |title=RURAL TOPICS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1355 |location=Western Australia |date=30 December 1923 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 (Second Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1924==== =====1924 01===== Westralian Farmers now stating that 6WF would commence in February <blockquote>'''PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION. BALINGUP BRANCH.''' . . . The Westralian Farmers wrote that they contemplated starting to broadcast in February next. Sets for listening in, and full information re wireless could be obtained from the branch secretary, or the local co-op.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759558 |title=PRIMARY PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Mullalyup Primary Producers advises their members to order their (sealed set) receivers through their secretary <blockquote>'''MULLALYUP PRIMARY PRODUCERS.''' . . . Members who intended joining the Westralian Farmers wireless broadcasting service can order sets for listening in, through the branch secretary, Mr. W. S. Brown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210759592 |title=MULLALYUP |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=2 |location=Western Australia |date=5 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Thompson states that 6WF will commence in February <blockquote>'''"LISTENING IN." WESTRALIAN FARMERS SCHEME DENIAL OF HITCH.''' Rumor yesterday had it that the wireless broadcasting scheme of the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., had been temporarily suspended because of some hitch with the makers of the apparatus. This morning Mr. Thompson, who is in charge of the wireless department of this firm, completely denied the rumor. "Everything is going along all right," he said. "Speaking of rumors, we were told yesterday that Farmers, Ltd. of Sydney, had cancelled all their subscriptions and had returned the money, but from Press reports the opening of the scheme was eminently successful." How long do you anticipate it will be before your firm's scheme is in operation? "About another month. It is a very high-powered station, and it will naturally take some adjustment before things are perfect. The station will be more powerful than those operating in England at the present time. In England they are operating on 1,500 watt sets, whereas our set will be between 5,000 and 6,000 watts. I understand the Applecross station is about 2,000 watts. 5,000 watts is the maximum power permitted under the Commonwealth regulations. The remainder of our transmitting apparatus is not expected until February 1. Three consignments of material from England have been received, and we are starting to put things together now."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article82562868 |title="LISTENING IN" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,203 |location=Western Australia |date=11 January 1924 |accessdate=23 August 2022 |page=7 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 6WF commencement months away, but debate upon best programming rages <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . What class of matter will the West Australian Farmers most appreciate with regard to broadcasting? With the farmers of U.S.A. the movements of livestock markets comes highest in popular regard. Then weather reports, followed by fruit and vegetable prices, ditto daily products, and other marketable foods, cotton, etc., produced on a farm. These radio reports are being very widely received, and made use of by farmers, and also by consumers of farm products, who can thus regulate supplies according to the state of the markets day by day. Acting upon a consensus of all the replies, the efficiency of the service has been still further developed. Great variation has to be provided for in the choosing of the programmes of a broadcasting station, for as some people like one thing, some like another, and a great many like nothing at all, it will be appreciated what skill is needed in choosing the items. In the programmes of the British Broadcasting Co. for a single week there were to be found included an All-British symphony concert, ballads, chamber music, dance music, humorous entertainments, news, weather forecasts, children's stories, talks to farmers, followers of football and racing, theatregoers, boy scouts and girl guides, readings of Shakespeare's plays, a daily "woman's hour," religious addresses, and short lectures.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071416 |title=Wireless Week by Week Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics[?] Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1358 |location=Western Australia |date=20 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 18 amateur transmitting licences current in WA in the lead up to 6WF commencement, only 3 transmitting regular programs <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . Some amateurs seem rather shy of the microphone, a sort of "wait-for-the-other-chap-to-start-first" feeling. I give below a list of experimental transmitting license holders in our State:— 6AB, Cecil, C., 75 Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie; 6AC, Spark, J., 23 Mount-street, Perth; 6AF, Sibly, A., 38 Park-street, North Perth; 6AK, University of West Australia, Perth; 6AM, Kennedy, P., 210 Walcott-street, Mt. Lawley; 6AQ, Matthews, V. J., Beechboro-road, Bayswater; 6BG, Technical School, Perth; 6BH, Burrows, F. H., 9 John-street, Claremont; 6BP, Stott's Business College, St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BR, Wireless Institute (W.A. division), St. George's-terrace, Perth; 6BT and 6BU, McKail, H., Perth Boys' School, Perth; 6CJ, Darley, E. J., Darley-street, South Perth; 6CZ, Law, F. W., corner Bedford and Bunbury roads, Armadale, 6DD, Bishop, C. E., Grey-street, Albany; 6AG, Coxon, W. E., Bulwer-street, North Perth; 6BN, Stevens, 1 Ruth-street, North Perth; 6WP, Phipps, W. R., 97 Rupert-street, Subiaco. Quite an impressive list, and about three undertaking regular transmissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Wireless journalist promoting the purchase of receiving sets in the lead up to 6WF commencement <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAMS.''' By LONG WAVE. . . . These notes, I am confident, will be perused by thousands of amateurs and would-bes who have not yet realised the full pleasures to be derived by the installation of a wireless receiver in the home. Now, I want you to get busy and see about your wireless set at once. This applies more particularly to the farmer. Broadcasting, will be in action in our State inside a month from now, is to be maintained by the Westralian Farmers Ltd., Perth, and will cater especially for the man on the land. Even if you live hundreds of miles distant from this centre, by means of a suitable receiver you will receive weather reports, market quotations, and the very best of entertainment all the year round, at a cost of your receiver and a trivial license fee. Just think of it, you will sit down to your receiver after the day's work is finished, put on your phones, and you are instantly transported to the latest play acted at one of the theatres in Perth, and broadcast far and wide for you and your countrymen's benefit. You will know the weather report for the following day, and so will be enabled to prepare your tomorrow's plans beforehand. You will receive the latest news from the press, even before the majority of persons in the city itself receive it. Truly a marvellous age. Therefore, let the slogan for 1924, "A receiving set in every home," be yours. No home in which it is desired to create the real home atmosphere" should be without a broadcast receiving set. The cost is small, the value great. Investigate the matter right now for yourself, and you will soon follow the lead of thousands of other happy homemakers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58072750 |title=WIRELESS WEEK by WEEK Our Budget of Broadcasting and Listening-In Lyrics— Of the Greatest Value to the Seeker after Knowledge RADIOGRAMS |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1359 |location=Western Australia |date=27 January 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 02===== The South Western Times of Bunbury supplements a paid advertisement (not yet located) for the Mulgaphone with a background article <blockquote>'''"LISTENING-IN." A BROADCASTING ENTERPRISE.''' The '''Westralian Farmers''' Ltd., have embarked upon a comprehensive broadcasting and "listening-in" radio and wireless scheme, as announced by advertisement appearing elsewhere in this issue, and wish to draw the attention of all South-Westerners interested to the advantages offered to the community in general. They state that as soon as the plant is in operation, messages, reports, prices, advices, and a host of interesting information, and in addition both vocal and instrumental music, will be passing through the atmosphere. Visitors to the State, who, at present speak in the Town Hall to an exclusive Perth audience, will be able in future to speak to the whole country from the sending station at The '''Westralian Farmers'''. The company made enquiries regarding the cost of receiving sets, and ultimately came to the conclusion that in order to give users the best possible service at the lowest price, it was essential that the Company should assemble its own sets. The '''Westralian Farmers''', Limited, are therefore putting upon the market a receiving set known as the "Mulgaphone," which is capable of receiving messages from the broadcasting station at a distance of at least 600 miles from Perth in a direct air line. Another point in connection with ordinary receiving sets is the fact that they require a battery of electrical accumulators which require recharging frequently. Obviously for farmers outback it is a matter of expense, and in most cases, impossibility, for batteries to be sent into a charging station to be specially recharged. The "Mulgaphone" has therefore been fitted with two dull Emitter Valves, which while increasing the cost of the set, require very little electric current to work them, and dry cells can be used instead of accumulators. Such dry cells will last for six months without charging. The price of the complete set and the wire for the aerial is £22, free on rail, Perth. For the broadcasting service rendered by the '''Westralian Farmers''', an annual charge will be made of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. has to be paid to the Commonwealth Government as license for the farmer's receiving set, £1 1s. for the royalties charged by the Amalgamated Wireless on the set, and the balance for operating expenses, and to pay for concerts and other items transmitted by that wireless apparatus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article210757965 |title="LISTENING-IN" |newspaper=[[South Western Times]] |volume=VII, |issue=15 |location=Western Australia |date=5 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Daily News journalist fooled by Government and AWA propaganda and finds supporters of the sealed set scheme (see also a knowledgeable response in letter to editor next day) <blockquote>'''"SEALED" RADIO SETS. DO THEY GRANT A MONOPOLY? VIEWS OF EXPERIMENTERS.''' Complaint was recently made by a man who had made himself a wireless set. After the construction of the apparatus was completed he listened-in to broadcasting with satisfactory results, and when he sought official approval for the use of the plant it was withheld, and the man was called upon to either discard his set or adjust it with the aid of expensive apparatus. This morning a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus were interviewed, and in every case they had no fault to find with the regulations of the Commonwealth. It had been stated by the person making the complaint that no other country but Australia adopted the sealed set system, but one wireless enthusiast said that a somewhat similar system had been in force in Germany for a number of years. There the broadcasting service was under the control of the post office, and the receiving-sets were hired out like telephones. Bank managers, stock brokers, and business men generally had them installed, at their country homes, so that they might continually keep in touch with market fluctuations. "Those people," the experimenter said, "don't mind whether the sets are sealed or not. What they want is the service — and they receive it. I wouldn't mind if the Commonwealth came along and sealed down my telephone. I would still be able to put it to its legitimate use; and it is only the service I want." Another experimenter explained the difference between the two classes of receiving licences. There was the licence granted to the bona-fide experimentalist and the one granted to the man who merely wanted the amusement of musical concerts by radio. It was suggested that if the person complaining was capable of building a set, adjusting and working it, he should have little difficulty in securing an experimentalist's licence which would enable him to receive on any wave length, for his set would not be "sealed." Many of the present experimenters were youths upon whom the payment of a broadcasting fee might fall heavily, and this experimenter suggested that the parents or the tenants of the house might club together and pay the several guineas necessary if they wished to take advantage of the boy's set for the purposes of amusement. It was made quite clear, however, that at the present time there was no obligation to do so. "The ordinary wireless experimenter would not be able to make a receiver with a given wave length," another enthusiast said. "Of the total number of licensees holding experimentalists' "tickets" I don't think more than 5 per cent. could make a receiving set which would meet with the approval of the authorities. By this I mean that there is a large number of boys who "potter around" with a plant, but who are unqualified to construct one to given capacity. Of the serious experimenters, however, and there are many who have given many years' study to the business, I think about 75 per cent. in this State could build a plant which would be approved." One trouble which had been experienced was that the authorities would test any plant put before them, but they would not issue drawings and particulars from which a plant of a given wave length could be constructed. The authorities, it was said, were not anxious to know very much about the "internals" of the plant so long as it stood up to the official test. The purpose of this test, it was explained, was to make sure that electricity would not be discharged from it into the ether and thus cause interference, and secondly to ascertain that the plant was capable of being sealed to one wave length, with about a 10 per cent, tuning allowance. A representative of a company interesting itself in broadcasting said he felt sure they would not object to the use of home made plants so long as the broadcasting fee was paid and the plant had been approved by the authorities. Commenting on the complaints generally, he said if inspection was not insisted upon, cheap and nasty materials could be sold; therefore it was in the interests of those who had receiving sets that the regulations operated. It looked to him as if some opposition from the trade was at the bottom of the complaint. It was admitted that a sealed set was more expensive than an unsealed one. There was an extra cost in producing and complying with official requirements. If a mechanic had a free hand he could make a plant much simpler. Possibly an unsealed set could be made for £16, while a "sealed set" might cost £20. Of course sets could be bought cheaper than that, but they would not receive at any great distance. One hundred and fifty guineas could be spent on a set mounted in a cabinet of Queen Anne style, or with Chippendale legs, but the receiving power would be no better than the £20 one. "If we didn't have some restriction," another experimenter said, "our wireless nights would be filled with squeaks and cat-calls caused by oscillations escaping from the aerial and our musical concerts would largely be spoilt. The sealing of the sets is financially necessary to the broadcasting companies. If sets were unsealed and a broadcasting company started, it would be easy for other firms to supply sets by which their customers could listen in to the original broadcasting company without fee. There was nothing so far as he knew to prevent a person building his own receiving set for use in connection with a broadcasting station so long as it was capable of being sealed to the wavelength employed, and it complied with the other departmental restrictions."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78056913 |title="SEALED" RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,229 |location=Western Australia |date=11 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Goldfields Radio Society sees significant growth in the lead up to 6WF commencement, looks to acquire a receiving set to hear the opening <blockquote>'''GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY.''' Mr. Sterling presided over an excellent attendance on Tuesday evening last. Correspondence was received from Mr. Ceci1 advising he would be returning during the next week; and from Messrs. Stokes, Melbourne submitting quote for badge as per design submitted. It was resolved that 50 badges be ordered. Eleven new members were nominated and elected. The president extended a welcome to them, and expressed the hope that there would be more to show them in the near future. A short address was delivered by Mr. Stanton, who explained some of the terms and diagrams commonly used in wireless periodicals. A draft of an appeal for financial assistance to be addressed to prominent citizens was read and approved. It is expected that the powerful broadcasting station of '''Westralian Farmers''', Ltd., will be in operation this month. The wave length is announced as 1050 metres. The society is desirous of having a set of its own ready in time for the opening of this station, and if the appeal for funds is successful, this can easily be accomplished. Notice of motion was handed in "That the motion fixing nights of meeting be rescinded, and that the society meet weekly in future." This will be discussed at the meeting to be held next Tuesday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article34284683 |title=GOLDFIELDS RADIO SOCIETY |newspaper=[[Western Argus]] |volume=24, |issue=5049 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Status report on progress with installation of 6WF <blockquote>'''NOTES AND COMMENTS ON MATTERS TOPICAL.''' . . . Work in connection with the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting station is progressing slowly but surely. A few days ago two holes were knocked in the roof to admit of the aerial supports and before long a gang of plumbers will be set to work effecting joins between each sheet of galvanised iron on the roof. Without the whole roof being made a good conductor, there is the possibility that "sparking" might take place between the sheets of iron when the apparatus was working. Substantial progress has been made with the studio from which the concerts will be given. It is said that when the studio is finished a brass band could play therein, and the sound will be so mellowed that it would sound as in the open air, while the speaker will think he has suddenly been struck dumb. This studio should prove a good practising ground for budding politicians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063312 |title=NOTES AND COMMENTS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> A reader of the Perth Daily New pens an indictment of sealed sets and use the Wesfarmers radio set as an example <blockquote>'''SEALED RADIO SETS.''' (To the Editor.) Sir,— It is very difficult to believe, as the writer states in your article in last night's "News," that the opinions expressed and the statements set forth therein are from "a number of experimenters and makers of wireless apparatus." It speaks very little for their knowledge of the regulations governing wireless in Australia. There is hardly an accurate statement in the whole thing, and it would be a good idea for those who expressed the ideas quoted to get a copy from the Government Printing Office of the wireless regulations in force at the moment. This costs one shilling, and I would strongly recommend some of those experimenters to hurry up and get a copy and read it. If any person in Australia buys parts and makes himself a wireless receiver, without first getting a licence, he is simply breaking the law, just as one would do in England or anywhere else, and I believe I am safe in saying that the incident mentioned at the beginning of the article in question is inaccurately set forth. As regards sealed sets, the statements are very misleading. Briefly, the state of affairs is that if a person wants to listen to broadcasting merely, he buys a set sealed to one or more waves. The waves are set by the Postmaster-General, the public are informed as to the special wave length applying to any particular station, and any one can buy a set sealed to that wave, provided the set has been passed by the State inspector. This sealing has nothing what ever to do with experimenters or amateurs. It concerns dealers only. A dealer designs a set, and takes one made to his design to the State radio inspector. This official tests it, and it is either rejected or passed. If passed it becomes the master type for that dealer, and he (the dealer) can make as many of them as he likes. For instance, when the '''Westralian Farmers''' Station commences, every dealer will be informed of the wave length to be employed. Any dealer can immediately make a set adjusted to this wave and take it to the inspector in the G.P.O. If the inspector passes it that dealer can make as many as be likes, only when he sells a set he gives the customer a form to fill in. This form is the broadcast licence. The dealer collects the fee required by the '''Westralian Farmers''' for their service. The Postmaster-General takes 10s of this. The W.F. may, out of the remainder, pay some royalties, and the remainder, whatever it is, is their revenue for their service. The remark about amateurs making sets that will pass the test is somewhat amusing, in view of the fact that many sets made by very well known firms in the Eastern States have so far failed to pass the test, which is quite a severe one. It was not my intention to discuss the merits or demerits of the system, but I would mention that, the system is doomed, as surely as it can be. In the Eastern States there is a definite move against the system. It seems a fairly well established fact that many sets have been returned, on account of the inefficiency of a set working under such limitations. It is required in these sets that they shall not be sensitive to signals coming in on waves 10 per cent. shorter or longer than the prescribed wave. This means that the set has to be either very elaborate or else insensitive. Either of these alternatives work against popularising radio, obviously. To say that a sealed set is more expensive to make than an ordinary set, betokens a lamentable knowledge of the most elementary principles of a radio receiver. Anyone can surely understand that a set which is capable of adjustment to any wave must be more intricate than one fixed to only one wave. Surely a little consideration would have prevented such an extraordinary statement being made. Finally, I would like to say that no experimenter, unless he has been expressly informed that he will be expected to pay a fee, is under any obligation to pay one, and no broadcasting firm can demand it from him. All serious experimenters, however, are of the opinion that a small fee paid by them would be only reasonable, and I believe that if they are called upon to pay a reasonable amount they will pay up to a man.— Yours, etc., JOHN A. WISHAW.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063270 |title=SEALED RADIO SETS |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,230 |location=Western Australia |date=12 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=3 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Lack of amateur broadcasting activity supports need for 6WF <blockquote>'''WHERE ARE THE AMATEURS? This State's Lethargy.''' What's wrong with the W.A. amateur transmitters? Apparently they are still very shy, and our State, when compared with Melbourne and Sydney, is dead. Why? Buck up, you transmitting licence holders, give us some more entertainment regularly from that idle set. It's up to you to fill in the time between now and broadcasting. If you want to get the public interested in wireless, then there must be something for them to listen to. Sad is the case at the present time. How many times have you been asked the question: "What can I hear if I get a wireless set?" "Oh," you answer, "So-and-So will be sending Fri-day, or Sunday, etc." But you can't tell them that they will hear entertainments any night of the week. Oh, no, the new set is brought home and tried out, and no-thing is heard but static (one thing that regularly transmits). Now then, amateurs, there are enough of you in the city and suburban areas to arrange for transmissions every night. Why not make a move at once? Get together, draw up a "roster," and let W.A. be included on the map.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071021 |title=WHERE ARE THE AMATEURS? |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1362 |location=Western Australia |date=17 February 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 03===== A Dorothy Dixer in the Perth Sunday Times enables new details about 6WF including first advice of actual wavelength <blockquote>'''THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME. Opening About April.''' A correspondent signing himself S.S. (Perth) asks for information concerning the Westralian Farmers' wireless broadcasting scheme, when it is to commence, the wavelength, times of transmission, etc? Answer. The Westralian Farmers' broadcasting service is to be transmitted on 1250 metres with a power of 5 K.W., and it is expected to commence in April. Amateur transmissions will be as follows:— A. S. Stevens, of 1 Ruth-Street, Perth, every Wednesday, 8 p.m., 430 meters, call signal 6BN; W. E. Coxon, of 306 Bulwer-street, Perth, every Friday and Sunday 8 p.m., 440 meters, call 6AG; C. Cecil, Dugan-street, Kalgoorlie, every Monday and Thursday 8 p.m., call 6AB. In addition, market and weather reports, general news, church services, entertainments, addresses by prominent men, children's bedtime stories, etc., will be broadcasted. Briefly, the service will bring those it serves in direct contact with the outside world. For instance, whereas public men now only address a limited audience in Perth, they will later on speak to thousands of listeners-in throughout the country. With regard to costs. The Farmers will make an annual charge of £4 4s., of which 10s. 6d. will go to the Commonwealth Government for the set license, £1 is for royalties, and the remainder for operating expenses. The "Mulgaphone," a standard listening-in set prepared by the Farmers, will be marketed for £22, and this will serve two persons within a radius of 600 miles, or more if additional head phones are installed at a cost of £1 7s. 6d. each. A loud talker to serve a larger audience is procurable for £23. A more expensive receiving set is procurable for £35 3s. For fuller information application should be made direct to the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., Perth, for their illustrated booklet "Broadcasting."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58071785 |title=THE WESTRALIAN FARMERS' SCHEME |newspaper=[[Sunday Times (Perth)]] |issue=1365 |location=Western Australia |date=9 March 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 (First Section) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Coxon demonstrates broadcast reception at the Westralian Farmers' building, no doubt with a view to use bu 6WF <blockquote>'''"NO BANANAS TODAY" BY WIRELESS. WESTRALIAN FARMERS' EXPERIMENT.''' It seems impossible to forget it. At first artists on the vaudeville stage drummed the melody into our ears, then the bathroom singer took up the chorus, and this afternoon the wireless receiver took up the refrain of "Yes, We Have No Bananas." The occasion was the testing of one of the wireless instruments built for the Westralian Farmers' broadcasting service shortly to be inaugurated in this State. Assembled on a small table in an obscure corner of the large social room of the building in Wellington-street stood a collection of wireless apparatus, with a horn, not unlike the familiar gramophone model, pointing towards the seats which held about two hundred people. Some were the guests of the company, and the remainder were members of the staff, who had met to watch Mr. W. E. Coxon conduct his experiment. A few black knobs were turned, and dull light glowed in the filament valves. A slight crackling noise was heard, and the apparatus broke into music. The operatic air "Traumerei" was the first piece reproduced, and it was followed by waltzes, two-steps, jazz, humorous songs, and a 'cello solo as a final item. Received on a 440-metre wave length the music was transmitted from Mr. Coxon's private station, "6 A.G.," at North Perth, and it demonstrated what pleasure farmers and station owners living outback may soon enjoy. The visitors expressed their astonishment at the compactness of the machine. Instead of the familiar long wire aerial, usually erected on the top of a building, a square frame aerial, with sides about 4ft long, was used, being stood in one corner of the room. This somewhat resembled a large model of the winding machine used by boys who cultivate silk worms. Using a four-valve receiver and a two-stage amplifier, the sound was applied to a high-power "Magna Vox." As the dance music was played young couples chose their partners and demonstrated that the music was entirely suited for dancing, Mr. Coxon intensifying the volume as required, until at one stage it vibrated through the building. Mr. Coxon commented to a Pressman that the broadcasting scheme was progressing very satisfactorily, much work having been done in the studio from where later actual voice reproductions will be made. Among those present at the gathering to day was Mr. A. J. Leckie, Mus. Bac., who appeared considerably interested in the demonstration.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article78063425 |title="NO BANANAS TO-DAY" |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIII, |issue=15,256 |location=Western Australia |date=13 March 1924 |accessdate=24 August 2022 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== =====1924 11===== =====1924 12===== ====1925==== =====1925 01===== =====1925 02===== =====1925 03===== =====1925 04===== =====1925 05===== =====1925 06===== Speech by WA Minister for Works on occasion of 6WF first anniversary pays tribute to the foresight of late Basil Murray of Westralian Farmers <blockquote>'''6WF. THE FIRST ANNIVERSARY.''' On Wednesday evening the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., broadcasting station, 6WF, celebrated its first anniversary. The Minister for Works (Hon. A. McCallum, M.L.A.) delivered a short address, in the course of which he referred to the great strides which wireless had made of late, and predicted that in the near future it would be largely utilised in connection with educational matters. So far as this State was concerned, he was of opinion that it would go a long way towards solving the difficulty of extending educational facilities to children in scattered districts. Mr. McCallum further said that he well remembered how at the inception of the broadcasting station, he had listened with great interest to the speech of the Premier (Mr. Collier), which was delivered from that studio. He also remembered, with regret, which he believed was shared throughout the community, that the face and voice of the one man who had stoutly stood behind the establishing of Western Australia's powerful broadcasting station were missing. Mr. Basil Murray's keen foresight and determination had given to the people of the community 6WF, and many thousands of farmers and others were today blessing his name for the good he had done in connection with breaking down the isolation which had hitherto been their lot. "Mr. Murray has gone," continued Mr. McCallum, "but his works follow him in many ways, and perhaps the most outstanding monument to his ability and foresightedness was the company of which he was the head, viz., the Westralian Farmers, Ltd., and the broadcasting station which they had established at great cost in the interests of the whole community, and not for any particular section."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article84060114 |title=6W.F. |newspaper=[[The Daily News]] |volume=XLIV, |issue=15,635 |location=Western Australia |date=4 June 1925 |accessdate=21 August 2022 |page=5 (THIRD EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== =====1925 08===== =====1925 09===== =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== =====1928 06===== =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== =====1930 06===== =====1930 07===== =====1930 08===== =====1930 09===== =====1930 10===== =====1930 11===== =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== =====1932 06===== =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== =====1933 06===== =====1933 07===== =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== =====1934 06===== =====1934 07===== =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1945 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== =====1946 08===== =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== {{BookCat}} 4c30lqr58mlc5i0u5qhz35ws10d5eyy 0 448407 4095613 4095269 2022-08-24T02:21:09Z Rhodeslea 3399149 /* What kind of research was this? */ wikitext text/x-wiki == What is the background to this research? == The primary outcome of this Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT), was to compare the effectiveness of Resistance Training (RES) and High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), compared to the control group of Usual Care (UC) on Cancer-Treatment-Related Fatigue (CTRF), in Prostate Cancer (PCa) patients undergoing Radiation Therapy (RT) <ref name=":0">Piraux E, Caty G, Renard L, Vancraeynest D, Tombal B, Geets X et al. Effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy: a randomized controlled trial. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases. 2020;24(1):156-165.</ref>. The secondary outcomes assessed the effects of the interventions on quality of life, insomnia, depression, daytime sleepiness, sleep quality, functional exercise capacity and executive function.<ref name=":0" /> Prostate cancer is the fifth leading cause of death worldwide<ref>Rawla P. Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer. World Journal of Oncology. 2019;10(2):63-89.</ref>, with cancer related fatigue and CTRF being a debilitating side-effect of the treatments and disease<ref name=":0" /><ref>Langston B, Armes J, Levy A, Tidey E, Ream E. The prevalence and severity of fatigue in men with prostate cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Supportive Care in Cancer. 2013;21(6):1761-1771.</ref>. Exercise has been shown to reduce CTRF in PCa<ref name=":0" /><ref>Velthuis M, Agasi-Idenburg S, Aufdemkampe G, Wittink H. The Effect of Physical Exercise on Cancer-related Fatigue during Cancer Treatment: a Meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. Clinical Oncology. 2010;22(3):208-221.</ref>, although the variables surrounding exercise type, duration and intensity are not yet established. == Where is the research from? == The study was conducted by researches at the Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research at UCLouvain, in Brussels, Belgium. Ethics approval was completed by the Ethics Committee of the Cliniques universitaires Saint-Luc and Université catholique de Louvain. The study was published in the journal 'Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Disease', by Nature Publishing Group. The authors have considerable amounts of research published within the field of disease treatment, particularly with cancer and through exercise based interventions. The funding was supported by grants from the National Fund for Scientific Research (Belgium) and the Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research at UCLouvain. The authors claim there is no conflict of interest. == What kind of research was this? == The study is a three-arm, randomized controlled trial. == What did the research involve? == ''Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study?'' Participants that fit the inclusion criteria were randomly assigned to either the RES, HIIT or UC. using a random computer generator<ref name=":0" />. Originally, 78 participants agreed to the study, 26 were assigned to UC, 27 to HIIT and 25 to RES. When the study concluded, there was 24 participants in each group. The outcomes measurements were recorded 10 days before radiotherapy treatment started and after the last fraction of radiotherapy. '''Measurements''' {| class="sortable" |+ !Outcome !Test |- |Cancer-Treatment-Related-Fatigue |Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy–Fatigue (FACIT-F) |- |Cancer-Related Quality of Life |Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy–General (FACT-G) questionnaire |- |Depressive Symptoms |20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) |- |Daytime Sleepiness |Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) |- |Symptoms of Insomnia |Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) |- |Sleep Quality |Pittsburg sleep quality index (PSQI) |- |Functional Exercise Capacity |6-min walk test (6MWT) |- |Cognitive Function |Trial Making Test (Spreen and Strauss Guidelines) |} '''Interventions''' {| class="wikitable" |+ !Group !Intervention Details |- |HIIT |HIIT was performed on a cycle ergometer, while heart rate was monitored with a heart rate monitor. The patients performed a 5-minute warm-up at 65-70% of their theoretical max heart rate. They then performed 8 sets of 60s intervals at an intensity of 85% or greater theoretical max heart rate, whilst maintaining 90-100 revolutions. The rest intervals were 60s at the minimum intensity, whilst maintaining 50-60 revolutions. They finished with a 5-minute cool-down. The amount of intervals were progressed over the course of the intervention until they reached 15 sets, they were progressed based on target heart rate and perception of effort. |- |RES |RES was performed using body weight, resistance bands or dumbbells. The patients reported rating of perceived exertion (RPE) using the modified Borg Scale, and aimed to score between 4-6 RPE. They performed 1-3 sets, at 8-12 repetitions, on a range of exercises that targeted the major muscle groups of the body. If they did not report between 4-6 RPE their next session was modified. |- |UC |UC participants received the World Health Organization's pamphlet on physical activity and health. |} * ''Was the methodology the best approach?'' * ''What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)?'' == What were the basic results? == * ''What were the important findings?'' * ''How did the researchers interpret the results?'' * ''Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings?'' == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * ''Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors)'' * ''How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper)'' == Practical advice == * ''What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes:'' ** ''criteria for not exercising,'' ** ''recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them,'' ** ''recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations,'' ** ''considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc'' * ''Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources?'' == Further information/resources == * ''What further reading may interested readers benefit from?'' * ''What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment?'' * ''Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals)'' == References == ''Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it)'' ''And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this)'' qa1uqcqzg6lxxuba7r0nrtjnttfgcaz 0 448415 4095466 4095348 2022-08-23T16:09:25Z MrAlanKoh 3392840 /* Examples : ODE45 to solve differential equations */ finally finished equations first. wikitext text/x-wiki == Order of Differential Equations == An order of differential equation (ODE) is an equation that has highest derivative of the dependent variable involved some ordinary derivatives of a function with respect to the independent variable.. Often, the goal is to ''solve'' an ODE, i.e., determine what function or functions satisfy the equation. That means the differential equation defines the relationship between variables and their derivatives. There are a primarily two of ODE types # 1st Order Differential Equation ('''1st ODE''') # 2nd Order Differential Equation ('''2nd ODE''') === First Order Differential Equation === All the linear equations in the form of derivatives are in the first order. It has only the first derivative such as dy/dx, where x and y are the two variables and is represented as <math>\frac{dy}{dx}+Py=Q</math> === Second-Order Differential Equation === When the order of the highest derivative present is 2, then it is a second order differential equation. <math>\frac{d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}+n\frac{dy}{dx}+my^{2}=P</math> === Type of ODE solver in MATLAB === There are few types of ODE solver but we will focus on just the commonly used : {| class="wikitable" |+ !ODE !Accuracy !Use case suggestion |- |'''ode45''' |Medium |For most use case, ode45 should be enough to solve the ODE |- |'''ode23''' |Low |ode23 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with crude tolerances |- |'''ode113''' |Low to High |ode113 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with stringent error tolerances, or when the ODE function is computationally intensive. |} === Examples: ODE45 to solve differential equations === There are $10,000 deposited into the bank fixed deposit accounts and the interest rate is 2% annually. To start with, we need to do a equation to model the money. Equation 1: <math>\frac{dM}{dt} = \frac{2}{100} M</math> : interest annual is 2% annually over time , Equation 2: <math>M(0) = 10,000</math> : Amount of money initial is at 10,000 From Equation 1, we take out (Note: Need tp consult on other Wikibooks on how to derive the linear equations) <math>dM = 0.002M.dt </math> <math>\int\limits_{}^{} \frac{1}{M}.dM = \int_{}^{} 0.02dt</math> <math>\ln e M = \ln e (0.02 t) + c</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . e^c</math> , where <math>e^c = M_{(0)}</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . M_{(0)}</math> , taken from equation 2 <math>M(t) =5000. e^{0.02t}</math> == References == https://web.archive.org/web/20220201162959/https://byjus.com/maths/differential-equation-and-its-degree/ https://web.archive.org/web/20220822141804/https://www.cuemath.com/calculus/order-of-differential-equation/ dxh9mroke5f55pjxfsouzemc5pa3vch 4095469 4095466 2022-08-23T16:19:15Z MrAlanKoh 3392840 /* Examples: ODE45 to solve differential equations */ publish functions wikitext text/x-wiki == Order of Differential Equations == An order of differential equation (ODE) is an equation that has highest derivative of the dependent variable involved some ordinary derivatives of a function with respect to the independent variable.. Often, the goal is to ''solve'' an ODE, i.e., determine what function or functions satisfy the equation. That means the differential equation defines the relationship between variables and their derivatives. There are a primarily two of ODE types # 1st Order Differential Equation ('''1st ODE''') # 2nd Order Differential Equation ('''2nd ODE''') === First Order Differential Equation === All the linear equations in the form of derivatives are in the first order. It has only the first derivative such as dy/dx, where x and y are the two variables and is represented as <math>\frac{dy}{dx}+Py=Q</math> === Second-Order Differential Equation === When the order of the highest derivative present is 2, then it is a second order differential equation. <math>\frac{d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}+n\frac{dy}{dx}+my^{2}=P</math> === Type of ODE solver in MATLAB === There are few types of ODE solver but we will focus on just the commonly used : {| class="wikitable" |+ !ODE !Accuracy !Use case suggestion |- |'''ode45''' |Medium |For most use case, ode45 should be enough to solve the ODE |- |'''ode23''' |Low |ode23 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with crude tolerances |- |'''ode113''' |Low to High |ode113 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with stringent error tolerances, or when the ODE function is computationally intensive. |} === Examples: ODE45 to solve differential equations === There are $10,000 deposited into the bank fixed deposit accounts and the interest rate is 2% annually. To start with, we need to do a equation to model the money. Equation 1: <math>\frac{dM}{dt} = \frac{2}{100} M</math> : interest annual is 2% annually over time , Equation 2: <math>M(0) = 10,000</math> : Amount of money initial is at 10,000 From Equation 1, we take out (Note: Need to consult on other Wikiprojectson how to derive the linear equations) <math>dM = 0.002M.dt </math> <math>\int\limits_{}^{} \frac{1}{M}.dM = \int_{}^{} 0.02dt</math> <math>\ln e M = \ln e (0.02 t) + c</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . e^c</math> , where <math>e^c = M_{(0)}</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . M_{(0)}</math> , taken from equation 2 <math>M(t) =5000. e^{0.02t}</math> We have equations to do our modelling: In MALAB to calculate differential equations using ode45 , the syntax is as followed <code>[t,y] = ode45(odefun,tspan,y0)</code> where, '''t''' = Evaluation points, returned as a column vector '''y''' = Solutions, returned as an array '''tspan''' = Interval of integration, specified as a vector. At minimum, tspan must be a two element vector [t0 tf] specifying the initial and final times '''y0''' = Initial conditions, specified as a vector. y0 must be the same length as the vector output of odefun, == References == https://web.archive.org/web/20220201162959/https://byjus.com/maths/differential-equation-and-its-degree/ https://web.archive.org/web/20220822141804/https://www.cuemath.com/calculus/order-of-differential-equation/ 56en02npgtkzumffyub54jtnhyfxahp 4095546 4095469 2022-08-23T21:28:20Z MrAlanKoh 3392840 /* Examples: ODE45 to solve differential equations */ 10000 wikitext text/x-wiki == Order of Differential Equations == An order of differential equation (ODE) is an equation that has highest derivative of the dependent variable involved some ordinary derivatives of a function with respect to the independent variable.. Often, the goal is to ''solve'' an ODE, i.e., determine what function or functions satisfy the equation. That means the differential equation defines the relationship between variables and their derivatives. There are a primarily two of ODE types # 1st Order Differential Equation ('''1st ODE''') # 2nd Order Differential Equation ('''2nd ODE''') === First Order Differential Equation === All the linear equations in the form of derivatives are in the first order. It has only the first derivative such as dy/dx, where x and y are the two variables and is represented as <math>\frac{dy}{dx}+Py=Q</math> === Second-Order Differential Equation === When the order of the highest derivative present is 2, then it is a second order differential equation. <math>\frac{d^{2}y}{dx^{2}}+n\frac{dy}{dx}+my^{2}=P</math> === Type of ODE solver in MATLAB === There are few types of ODE solver but we will focus on just the commonly used : {| class="wikitable" |+ !ODE !Accuracy !Use case suggestion |- |'''ode45''' |Medium |For most use case, ode45 should be enough to solve the ODE |- |'''ode23''' |Low |ode23 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with crude tolerances |- |'''ode113''' |Low to High |ode113 can be more efficient than ode45 at problems with stringent error tolerances, or when the ODE function is computationally intensive. |} === Examples: ODE45 to solve differential equations === There are $10,000 deposited into the bank fixed deposit accounts and the interest rate is 2% annually. To start with, we need to do a equation to model the money. Equation 1: <math>\frac{dM}{dt} = \frac{2}{100} M</math> : interest annual is 2% annually over time , Equation 2: <math>M(0) = 10,000</math> : Amount of money initial is at 10,000 From Equation 1, we take out (Note: Need to consult on other Wikiprojectson how to derive the linear equations) <math>dM = 0.002M.dt </math> <math>\int\limits_{}^{} \frac{1}{M}.dM = \int_{}^{} 0.02dt</math> <math>\ln e M = \ln e (0.02 t) + c</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . e^c</math> , where <math>e^c = M_{(0)}</math> <math>M(t) = e^{0.02t} . M_{(0)}</math> , taken from equation 2 <math>M(t) =10000. e^{0.02t}</math> We have equations to do our modelling: In MALAB to calculate differential equations using ode45 , the syntax is as followed <code>[t,y] = ode45(odefun,tspan,y0)</code> where, '''t''' = Evaluation points, returned as a column vector '''y''' = Solutions, returned as an array '''tspan''' = Interval of integration, specified as a vector. At minimum, tspan must be a two element vector [t0 tf] specifying the initial and final times '''y0''' = Initial conditions, specified as a vector. y0 must be the same length as the vector output of odefun, == References == https://web.archive.org/web/20220201162959/https://byjus.com/maths/differential-equation-and-its-degree/ https://web.archive.org/web/20220822141804/https://www.cuemath.com/calculus/order-of-differential-equation/ j9ojsyifxfgnonk0gyt6fimjf9pamym 10 448442 4095436 2022-08-23T12:49:51Z RogueScholar 847443 Create use-count/doc subpage for Template:Simple Page Navigation wikitext text/x-wiki X,000+<noinclude> {{possible-risk/subpage-doc}} </noinclude> e7fldtxbk54ibtyuo8z1gqt9or9ls01 4095602 4095436 2022-08-24T01:35:02Z RogueScholar 847443 Switch to calling High-use template instead of High-risk wikitext text/x-wiki 400+&use<noinclude> {{Possible-risk/subpage-doc}} </noinclude> e7f1i24axn80ohlilp3brr5stbl82vb 2 448443 4095441 2022-08-23T14:39:09Z Charliesamuel 3399926 Created page with "A redstone electric fireplace is a good option for those who want an efficient and effective heating system in their home. It can be used as the primary source of heat or it can also be used as a supplementary source of heat. This type of fireplace has been around since the early 1900s, but it was not until recently that it became more popular than ever before. The reason why these fireplaces are becoming so popular today is because of the many benefits that you get from..." wikitext text/x-wiki A redstone electric fireplace is a good option for those who want an efficient and effective heating system in their home. It can be used as the primary source of heat or it can also be used as a supplementary source of heat. This type of fireplace has been around since the early 1900s, but it was not until recently that it became more popular than ever before. The reason why these fireplaces are becoming so popular today is because of the many benefits that you get from using them. One of the most important things about this type of fireplace is that it does not require any fuel to operate. You do not need to worry about buying gas or oil to keep your fireplace going. Another thing that makes this fireplace very useful is that it will save you money on electricity bills. If you use this type of fireplace, you will not have to pay any extra monthly money just to power up your heater. In addition, if you use this type of heater, you will no longer need to burn wood or coal. This means that you will no longer have to spend time gathering wood or coal to keep your fireplace warm. When you choose to purchase one of these fireplaces, make sure that you check out all the different options available. There are several types of fireplaces that you can choose from when you go shopping. These include log sets, stone sets, metal sets, and even ceramic sets. Each of these sets comes with unique features and advantages. Make sure you know what you are looking for before making your final decision. Once you have made your choice, then you should take some time to read reviews online. Reviews are beneficial, especially if you are new to buying something like this. They will help you find out which ones are best suited for your needs. What is the difference between a flame-like and a realistic modern fireplace? A flame-like fireplace is usually found in a small room with only enough space for a single unit. A flame-like fireplace is designed to look like flames from the top of the fireplace. This type of fireplace is often used in living rooms and bedrooms. On the other hand, a realistic modern fireplace is usually placed in larger spaces such as dining rooms, family rooms, and kitchens. Natural modern fireplaces are generally equipped with multiple units. These fireplaces come in various sizes and shapes. They are usually made of glass and steel. Most people prefer to install these fireplaces in large rooms because they provide warmth and comfort to the entire room. If you want to know about redstone electric fireplace, then you are at the right place. How to Install a Fireplace Installing a fireplace is easy. All you need to do is follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer. However, if you install a real fireplace, you will need to hire a professional contractor. Before hiring anyone: Make sure that he or she has experience working with fireplaces. Ask him or her how much it would cost to install a fireplace. Do not forget to ask for references. Fireplace Installation Tips Before you begin installing a fireplace, make sure that you have everything ready. For example, you must ensure the necessary tools and materials. You will also need to prepare the area where you plan to place the fireplace. Make sure that you clean the area well. After cleaning, you should remove anything that might interfere with the installation process. You should also ensure that you have removed all the furniture in the area. The Benefits of Installing a Gas Log Set Gas log sets are great ways to add warmth and style to your home. They are also very affordable. If you are considering purchasing one, you should consider the following reasons why you should invest in one. 1. You Can Save Money If you install a gas log set, you will no longer need to spend money on heating your house. Instead, you can save money on your monthly utility bill. 2. You Will Get Warmth Quickly When you install a gas log set in your home, you will notice that the heat will quickly fill the whole room. As soon as you turn on the gas logs, you will feel the warmth immediately. tnm3toyomdskbzv6jkjrbu1hsl48olf 4095463 4095441 2022-08-23T16:04:07Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|Outside Wikibooks' scope. Please [[WB:UP]] A redstone electric fireplace is a good option for those who want an efficient and effective heating system in their home. It can be used as the primary source of heat or it can also be used as a supplementary source of heat. This type of fireplace has been around since the early 1900s, but it was not until recently that it became more popular than ever before. The reason why these fireplaces are becoming so popular today is because of the many benefits that you get from using them. One of the most important things about this type of fireplace is that it does not require any fuel to operate. You do not need to worry about buying gas or oil to keep your fireplace going. Another thing that makes this fireplace very useful is that it will save you money on electricity bills. If you use this type of fireplace, you will not have to pay any extra monthly money just to power up your heater. In addition, if you use this type of heater, you will no longer need to burn wood or coal. This means that you will no longer have to spend time gathering wood or coal to keep your fireplace warm. When you choose to purchase one of these fireplaces, make sure that you check out all the different options available. There are several types of fireplaces that you can choose from when you go shopping. These include log sets, stone sets, metal sets, and even ceramic sets. Each of these sets comes with unique features and advantages. Make sure you know what you are looking for before making your final decision. Once you have made your choice, then you should take some time to read reviews online. Reviews are beneficial, especially if you are new to buying something like this. They will help you find out which ones are best suited for your needs. What is the difference between a flame-like and a realistic modern fireplace? A flame-like fireplace is usually found in a small room with only enough space for a single unit. A flame-like fireplace is designed to look like flames from the top of the fireplace. This type of fireplace is often used in living rooms and bedrooms. On the other hand, a realistic modern fireplace is usually placed in larger spaces such as dining rooms, family rooms, and kitchens. Natural modern fireplaces are generally equipped with multiple units. These fireplaces come in various sizes and shapes. They are usually made of glass and steel. Most people prefer to install these fireplaces in large rooms because they provide warmth and comfort to the entire room. If you want to know about redstone electric fireplace, then you are at the right place. How to Install a Fireplace Installing a fireplace is easy. All you need to do is follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer. However, if you install a real fireplace, you will need to hire a professional contractor. Before hiring anyone: Make sure that he or she has experience working with fireplaces. Ask him or her how much it would cost to install a fireplace. Do not forget to ask for references. Fireplace Installation Tips Before you begin installing a fireplace, make sure that you have everything ready. For example, you must ensure the necessary tools and materials. You will also need to prepare the area where you plan to place the fireplace. Make sure that you clean the area well. After cleaning, you should remove anything that might interfere with the installation process. You should also ensure that you have removed all the furniture in the area. The Benefits of Installing a Gas Log Set Gas log sets are great ways to add warmth and style to your home. They are also very affordable. If you are considering purchasing one, you should consider the following reasons why you should invest in one. 1. You Can Save Money If you install a gas log set, you will no longer need to spend money on heating your house. Instead, you can save money on your monthly utility bill. 2. You Will Get Warmth Quickly When you install a gas log set in your home, you will notice that the heat will quickly fill the whole room. As soon as you turn on the gas logs, you will feel the warmth immediately. 3wca6bp0kr1npue48i1oc3skxh20a6b 4095464 4095463 2022-08-23T16:04:36Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 fix wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|Outside Wikibooks' scope. Please see [[WB:UP]]}} A redstone electric fireplace is a good option for those who want an efficient and effective heating system in their home. It can be used as the primary source of heat or it can also be used as a supplementary source of heat. This type of fireplace has been around since the early 1900s, but it was not until recently that it became more popular than ever before. The reason why these fireplaces are becoming so popular today is because of the many benefits that you get from using them. One of the most important things about this type of fireplace is that it does not require any fuel to operate. You do not need to worry about buying gas or oil to keep your fireplace going. Another thing that makes this fireplace very useful is that it will save you money on electricity bills. If you use this type of fireplace, you will not have to pay any extra monthly money just to power up your heater. In addition, if you use this type of heater, you will no longer need to burn wood or coal. This means that you will no longer have to spend time gathering wood or coal to keep your fireplace warm. When you choose to purchase one of these fireplaces, make sure that you check out all the different options available. There are several types of fireplaces that you can choose from when you go shopping. These include log sets, stone sets, metal sets, and even ceramic sets. Each of these sets comes with unique features and advantages. Make sure you know what you are looking for before making your final decision. Once you have made your choice, then you should take some time to read reviews online. Reviews are beneficial, especially if you are new to buying something like this. They will help you find out which ones are best suited for your needs. What is the difference between a flame-like and a realistic modern fireplace? A flame-like fireplace is usually found in a small room with only enough space for a single unit. A flame-like fireplace is designed to look like flames from the top of the fireplace. This type of fireplace is often used in living rooms and bedrooms. On the other hand, a realistic modern fireplace is usually placed in larger spaces such as dining rooms, family rooms, and kitchens. Natural modern fireplaces are generally equipped with multiple units. These fireplaces come in various sizes and shapes. They are usually made of glass and steel. Most people prefer to install these fireplaces in large rooms because they provide warmth and comfort to the entire room. If you want to know about redstone electric fireplace, then you are at the right place. How to Install a Fireplace Installing a fireplace is easy. All you need to do is follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer. However, if you install a real fireplace, you will need to hire a professional contractor. Before hiring anyone: Make sure that he or she has experience working with fireplaces. Ask him or her how much it would cost to install a fireplace. Do not forget to ask for references. Fireplace Installation Tips Before you begin installing a fireplace, make sure that you have everything ready. For example, you must ensure the necessary tools and materials. You will also need to prepare the area where you plan to place the fireplace. Make sure that you clean the area well. After cleaning, you should remove anything that might interfere with the installation process. You should also ensure that you have removed all the furniture in the area. The Benefits of Installing a Gas Log Set Gas log sets are great ways to add warmth and style to your home. They are also very affordable. If you are considering purchasing one, you should consider the following reasons why you should invest in one. 1. You Can Save Money If you install a gas log set, you will no longer need to spend money on heating your house. Instead, you can save money on your monthly utility bill. 2. You Will Get Warmth Quickly When you install a gas log set in your home, you will notice that the heat will quickly fill the whole room. As soon as you turn on the gas logs, you will feel the warmth immediately. 5yabygq8gpj4piluv2ydo7p9tr63svz 0 448444 4095443 2022-08-23T15:15:12Z 146.189.182.8 Created page with ""'''Despacito'''" is a song by Puerto Rican singer {{w|Luis Fonsi}} featuring Puerto Rican rapper and singer Daddy Yankee as the lead single from Fonsi's 2019 studio album ''Vida''. The song and its associated music video were released on January 12, 2017. ==Background and composition== Shortly after the song's release, Luis Fonsi stated in an interview that his motivation for writing the song was to create a "swinging song" for his new album after two years without rel..." wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Despacito'''" is a song by Puerto Rican singer {{w|Luis Fonsi}} featuring Puerto Rican rapper and singer Daddy Yankee as the lead single from Fonsi's 2019 studio album ''Vida''. The song and its associated music video were released on January 12, 2017. ==Background and composition== Shortly after the song's release, Luis Fonsi stated in an interview that his motivation for writing the song was to create a "swinging song" for his new album after two years without releasing new music. When asked about the song, Luis Fonsi said, "“Despacito” was a song that from the time I started writing it I felt that its hook was really catchy and powerful, but at the same time very simple. The lyrics are sensual and the beat of the song will make you want to move. That’s what I wanted to create with this song: a fun track that had that Latin feel with a melody that I feel very comfortable singing and that will make people just dance." When asked about the genre and style, Luis Fonsi stated that he does not consider it to be reggaetón, but that the song has reggaetón energy. He called this style "the new pop." Luis Fonsi also stated that Daddy Yankee helped give the song the unique "explosion that only he can bring to the table." On April 17, 2017, a remix of the track featuring Canadian singer {{w|Justin Bieber}} was released. Justin Bieber had heard "Despacito" in a Colombian nightclub during a tour in South America and wanted to record a remix version of it. The following day, Luis Fonsi received a phone call from Universal Latin about the intentions for remix and authorized the label to send the track to Bieber. Bieber's manager Scooter Braun contacted his vocal producer Josh Gudwin to work on the song, who flew to Bogotá and recorded Justin Bieber's vocals at Estudios Audiovisión. Unlike the original version, which is entirely in Spanish, the remix featuring Justin Bieber has some English lyrics as well. Justin Bieber's section at the start of the remix consists entirely of English lyrics. Later in the song, Luis Fonsi sings the bridge in English. The following change was made to the bridge between the original and the remix. ===Original Bridge=== ''Despacito'' ''Vamos a hacerlo en una playa en Puerto Rico'' ''Hasta que las olas griten "¡ay, bendito!"'' ''Para que mi sello se quede contigo'''' ===Remix=== ''Despacito'' ''This is how we do it down in Puerto Rico'' ''I just wanna hear you screaming, "¡Ay, Bendito!"'' ''I can move forever cuando esté contigo'' ''¡Bailalo!'''' ==Chart performance== In the United States, the single debuted at number two on ''Billboard'''s multi-metric Hot Latin Songs chart on February 4, 2017, becoming Fonsi's highest-charting single since "Aquí Estoy Yo" on June 13, 2009. Two weeks later, on February 18, 2017, "Despacito" reached number one on the US Hot Latin Songs chart. "Despacito" held the number one spot for 35 straight weeks, until October 14, 2017, when it was dethroned by J Balvin's ''Mi Gente.'' On the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, the single debuted at number 88 on February 4, 2017, becoming Fonsi's third entry and Daddy Yankee's seventh. It eventually climbed to number 44 on the chart, reaching this position on April 15, 2017, the weekend before the remix with Justin Bieber was released. The remix caused the already wildly popular song to become much more popular. It reached number one on May 27, 2017. "Despacito" was the best-selling and most-streamed single of 2017 in the United States, with 2,692,000 downloads sold and 1,322,799,000 streams. It was played a total of 608,000 times on US radios in 2017, making it the year's sixth most-played song. This is more than half of the play count for the number one song, Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You", which accumulated 1,115,000 plays during 2017. ==Music video== The music video for "Despacito" premiered on January 12, 2017, at 9:00 p.m. Pacific Standard Time (January 13, 2017, at 05:00 UTC). The video shows both artists performing the song while participating on different parties on the island, featuring model Zuleyka Rivera. The video begins by showing the coast in daylight. The first two seconds show the coastal waters and show the waves breaking over the rocks. Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee perform the song in a street while elders are playing dominos, a child is getting his hair cut, two people are talking while listening to the radio, and couples are dancing in the background. Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee are singing in front of a car with other people sitting on it and dancing near it. The video received 5,140,000 views in the first 24 hours of its release, setting a record for the highest for a Spanish-language music video in the first 24 hours of release. The video reached one billion (1,000,000,000) views on April 19, 2017, doing so in 96 days, making it the second-fastest video to reach one billion views, behind only Adele's "Hello", which did so in 87 days. On August 4, 2017, at 17:30 UTC, it became the most-viewed video on YouTube, surpassing Wiz Khalifa's "See You Again", which held the title for 25 days (July 10, 2017 − August 4, 2017). Later that day, "Despacito" became the first video to reach 3 billion views. The following table shows several major view count milestones for "Despacito." {| class="wikitable" |- !Views!!Date Achieved |- |100,000,000||January 27, 2017|| |- |200,000,000||February 4, 2017|| |- |300,000,000||February 18, 2017|| |- |400,000,000||March 4, 2017|| |- |500,000,000||March 14, 2017|| |- |600,000,000||March 22, 2017|| |- |700,000,000||March 29, 2017|| |- |1,000,000,000||April 19, 2017|| |- |2,000,000,000||June 16, 2017|| |- |3,000,000,000||August 4, 2017|| |- |4,000,000,000||October 11, 2017|| |- |5,000,000,000||April 5, 2018|| |- |6,000,000,000||February 24, 2019|| |- |7,000,000,000||October 10, 2020|| |} The video held the number one spot until it was surpassed on November 1, 2020, at 11:12 p.m. EST, by Pinkfong's "Baby Shark." On October 10, 2020, "Despacito" reached 7 billion views; later that month, on October 29, "Baby Shark" became the second video to reach this milestone. 64a4ntiwkbm6sg2xjctzc2x7irsl8ps 102 448445 4095448 2022-08-23T15:35:37Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken I]] to [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]]: I am moving it so more people can access the site page wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] a3n2cj65wgopu9g61hb2ycio91lsdrk 103 448446 4095450 2022-08-23T15:35:37Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken I]] to [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]]: I am moving it so more people can access the site page wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] 12gjul3j4mcisoue612qfchg343gx1r 102 448447 4095459 2022-08-23T15:56:55Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] to [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]]: For everyone else wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cookbook:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]] 58g9n4f0rqcovv3d41l7roaqnugk4vx 103 448448 4095461 2022-08-23T15:56:56Z Wikivuyo 3384720 Wikivuyo moved page [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken with chilli rice]] to [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]]: For everyone else wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cookbook talk:Butter Chicken (Indian recipe)]] kpmc6ly5utu3dtnvjzondqf5g4kqmti 0 448449 4095475 2022-08-23T16:39:54Z రవిచంద్ర 96216 Added Vegetable names in Telugu wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ !Telugu name !English |- |Vankaya |Brinjal |- |Bendakaya |Ladies finger |- |Ullipaya |Onion |- |Beerakaya |Ridge gourd |- |Sorakaya |Bottle gourd |- |Bangala dumpa |Potato |} n5gcrpbwjbu0ybxehio70cr9po4f5dl 4095477 4095475 2022-08-23T16:46:06Z రవిచంద్ర 96216 Added few more vegetables wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ !Telugu name !తెలుగు పేరు !English |- |Vankaya |వంకాయ |Brinjal |- |Bendakaya |బెండకాయ |Ladies finger |- |Ullipaya |ఉల్లిపాయ |Onion |- |Beerakaya |బీరకాయ |Ridge gourd |- |Sorakaya |సొరకాయ |Bottle gourd |- |Bangala dumpa |బంగాళాదుంప |Potato |- |Mirapakaya |మిరపకాయ |Chilli |- |Gummadikaya |గుమ్మడికాయ |Pumpkin |- |Mullangi |ముల్లంగి |Radish |} ih0ymf4xkqdaowclwejw5nlpk9tiusw 0 448450 4095486 2022-08-23T17:30:04Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 Created page with "== Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler ==" wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == a9oh8t8up6vw63xq154guulutku1hda 4095487 4095486 2022-08-23T17:31:32Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ Added 2 new paragraphs wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <nowiki><br></nowiki> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <nowiki><br></nowiki> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. 67w7pdq85mjj2816bhxvn9e6f22vusm 4095488 4095487 2022-08-23T17:32:02Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. <br> p74c76wi3yyqptshkpljn93cdbywi8h 4095489 4095488 2022-08-23T17:36:32Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ inserted page breaks wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the <nowiki>''</nowiki>original<nowiki>''</nowiki> Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, <nowiki>'''</nowiki>Dracula<nowiki>'''</nowiki> in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> According to Wikipedia, "Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons." <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). <br> 200ihhlpc3l4k3q8x3qz20gzisceg1b 4095490 4095489 2022-08-23T17:37:26Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ Added underline to book title wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the <nowiki>''</nowiki>original<nowiki>''</nowiki> Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, <u>Dracula</u> in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> According to Wikipedia, "Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons." <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). <br> gb1y4ybkq5zm6pobc2k38j8ylnp2m2j 4095491 4095490 2022-08-23T17:41:20Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the <nowiki>''</nowiki>original<nowiki>''</nowiki> Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, <u>Dracula</u> in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> According to Wikipedia, "Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons." <br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: 1428 - 1431 |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: December 1476 - January 1477 |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 <br> <br> cttkpmf93xvztljzqtzzwd7zarrvk7a 4095493 4095491 2022-08-23T17:43:42Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Dracula Behind Vlad - The Impaler == <br> Sometimes Writers will mock their times, or the leaders in their society through parody, or through satire. In some countries Writers have the freedom to mock real men in Politics, or of great military influence who seem, in deed, like real monsters. <br> In History, there are a few real monsters, men who we will remember for their cruelty, or for their massive injustices. This does not appear to be the case with Dracula, a novel character considered "inspired by" Vlad The Impaler. Because of Bram Stoker, a popular Irish Writer, Vlad came to be known as the <nowiki>''</nowiki>original<nowiki>''</nowiki> Dracula. It is ironic that the fictional character, Dracula, is well known yet the historic man, Vlad, a Prince from a Romanian royal family, is less known. According to one writer / Historian, "...as he wrote Dracula, he borrowed certain aspects of Vlad's life and wove them in with local folklore from the region." <br> Vlad, a special Prince of Romania, is a difficult subject to research. His Political influence is greatest in Romania, as is his mythic achievements. Vlad seemed to have influenced local folklore before Bram Stoker wrote his novel, <u>Dracula</u> in 1897. <br> Estimates puts the number of people Vlad is rumored to have killed at around 80,000 people. That seems questionable, it seems unlikely for 1 man to have murdered [directly] a large chunk of the Romanian population. Although it was never rumored by the people who tell, and re-tell folk stories, that Vlad drank blood, he is known as the person behind many bloody impalements and beheadings. <br> According to Wikipedia.com, "Offences where impalement was occasionally employed included contempt for the state's responsibility for safe roads and trade routes by committing highway robbery or grave robbery, violating state policies or monopolies, or subverting standards for trade. Offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual, and religious reasons." [[wikipedia:Vlad_the_Impaler|[wiki/Vlad_the_Impaler]]]<br> <br> Vlad's father was a ruler of Wallachia, a territory between the Ottoman Empire and Europe, a country whose modern name is now known as Romania (southern). {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! 5 Facts About Vlad - The Romanian Prince |- | Father: Vlad Dracul |- | Mother: Cneajna |- | Born: 1428 - 1431 |- | Year of Reigns: 1448, 1456 - 1462, 1476 |- | Died: December 1476 - January 1477 |} Source: <br> <u>The World's Most Glorious And Notorious Rulers: The Great And The Terrible And How They Got Their Names"</u> by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Copyright 2020 by JoAnne O'Sullivan. Published by Running Press Kids, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC. ISBN: 978-0-7624-9661-7 <br> <br> c4g6qbpqf1xvemvk9kpwxmaqmaidp1e 0 448451 4095496 2022-08-23T18:13:15Z Виктор Пинчук 3291001 Created page with "[[File: Cemetery in Kamakura.jpg|thumb|370px|A cemetery in [[w:Kamakura|Kamakura]], Japan <br>Photo from the book: Viktor Pinchuk [[Hobo tourism/Japan for free|"Japan for free"]]]] [[File: Cemetery in Fangliao.jpg|thumb|370px|Cemetery in [[w:Fangliao|Fangliao]] (Taiwan), photo from the book: Viktor Pinchuk [[Hobo tourism/Two months of wandering and 14 days behind bars|"Two months of wandering and 14 days behind bars"]]]] An overnight stay in cemetery is one option getti..." wikitext text/x-wiki [[File: Cemetery in Kamakura.jpg|thumb|370px|A cemetery in [[w:Kamakura|Kamakura]], Japan <br>Photo from the book: Viktor Pinchuk [[Hobo tourism/Japan for free|"Japan for free"]]]] [[File: Cemetery in Fangliao.jpg|thumb|370px|Cemetery in [[w:Fangliao|Fangliao]] (Taiwan), photo from the book: Viktor Pinchuk [[Hobo tourism/Two months of wandering and 14 days behind bars|"Two months of wandering and 14 days behind bars"]]]] An overnight stay in cemetery is one option getting sleep for the travellers practising [[Hobo tourism/Long intercontinental trips and expeditions|hobo tourism methods]]. Cemeteries in some countries are ideal for this purpose.<br> See below for a list of places around the world where this method can be used, as well as the pros and cons. == Where and how? == The method is not applicable in every country. It was tested by the Russian traveller Viktor Pinchuk in Japan and Taiwan <ref>{{cite book|last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Japan for free|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page=27-28|isbn=978-5-9908234-1-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Six months by islands... and countries|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page= 18|isbn=978-5-9908234-0-2}}</ref>. The positive factor in this case is that the inhabitants of the above countries (as if showing care for travellers, who use methods of hobo tourism) do not place portraits of the deceased, who could materialise in dream and appear to a sleeper. In addition, the tombstones dont have frightening dates of life (or they are written in hieroglyphics).<br> Given the similar mentality of the population and the low crime rate, it can be assumed that a similar result is to be expected in South Korea and Hong Kong. Members of Russian traveller Anton Krotov's expedition, on their way to Sudan through Egypt in 1999, noticed the inhabitants [[w:City of the Dead (Cairo)|City of the Dead]] occupying crypts on the outskirts of Cairo: almost every one was inhabited by a poor family; some of the cemetery buildings were empty, which the travellers took note of <ref>{{cite book |last= Krotov|first= Anton |author-link= |date= |title= It's you, Africa!|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Drofa (Moscow)|page= |isbn=5-93281-008-4}}</ref>.<br> In analysing the above, conclude that this method is also applicable in the Arab territories In countries with high levels of street crime, however, sleeping in cemeteries is strongly discouraged. These include: Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Venezuela, South Africa (cities such as Johannesburg and Pretoria). == The equipment == A standard hobo tourists kit: a [[w:Sleeping pad|ground pad]], an inflatable pillow, a blanket or a sleeping bag (the latter is essential when visiting colder areas). It is not advisable to pitch a tent (particularly in bright colours): it may attract unnecessary attention, and there is no telling how the locals will react to such actions. == Why? == Used on a one-off basis in countries with high hotel costs and low crime rates, usually during a transit stay in an area of a settlement. It is not advisable to sleep in a cemetery for a lot of times: if you stay somewhere for a few days, it is possible to find more suitable accommodation in the meantime. Why not go to sleep on a park bench if there is no crime in the country? Indeed, such an alternative is possible. However, a cemetery is a quiet place, with no visitors at night; a person sleeping on a bench can be the object of attention from the police (who, upon noticing a foreigner, might think that his or her visa is not in order), the guard of the area used for sleeping, or curious passers-by. Of course, in the end, the police will sort out and the curious passers-by will leave after asking you a few questions, but part of your night's rest will be spent awake. == For information == There are reports online that poor people in the Philippines, like the Egyptians, use cemeteries as permanent residences <ref>{{cite web |author = Фомичева А.|url = https://anews.com/razvlechenija/89310348-v-carstve-mertvyh-pochemu-na-filippinah-ljudi-zhivut-na-kladbiwah.html|title = В царстве мертвых: почему на Филиппинах люди живут на кладбищах|lang = ru |website = anews.com/|date = |accessdate = 23. 08. 2022 |deadlink = }}</ref>. ==References== {{Reflist}} {{bookcat}} o7768nzpexgf3acoedbuyvfadgqb5f9 0 448452 4095500 2022-08-23T18:32:38Z PeterEasthope 660399 Initialized a dedicated page for the ETH Oberon license. wikitext text/x-wiki Refer to the [[w:Wikipedia:Media_copyright_questions/Archive/2016/October#Compatibility_of_the_ETH_Oberon_license_with_CC-by-SA.|evaluation]] by [[w:User:Seraphimblade|Seraphimblade]] of compatibility of the ETH Oberon license with CC-by-SA. ==ETH Oberon License== {{TextBox|BG=#F0FFF0| Formerly available from <nowiki>ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/license.txt</nowiki>. ETH Oberon Copyright (c) 1990-2003, Computer Systems Institute, ETH Zurich All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: o Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. o Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. o Neither the name of the ETH Zurich nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE ETH OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. }} 71zjgsm3evrfmokuvqxsj6ulg6xsp8s 0 448453 4095504 2022-08-23T18:51:46Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 Redirected page to [[Football (Soccer)]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Football (Soccer)]] gdlg7dfn48decrs5ojzuvohhx4odyzx 102 448454 4095533 2022-08-23T21:05:55Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Created article wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger 4kzo6i0fds2vqmz7nd1yb5bv2m46psd 4095534 4095533 2022-08-23T21:07:20Z Kingaustin07 3388213 wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper 3fa10ig2uy99yyrlkjohzil0qcuu1rw 4095538 4095534 2022-08-23T21:13:44Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray * k2h4xck0lbgcyq0mrucx8mb5un8f5ri 4095539 4095538 2022-08-23T21:15:40Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil/ coconut oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray == Procedures == # Pour cooking oil/coconut oil into a pot/pan allow to heat goybf4823nk8sj56ev612ids3uomokf 4095540 4095539 2022-08-23T21:18:04Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil/ coconut oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray == Procedures == # Pour cooking oil/coconut oil into a pot/pan allow to heat. # Added garlic, Onion, ginger and cook together for five minutes till it changes colour. # Added the rice, pepper, Maggi and stir together allow to fry for a few minutes, make sure the rice mix with the ingredients. ahm7fwix4vbhtfdwfw00r3urgwff80q 4095541 4095540 2022-08-23T21:20:03Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil/ coconut oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray == Procedures == # Pour cooking oil/coconut oil into a pot/pan allow to heat. # Added garlic, Onion, ginger and cook together for five minutes till it changes colour. # Added the rice, pepper, Maggi, salt and stir together allow to fry for a few minutes, make sure the rice mix with the ingredients. # Added coconut milk, pour little water and allow to simmer, cook for 20 minutes then add the vegetables leave it to mix for 5 minutes. okd8knhu4c2cfvcvg2xwws9tpiopcc0 4095542 4095541 2022-08-23T21:23:01Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil/ coconut oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray == Procedures == # Pour cooking oil/coconut oil into a pot/pan allow to heat. # Added garlic, Onion, ginger and cook together for five minutes till it changes colour. # Added the rice, pepper, Maggi, salt and stir together allow to fry for a few minutes, make sure the rice mix with the ingredients. # Added coconut milk, pour little water and allow to simmer, cook for 20 minutes then add the vegetables leave it to mix for 5 minutes. # Off the cooker and allow the rice to rest for 5 minutes then stir mix the vegetables (carrots, spring onions, vegetable leaves). # Serve with any choice of meat or Fish. rws46rok6ry8jcjhggfx5uq8t4gftzm 4095543 4095542 2022-08-23T21:25:03Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vegetables Coconut Rice''' is the combination of vegetables and coconut rice. Its a continental dish, but also consumed in Nigeria. == Ingredients == * Rice * Cooking Oil/ coconut oil * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Maggi * Carrot sliced * Coconut milk * Ginger === Optional Ingredients === Spring onions Yellow pepper == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/ tray == Procedures == # Pour cooking oil/coconut oil into a pot/pan allow to heat. # Added garlic, Onion, ginger and cook together for five minutes till it changes colour. # Added the rice, pepper, Maggi, salt and stir together allow to fry for a few minutes, make sure the rice mix with the ingredients. # Added coconut milk, pour little water and allow to simmer, cook for 20 minutes then add the vegetables leave it to mix for 5 minutes. # Off the cooker and allow the rice to rest for 5 minutes then stir mix the vegetables (carrots, spring onions, vegetable leaves). # Serve with any choice of meat or Fish. rp9aspbpsv452z6id5jia90ru55baek 4095612 4095543 2022-08-24T02:20:08Z Nostriker 3371989 style, format, language, links wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vegetable coconut rice''' is a dish of rice and vegetables cooked in coconut milk. It's a continental dish but is also consumed in Nigeria. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] or [[Cookbook:Coconut oil|coconut oil]] * [[Cookbook:Garlic|Garlic]], minced * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]], chopped * Fresh [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]], peeled and minced * Rice * Pepper * [[Cookbook:Stock Cube|Maggi]] * Salt * [[Cookbook:Coconut Milk|Coconut milk]] * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrot]], sliced * [[Cookbook:Green Onion|Spring onions]], sliced == Equipment == * Pot * Cooking gas * Spoon * Knife * Slicing pan/tray == Procedure == # Heat a thin layer of cooking oil in a pot. Add garlic, onion, and ginger. Cook for 5 minutes until golden. # Stir in the rice, pepper, maggi, and salt. Allow to fry for a few minutes, making sure the rice mixes with the other ingredients. # Stir in the coconut milk and a little water. Allow to simmer for 20 minutes. # Mix in the vegetables, and cook for 5 minutes. # Remove the pot from the heat, and allow the dish to rest for 5 minutes. # Stir the rice well, and serve with your choice of meat or fish. 6bkgrbkzr6bvop5r4o4t153qzd81n3a 3 448455 4095537 2022-08-23T21:13:13Z L10nM4st3r 3380243 /* Welcome */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome == <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Kingaustin07!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' You do not need technical skills to [[Using Wikibooks|contribute]]. You can [[WB:BOLD|easily change most books]]. Please [[WB:CHAT|introduce yourself]], and let us know what [[WB:PROJECTS|interests you]]. If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? Use the ''move'' tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for [[WB:HELP|help]]). * To request a page be deleted, add {{tlx|delete|''your reason''}} to the top of the page. * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the [[WB:DP|deletion policy]], and check the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] to find out why. Also check the [[WB:RFD|RFD]] archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> Thanks for your contributions! ^{[[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:orange">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[meta:User_talk:L10nM4st3r|<span tyle="color:#fed8b1">'''Roar''' at me</span>]]} 21:13, 23 August 2022 (UTC) pv5j6pk5xwjnqatfrdesva0q6t4ybrj 102 448456 4095551 2022-08-23T21:37:44Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Created article wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Cocoyam Chips popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. t212i8tolaax0soqtcl5tjfho7x8583 4095553 4095551 2022-08-23T21:44:32Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Cocoyam Chips popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas lxgt4yx47s4jndmizd3bdhq8xpgiqed 4095555 4095553 2022-08-23T21:46:41Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Cocoyam Chips popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedures == # Wash cocoyam with water, peel and rinse twice to remove dirt, then slice it to desired shape 9ffqkj578sob616bv4rmmbjhqs97ld8 4095557 4095555 2022-08-23T21:48:46Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Cocoyam Chips popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedures == # Wash cocoyam with water, peel and rinse twice to remove dirt, then slice it to desired shape # Put the sliced cocoyam in a pot, then add salt, turn together to make the salt mix with the cocoyam 9ypr7ok930adqz9q5ahiv0jav53cvjv 4095561 4095557 2022-08-23T21:51:23Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Cocoyam Chips popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedures == # Wash cocoyam with water, peel and rinse twice to remove dirt, then slice it to desired shape. # Put the sliced cocoyam in a pot, then add salt, turn together to make the salt mix with the cocoyam. # Preheat a frying pan with vegetable oil and fry all the cocoyam. # Drain the cocoyam chips of excess oil and it ready to eat. 5megiyfbthmuo8kz7i98d20ecm2fgue 4095563 4095561 2022-08-23T21:53:19Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Cocoyam Chips''' popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable Oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedures == # Wash cocoyam with water, peel and rinse twice to remove dirt, then slice it to desired shape. # Put the sliced cocoyam in a pot, then add salt, turn together to make the salt mix with the cocoyam. # Preheat a frying pan with vegetable oil and fry all the cocoyam. # Drain the cocoyam chips of excess oil and it ready to eat. erhx90uhja2xkkm0xf8j15s5cj4ct4w 4095567 4095563 2022-08-23T22:06:36Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian Cocoyam Chips''' popularly called Kokoro in Yoruba is a type of Chips made with cocoyam. Just as plantain chip is made with plantain. == Ingredients == * Cocoyam * Vegetable Oil * Salt == Equipments == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedures == # Wash cocoyam with water, peel and rinse twice to remove dirt, then slice it to desired shape. # Put the sliced cocoyam in a pot, then add salt, turn together to make the salt mix with the cocoyam. # Preheat a frying pan with vegetable oil and fry all the cocoyam. # Drain the cocoyam chips of excess oil and it ready to eat. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 9qta5odr74xoki4mvz6m19dazu1b82v 4095614 4095567 2022-08-24T02:23:27Z Nostriker 3371989 style, format, language, links wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian cocoyam chips''', popularly called kokoro in Yoruba, are a type of chips made with cocoyam (taro root). == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Taro Root|Cocoyam]] * [[Cookbook:Vegetable oil|Vegetable oil]] * Salt == Equipment == * Frying pan * Bowl for washing * Knife * Slicer * Cooking gas == Procedure == # Wash cocoyam with water, and peel the tuber. Rinse twice to remove dirt, then thinly slice it to your desired shape. # Put the sliced cocoyam in a pot, then season with salt. Toss well to season all of the cocoyam. # Preheat a frying pan enough vegetable oil for deep frying. Add the cocoyam slices, working in batches if needed, and fry until crisp. # Drain the cocoyam chips of excess oil, and serve. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] tmf6yseegun9wb9st36kynk2ylmfk22 102 448457 4095570 2022-08-23T22:22:00Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Created article wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow qmsyla36mkf7elie7up8n1h1m2uadu1 4095572 4095570 2022-08-23T22:24:27Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu 4jexdxxu32732ukcmthd1o7fagmwiad 4095573 4095572 2022-08-23T22:25:32Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu === Optional Ingredients === * Uziza powder mkhdyrg67zzpq5s229x75mwcgax2vnn 4095574 4095573 2022-08-23T22:26:44Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu === Optional Ingredients === * Uziza powder == Equipments == * Pot * Knife * Slicer * Gas cooker * lwtaetqxkvcq885ews3kum0xw0rywcd 4095577 4095574 2022-08-23T22:36:35Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu === Optional Ingredients === * Uziza powder == Equipments == * Pot * Knife * Slicer * Gas cooker == Procedures == 1.Peel and cut the potato into cubes,Finely slice the fresh pepper and onions. 2.Grind uziza and ehuru seeds. Wash and slice nchu anwu well. 3.Wash mushrooms and slice,divide the mushrooms into shreds with your hands. 4.In a pot pour some cups of water, add potato, fresh pepper, onions,maggi, uziza and ehuru and allow to cook. 5.Cook the potato cubes for 5 minutes. Add mushrooms, cook for 5 minutes. Add ncha anwu and cook for another 5 minutes. 6.Take off the heat. 7. Mushroom Pepper soup is ready. serve with any type of Nigerian swallow. f248ti8ujo5r6g0lzwtqsmehu3hhp51 4095578 4095577 2022-08-23T22:37:44Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu === Optional Ingredients === * Uziza powder == Equipments == * Pot * Knife * Slicer * Gas cooker == Procedures == 1.Peel and cut the potato into cubes,Finely slice the fresh pepper and onions. 2.Grind uziza and ehuru seeds. Wash and slice nchu anwu well. 3.Wash mushrooms and slice,divide the mushrooms into shreds with your hands. 4.In a pot pour some cups of water, add potato, fresh pepper, onions,maggi, uziza and ehuru and allow to cook. 5.Cook the potato cubes for 5 minutes. Add mushrooms, cook for 5 minutes. Add ncha anwu and cook for another 5 minutes. 6.Take off the heat. 7. Mushroom Pepper soup is ready. serve with any type of Nigerian swallow. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] a8l6xxey8opkscdglhi58dtyyjb7yjn 4095579 4095578 2022-08-23T22:38:55Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Mushroom Pepper Soup is a Soup recipe that is mostly consumed by the igbo people of South East Nigeria, it can be served with any swallow == Ingredients == * Mushroom * Fresh pepper * Onion * Potatoes * Maggi * Uziza leaves * Ehuru * Nchu anwu === Optional Ingredients === * Uziza powder == Equipments == * Pot * Knife * Slicer * Gas cooker == Procedures == 1.Peel and cut the potato into cubes,Finely slice the fresh pepper and onions. 2.Grind uziza and ehuru seeds. Wash and slice nchu anwu well. 3.Wash mushrooms and slice,divide the mushrooms into shreds with your hands. 4.In a pot pour some cups of water, add potato, fresh pepper, onions,maggi, uziza and ehuru and allow to cook. 5.Cook the potato cubes for 5 minutes. Add mushrooms, cook for 5 minutes. Add ncha anwu and cook for another 5 minutes. 6.Take off the heat. 7. Mushroom Pepper soup is ready. serve with any type of Nigerian swallow. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] j0dztjuhse7gbg5b2oekiewin8wtag3 4095616 4095579 2022-08-24T02:29:49Z Nostriker 3371989 style, format, language, links wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mushroom pepper soup''' is a dish mostly consumed by the Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria. It can be served with any type of swallow. == Ingredients == * [[Cookbook:Potato|Potatoes]], peeled and cubed * Fresh pepper, finely sliced * [[Cookbook:Onion|Onion]], finely sliced * [[Cookbook:Stock Cube|Maggi]] * [[Cookbook:Ashanti Pepper|Uziza]] leaves * Uziza powder (optional) * [[Cookbook:Ehuru|Ehuru]] seeds, ground * [[Cookbook:Mushroom|Mushrooms]], washed and shredded * [[Cookbook:Scent Leaf|Nchu anwu]] (scent leaf), sliced == Equipment == * Pot * Knife * Slicer * Gas cooker == Procedure == # Heat some water in a pot. Add the potato, fresh pepper, onions, maggi, uziza, and ehuru. Bring to a simmer, and cook for 5 minutes. # Add the mushrooms, and simmer for 5 minutes. # Add the ncha anwu, and simmer for 5 minutes. # Remove from the heat, and serve with any swallow. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Soup recipes]] 194d9ruff4igyi5ogj46jyslhtu4ecr 102 448458 4095580 2022-08-23T22:50:57Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * se1qradc1zqpd0tlzoo4x4xzv9qkt3v 4095581 4095580 2022-08-23T22:52:24Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Carrot * 4ntqxhjs0usjihfvna4odn0cgcco8ku 4095582 4095581 2022-08-23T22:56:02Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Carrot === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise 0jezvdnjj8ptmiqldr9pqm53vze41qy 4095583 4095582 2022-08-23T22:57:30Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Carrot === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon f0ynze918pjg6g976l5yzab9yfk0678 4095631 4095583 2022-08-24T05:26:33Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == s8kpboxuoukpiwwz07fwrrogkb0fynt 4095633 4095631 2022-08-24T05:33:57Z Kingaustin07 3388213 wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == 1.Cook pasta in salted water until it's al dente (firm to the bite). Avoid becoming overly supple. Don't forget to boil the eggs as well. 2.Drain the pasta, then reserve it. Your cooked meat and veggies (carrots, onions, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers) should be chopped. Likewise, peel and cut your boiled eggs. 3.Mayonnaise, vinegar, and sugar/honey (if used) should all be combined in a medium mixing bowl. Add pepper and salt to taste when seasoning. 4.Mix the Pasta that has been well-drained, eggs, bell peppers, carrots, cucumbers, chicken or hotdog, and onions should all be combined in a separate, sizable mixing dish. 5.Pour the dressing over the top and toss the ingredients to coat everything thoroughly. 6.Pasta salad is ready to eat, serve or keep in the fridge. emr1a8eyrqboypnm7ea461xirekbwx6 4095634 4095633 2022-08-24T05:34:43Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == 1.Cook pasta in salted water until it's al dente (firm to the bite). Avoid becoming overly supple. Don't forget to boil the eggs as well. 2.Drain the pasta, then reserve it. Your cooked meat and veggies (carrots, onions, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers) should be chopped. Likewise, peel and cut your boiled eggs. 3.Mayonnaise, vinegar, and sugar/honey (if used) should all be combined in a medium mixing bowl. Add pepper and salt to taste when seasoning. 4.Mix the Pasta that has been well-drained, eggs, bell peppers, carrots, cucumbers, chicken or hotdog, and onions should all be combined in a separate, sizable mixing dish. 5.Pour the dressing over the top and toss the ingredients to coat everything thoroughly. 6.Pasta salad is ready to eat, serve or keep in the fridge. qf1na74gb4jk5nbbjo77j3cwj6ys7tq 4095635 4095634 2022-08-24T05:37:19Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Pasta Salad is a salad made with pasta. And has an easy procedure of making. == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == 1.Cook pasta in salted water until it's al dente (firm to the bite). Avoid becoming overly supple. Don't forget to boil the eggs as well. 2.Drain the pasta, then reserve it. Your cooked meat and veggies (carrots, onions, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers) should be chopped. Likewise, peel and cut your boiled eggs. 3.Mayonnaise, vinegar, and sugar/honey (if used) should all be combined in a medium mixing bowl. Add pepper and salt to taste when seasoning. 4.Mix the Pasta that has been well-drained, eggs, bell peppers, carrots, cucumbers, chicken or hotdog, and onions should all be combined in a separate, sizable mixing dish. 5.Pour the dressing over the top and toss the ingredients to coat everything thoroughly. 6.Pasta salad is ready to eat, serve or keep in the fridge. 3u7ys14gw3mq70f9r0c62oct2525prg 4095636 4095635 2022-08-24T05:38:13Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Pasta Salad is a salad made with pasta. And has an easy procedure of making. == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == 1.Cook pasta in salted water until it's al dente (firm to the bite). Avoid becoming overly supple. Don't forget to boil the eggs as well. 2.Drain the pasta, then reserve it. Your cooked meat and veggies (carrots, onions, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers) should be chopped. Likewise, peel and cut your boiled eggs. 3.Mayonnaise, vinegar, and sugar/honey (if used) should all be combined in a medium mixing bowl. Add pepper and salt to taste when seasoning. 4.Mix the Pasta that has been well-drained, eggs, bell peppers, carrots, cucumbers, chicken or hotdog, and onions should all be combined in a separate, sizable mixing dish. 5.Pour the dressing over the top and toss the ingredients to coat everything thoroughly. 6.Pasta salad is ready to eat, serve or keep in the fridge. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 6c5aw3ktn6jh7k618s9ps692912o576 4095638 4095636 2022-08-24T05:40:19Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content, added category wikitext text/x-wiki Nigerian Pasta Salad is a salad made with pasta. And has an easy procedure of making. == Ingredients == * Pasta * Chicken * Boiled egg * Bell pepper * Carrot * Black pepper * Cucumber * Salt for taste === Optional Ingredients === * Sugar/honey * Vinegar === Salad dressing === * Mayonnaise == Equipments == * Pot * Bowl * Gas cooker * Knife * Spoon == Procedures == 1.Cook pasta in salted water until its firm to the bite. Avoid becoming overly supply. Don't forget to boil the eggs as well. 2.Drain the pasta, then reserve it. Your cooked meat and veggies (carrots, onions, bell peppers, tomatoes, and cucumbers) should be chopped. Likewise, peel and cut your boiled eggs. 3.Mayonnaise, vinegar, and sugar/honey (if used) should all be combined in a medium mixing bowl. Add pepper and salt to taste when seasoning. 4.Mix the Pasta that has been well-drained, eggs, bell peppers, carrots, cucumbers, chicken or hotdog, and onions should all be combined in a separate, sizable mixing dish. 5.Pour the dressing over the top and toss the ingredients to coat everything thoroughly. 6.Pasta salad is ready to eat, serve or keep in the fridge. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Salad recipes]] 3qgdd1typi8udjf264lsx15p7ku2cfp 0 448459 4095588 2022-08-24T00:13:52Z Keenanpiazza 3399992 Created page with " == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links tha..." wikitext text/x-wiki == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve?[edit | edit source] == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results?[edit | edit source] == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source] == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice[edit | edit source] == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources[edit | edit source] == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References[edit | edit source] == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) ap1hz2xy6zemlicje1ksxccf1hvspeu 4095589 4095588 2022-08-24T00:21:20Z Keenanpiazza 3399992 wikitext text/x-wiki Article: White matter plasticity in healthy older adults: The effects of aerobic exercise == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve?[edit | edit source] == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results?[edit | edit source] == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source] == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice[edit | edit source] == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources[edit | edit source] == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References[edit | edit source] == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) 8d9lc519sfu93zbhn5keh9m253x4q9o 4095590 4095589 2022-08-24T00:25:38Z Keenanpiazza 3399992 /* What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] */ wikitext text/x-wiki Article: White matter plasticity in healthy older adults: The effects of aerobic exercise https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118305 == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve?[edit | edit source] == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results?[edit | edit source] == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source] == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice[edit | edit source] == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources[edit | edit source] == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References[edit | edit source] == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) iqqjhoe0e1dxlb8x9dq850opi1b30fz 4095594 4095590 2022-08-24T00:44:01Z Keenanpiazza 3399992 /* What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] */ wikitext text/x-wiki Article: White matter plasticity in healthy older adults: The effects of aerobic exercise https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118305 == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == Cognitive impairment is associated with white matter deterioration in healthy older adults and this papers identifying an intervention that can perhaps impede deterioration of brain health in the older population. * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] == The study was a clinical trial that involved 180 healthy adults aged between 60 -79 years * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve?[edit | edit source] == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results?[edit | edit source] == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source] == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice[edit | edit source] == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources[edit | edit source] == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References[edit | edit source] == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) hqkevve308b6nfn81ugaknqcth3m1di 0 448460 4095591 2022-08-24T00:36:06Z Caitln.Irvine 3399151 Created page with "This is a critique of the article: Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.<ref>Kalron, A., Rose..." wikitext text/x-wiki This is a critique of the article: Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.<ref>Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.</ref> == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important '''[https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/ Multiple Sclerosis (MS)]''' Occurs when the body’s own immune system damages the myelin. Myelin the fatty material that protects and insulates nerves, allowing electrical messages to travel quickly and efficiently around the body.<ref name=":0">https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/</ref> Through the process of demyelination, patches of the nerve become exposed and scarred impacting on the ability to communicate messages. This break down of communication may lead to symptoms such as loss of motor function. Effecting ability to walk, vision, memory, sensation and so fourth. <ref name=":0" /> - few studies have investigated Pilates as rehab in MS == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == <references /> 4hb44tpij3ghq83izu7ejk5n07rqr8t 4095592 4095591 2022-08-24T00:38:46Z Caitln.Irvine 3399151 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a critique of the article: Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.<ref>Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.</ref> == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important '''[https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/ Multiple Sclerosis (MS)]''' occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks myelin. Myelin is the fatty material that protects and insulates nerves, allowing electrical messages to travel quickly and efficiently around the body.<ref name=":0">https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/</ref> Through the process of demyelination, patches of the nerve become exposed and scarred impacting the ability for the body to communicate messages. This break down of communication may lead to symptoms such as loss of motor function. Effecting one’s ability to walk, vision, memory, sensation and so fourth. <ref name=":0" /> - few studies have investigated Pilates as rehab in MS == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == <references /> bsoq49472gj7icvjjyknmdm65usc45w 4095593 4095592 2022-08-24T00:41:17Z Caitln.Irvine 3399151 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a critique of the article: Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.<ref>Kalron, A., Rosenblum, U., Frid, L., & Achiron, A. (2017). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0269215516637202?casa_token=JBm1SkNgCAcAAAAA:vYS9dp7hdqS65qESCcEDXl6Xa2x7e1XaSOvl8aGe4DrlmBTXd9CICLJcX2WwFZFyqRy8h82iLgELUQ Pilates exercise training vs. physical therapy for improving walking and balance in people with multiple sclerosis: a randomized controlled trial]. Clinical Rehabilitation, 31(3), 319–328.</ref> == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important '''[https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/ Multiple Sclerosis (MS)]''' occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks myelin. Myelin is the fatty material that protects and insulates nerves, allowing electrical messages to travel quickly and efficiently around the body.<ref name=":0">https://www.msaustralia.org.au/what-is-multiple-sclerosis-ms/</ref> Through the process of demyelination, patches of the nerve become exposed and scarred impacting the ability for the body to communicate messages. This break down of communication may lead to symptoms such as loss of motor function. Effecting one’s ability to walk, vision, memory, sensation and so fourth. <ref name=":0" /> - balance and gait deficit are common in people with MS - few studies have investigated Pilates as rehab in MS - previous studies have struggled to draw significant conclusions == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == <references /> ripaanwryqer7wtz10ldzltg271detz 0 448461 4095596 2022-08-24T01:11:02Z RDBury 100013 Create page wikitext text/x-wiki == Creating a video thumbnail using GIMP == GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program is an image editor with much of the functionality of expensive photo editing suites such as Photoshop, but it's free. With all the functionality it can be daunting for a new user, so out aim here is to discuss only what you need to know to create a serviceable thumbnail to attach to a video you're going to upload. === Basic concepts === ==== Tools ==== The functionality of GIMP is organized into Tools. For example there is a Move tool to move things around, a Paintbrush tool to draw directly on a picture, a Scale to grow or reduce the size of an image, and a Text tool to add text to an image. Depending of the type of editing you'll be doing, you'll find some tools more useful than others. You can then concentrate your efforts on learning those specific tools instead of the entire program. ==== Layers ==== In GIMP, an image is organized as a series of Layers. Think of these a stack of transparencies laid on top of each other. Each layer has something drawn on it, for example text. But it also has transparent areas which allow whatever is underneath that layer to be seen. As an example, a simple GIMP image might consist of a landscape in the bottom or background layer, and text in a layer above it. The text isn't drawn directly on the background, so it can be changed easily without having to reconstruct the background that makes layers such a useful feature. === Creating a prototype thumbnail === Let's go through the process of creating your first thumbnail. Once you have that, you can re-use pieces of it to save time when making new thumbnails. First create a blank image of the size recommended by the service which will host your video. For example YouTube recommends a thumbnail size of 1280x720. But keep in mind that most viewers will not see the image at this resolution but much smaller, so you'll want to make sure that the important features are visible even if the image is shrunk to the size of a postage stamp. Just Select File→New from the main menu, then fill in a width of 1280 and a width of 720, leaving the other options at their default values, and press OK. The image which is created has a single layer of white for a background. You'll probably want to use something a bit more exciting for a background though. We recommend that you save a few frames from your video while you're in the video editor. First, locate the Layers dockable tab; by default it's located in the lower right part of the screen. Because of all the tools and tabs included in the program, most tabs have subtabs, so if you don't see Layers then it may mean that another subtab is active, so look for the layers icon which is three rectangles stacked on top of each other. If the icon still isn't there for some reason, you can open it by selecting Windows→Dockable Dialogs from the main menu. In this case the shortcut Ctrl-L will open the subtab as well. You undock subtabs and move them to other tabs by dragging the icon. Once you've located the Layers tab, there should be a single layer present, plain white and labelled "background". If you're going to get your background from somewhere else then delete this; look for the row of buttons at the bottom of the tab and press the X-button. You can also right-click and press "Delete Layer" from the option list. With no background, the image is totally transparent, which is shown as a checkerboard pattern in GIMP. To add your frames from the game to the image, select File→Open as Layers... from the main menu, and select saved images. There is no harm in selecting all of them if you've saved more than one. The images will typically be bigger than the size of the image, but that's good since it gives you a chance to frame the image. Make sure the Move tool is active; this appears as a plus sign shaped icon in the tool selection area in upper left part of the seen, or can press M. There is a Tool Options tab which controls the currently selected tool, and you sure make sure that this shows "Layer" as what is being moved, and "Move the active layer" is selected. Now you can move the layer around within the image using the mouse. You can move it so extraneous text and other distractions are hidden outside the image, and something you want to focus on is near the center. It's a good idea to have some relatively plain areas visible since that will be a good place to place text. You can also scale the image if necessary, but we won't cover that right now. Now that you have a background, it's a good idea to add some text. Activate the Text tool by click the A-icon in the upper left corner, or by pressing T. The Tool Options tab is more complex this time, and you can set things like font, font size, color, and other options which are best left at their default values for now. Remember that most people will see the image at a much smaller scale than you''re seeing it now, so the text should be very large to be readable. We suggest a text font size of 1/8 the image height, so in our example 160 pixels. The only requirement for font is that should be readable, but you can try different styles to match the mood of the game. For color you'll want something that contrasts well with the background, so a dark color of the background is light and vice versa. For text it's more important to contrast brightness than color. The brightness of a color is determined for the most part by the green component, so rely mainly on the difference in the green component as a measure of readability. The largest text should be reserved for the name of the game, but you can also add additional text for additional information, an episode number, a very short episode title, etc. We suggest simple black or white as the color and a slightly smaller font, say 120 pixels. When you have the text characteristics selected, just click somewhere on the image to create the text. It doesn't matter much where at this point since you can easily move the text around. You'll see a smaller version of the tool options, but just start typing to create text. When you're done, click on the image again or one a layer in the Layers tab to stop. Every time you add text, GIMP create a separate layer for it. Can can move the layers around easily by switching back to the move tools, and dragging them with the mouse as with the background image. You can also experiment with the layers themselves; click on the eye next to the layer name to turn a layer invisible, or raise and lower layers over others using the chevron buttons at the bottom of the Layers tab. You should have a reasonable looking thumbnail image at this point. There are many more features of GIMP to explore, and the goal here is not to teach you to be graphic designer, so we refer you to the numerous instructional videos available for learning GIMP for more details. For now we just want to save the image. It's important to save each images in two ways. First, save the image in GIMP's native XCF format. This will not be uploaded but you should save it in case you need to go back and change something later. To do this, select File→Save as... (or just File→Save, depending on circumstances) and specify a name and location. Second, save the image in PNG format. Do this, select File→Export as... from the main menu, specify a name and location, then press Export. We recommend adding something to the file name to distinguish it from other files such as the unedited frames from the game. For example add "_edit" to the end. An Export Images options dialog pops up, but you can leave all the options at their defaults and just press Export again to create the PNG file to use a thumbnail. === Reusing the prototype === Once you have one thumbnail image safely stored as an XCF file, you don't have to start from scratch anymore. Open an existing image which already has most of the work done, the correct image size, the title text, etc. Save the image under a new name, delete and replace the background layer if that's what you want, and tweak the text as needed. Then save twice again as above to create a new thumbnail. 501yagux997ii2l9t3cjeg6301gxu6c 10 448462 4095603 2022-08-24T01:38:14Z RogueScholar 847443 Mirror template's current state to sandbox subpage wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="center noprint" style="background-color: {{{bgcolor|#ffffe6}}}; border: {{{bordercolor|#c5c58b}}} {{{borderstyle|double}}} {{{borderwidth|4px}}}; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.75em auto 1.25em; min-width: 60%; max-width: 98%;" |- style="border: none;" | rowspan="2" style="border: none; font-weight: 500; padding: 0.25em 0.75em; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; width: 20%;" | {{#if:{{{prev|{{{PrevPage|}}}}}}|[[File:Blue Glass Arrow RTL.svg|frameless|x50px|alt=Previous page|link={{{prev|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}]]<br />{{#ifeq:{{{prev_disp|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}}}}}}|{{{prev|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|[[{{{prev|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}}}}}}]]|[[{{{prev|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|{{{prev_disp|{{Delink|{{{PrevPage}}}}}}}}]]}}}} | style="border: none; font-size: 1.3rem; font-variant: small-caps; font-weight: 700; padding-top: 0.25em; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis;" | {{#ifeq:{{{book_disp|{{{book|{{Delink|{{{BookName|}}}}}}}}}}}|{{{book|{{Delink|{{{BookName|}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|[[{{{book|{{Delink|{{{BookName|{{NAMESPACE}}:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}}}}}}}}}]]|[[{{{book|{{Delink|{{{BookName|{{NAMESPACE}}:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|{{{book_disp|{{{book|{{Delink|{{{BookName|{{ROOTPAGENAME}}}}}}}}}}}}}]]}} | rowspan="2" style="border: none; font-weight: 500; padding: 0.25em 0.75em; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; vertical-align: middle; white-space: nowrap; width: 20%;" | {{#if:{{{next|{{{NextPage|}}}}}}|[[File:Blue Glass Arrow.svg|frameless|x50px|alt=Next page|link={{{next|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}]]<br />{{#ifeq:{{{next_disp|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}}}}}}|{{{next|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|[[{{{next|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}}}}}}]]|[[{{{next|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}|wikilinks=target}}}}}|{{{next_disp|{{Delink|{{{NextPage}}}}}}}}]]}}}} |- style="border: none;" | style="border: none; font-size: 1.25rem; font-style: italic; font-weight: 600; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis;" | {{{current|{{{CurrentPage|{{SUBPAGENAME}}}}}}}} |}<noinclude> {{Documentation}}</noinclude> lho8lsomcw3rvc1d02cxb9jmqryuig7 10 448463 4095610 2022-08-24T01:57:37Z RogueScholar 847443 Mirror template's current state to sandbox subpage wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifeq:{{{small|}}}|yes | {{Ombox/core | small = yes | type = {{{type|}}} | image = {{#if:{{{smallimage|}}}| {{{smallimage}}} | {{{image|}}} }} | imageright = {{#if:{{{smallimageright|}}} | {{{smallimageright}}} | {{{imageright|}}} }} | style = {{{style|}}} | textstyle = {{{textstyle|}}} | text = {{#if:{{{smalltext|}}}| {{{smalltext}}} | {{{text}}} }} }} | {{Ombox/core | type = {{{type|}}} | image = {{{image|}}} | imageright = {{{imageright|}}} | style = {{{style|}}} | textstyle = {{{textstyle|}}} | text = {{{text}}} }} }}<noinclude> {{Documentation}}<!-- Add categories and interwikis to the /doc subpage, not here! --></noinclude> hxnhwkak22zhvlycdupekg5tzd2dvia 10 448464 4095619 2022-08-24T03:16:22Z RogueScholar 847443 Mirror template's current state to sandbox subpage wikitext text/x-wiki <span class="smallcaps" style="font-variant: small-caps;">{{{1}}}</span><noinclude> {{Documentation}}<!-- PLEASE ADD DOCUMENTATION/CATEGORIES/INTERWIKIS TO THE /doc SUBPAGE, THANKS--></noinclude> km4kcc6pzj7kzxq5yvdrmuuxoyzzoz0 0 448465 4095629 2022-08-24T05:18:59Z Locsnevets57 3398418 Added assignment Skeleton wikitext text/x-wiki PLEASE write a reference of the article you are critiquing at the top of the page. == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code <references /> (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}}) 2q1zyr9ypmqzb45e8zhmqre6ljfomoy 4095642 4095629 2022-08-24T05:45:59Z Locsnevets57 3398418 Added reference to article wikitext text/x-wiki Helgadóttir.B, Forsell.Y, Ekblom.Ö (2014) Physical Activity Patterns of People Affected by Depressive and Anxiety Disorders as Measured by Accelerometers: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLOS ONE. 10(1): e0115894. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0115894 == What is the background to this research? == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from? == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this? == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve? == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results? == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research? == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References == Add in the references using this code <references /> (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this {{BookCat}}) 1gjr6i0pjf5cfqx1u7154esnlv8hfd1 2 448466 4095645 2022-08-24T05:46:51Z Toretto1327 3400016 Created page with "Wazzup" wikitext text/x-wiki Wazzup 3tajafre9v7s2ppwik46sp0u8uh3ttn 10 448467 4095691 2022-08-24T07:16:59Z RogueScholar 847443 Create proper documentation subpage wikitext text/x-wiki {{Documentation subpage}} {{Possible-risk}} This utility template centers text inside an HTML {{Tag|div}} box that is wrapped around the {{Tag|span}} tags inside which is the text you supplied to the template's single, unnamed parameter {{Para|1}}. The {{Tag|span}} tags have 0.75[[wikipedia:em (typography)|em]] of padding on all sides and the {{Tag|div}} box has margins of 1em set above and below while the left and right margins are automatically sized to be identical (the result of calculating <code>(viewport width - div width) / 2</code>, which is the mechanism that actually centers the content on the page or inside whatever other smaller container it was placed in). == Usage == {{Template link general|Center|2=1=Your text goes here|3=style=<var>inline CSS declarations</var>}} The {{Para|style}} parameter is entirely optional and only intended to provide a way to overcome minor issues with text size and spacing. If used as intended, wrapped around text needing to be centered on the page, with any wikitext style desired applied ''outside the template'', this template should be reliable and fairly versatile. === Example === <pre style="margin-left: 2.5em; max-width 48em; white-space: pre;">{{Center|1=You have not the power to bind me to either side of the page!}}</pre> which produces: {{Center|1=You have not the power to bind me to either side of the page!}} == Caveats == While not required, it's good to cultivate the habit of prepending <code>1=</code> to the text you want centered, since that eliminates any chance of the template being broken by text that happens to have an equality sign (<code>=</code>) already present in it. Absent that situation and a few exceedingly rare others, it is perfectly acceptable to call it in its simplest form, e.g. <code style="white-space: nowrap;"><nowiki>{{Center|Read this in the middle of the page.}}</nowiki></code>. === Spacing === The default padding and margin choices can be desirable in many cases as it sets off the text nicely from its surroundings, but that assumes it is the last (or only) text on a line—which can adversely affect wikitext using <kbd>||</kbd> separators in tables. === Text size === It can also have undesirable 'enlarging' effects on the font used as a result of the double nested tag pairs, again, especially in tables. This is a good use for the style parameter; feeding it values of <code>font-size: X[[wikipedia:em (typography)|em]];</code>, where <code>X</code> is a decimal number whose default value is 1.0 (that represents the font size of the template's current output), can correct these issues. When <code>X</code> < 1, e.g. <code>font-size: 0.95em;</code>, the font size is reduced in proportion to the amount subtracted from 1 to achieve <code>X</code>, in this example a reduction of 5%. The reverse holds true for values of <code>X</code> that are > 1, if you need to enlarge the text instead.<includeonly> {{Sandbox other||<!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> [[Category:Text formatting templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Typing-aid templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Utility templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] }}</includeonly> 524yv8nnpgdjxp9cf7ab5039n4znxvl 4095697 4095691 2022-08-24T07:50:52Z RogueScholar 847443 Add TemplateData wikitext text/x-wiki {{Documentation subpage}} {{High-use|750+}} This utility template centers text inside an HTML {{Tag|div}} box that is wrapped around the {{Tag|span}} tags inside which is the text you supplied to the template's single, unnamed parameter, {{Para|1}}. The {{Tag|span}} tags have 0.75[[wikipedia:em (typography)|em]] of padding on all sides and the {{Tag|div}} box has margins of 1em set above and below while the left and right margins are automatically sized to be identical (the result of calculating <code>(viewport width - div width) / 2</code>, which is the mechanism that actually centers the content on the page or inside whatever other smaller container it was placed in). == Usage == :::<big>{{Template link general|Center|2=1=Your text goes here|3=style=<var>optional inline CSS declarations</var>|bold=yes|kbd=yes|nolink=yes}}</big> The {{Para|style}} parameter is entirely optional and only intended to provide a way to overcome minor issues with text size and spacing. If used as intended, wrapped around text needing to be centered on the page, with any wikitext style desired applied ''outside the template'', this template should be reliable and fairly versatile. === Example === <pre style="margin-left: 2.5em; max-width: 48em; white-space: pre;">{{Center|1=You have not the power to bind me to either side of the page!}}</pre> which produces: {{Center|1=You have not the power to bind me to either side of the page!}} == Caveats == While not required, it's good to cultivate the habit of prepending <code>1=</code> to the text you want centered, since that eliminates any chance of the template being broken by text that happens to have an equality sign (<code>=</code>) already present in it. Absent that situation and a few exceedingly rare others, it is perfectly acceptable to call it in its simplest form, e.g. <code style="white-space: nowrap;"><nowiki>{{Center|Read this in the middle of the page.}}</nowiki></code>. === Spacing === The default padding and margin choices can be desirable in many cases as it sets off the text nicely from its surroundings, but that assumes it is the last (or only) text on a line—which can adversely affect wikitext using <kbd>||</kbd> separators in tables. === Text size === It can also have undesirable 'enlarging' effects on the font used as a result of the double nested tag pairs, again, especially in tables. This is a good use for the style parameter; feeding it values of <code>font-size: X[[wikipedia:em (typography)|em]];</code>, where <code>X</code> is a decimal number whose default value is 1.0 (that represents the font size of the template's current output), can correct these issues. When <code>X</code> < 1, e.g. <code>font-size: 0.95em;</code>, the font size is reduced in proportion to the amount subtracted from 1 to achieve <code>X</code>, in this example a reduction of 5%. The reverse holds true for values of <code>X</code> that are > 1, if you need to enlarge the text instead. == TemplateData == {{TemplateData header}} <templatedata>{ "description": "Formatting template that centers text on the page or inside of whatever container the template is placed within; a drop-in replacement for the long-deprecated <center>...</center> tags of yore.", "format": "inline", "paramOrder": [ "1", "style" ], "params": { "1": { "aliases": [ "content", "text" ], "label": "Input text", "description": "The text you wished to appear centered wherever this template is placed", "example": "Center me.", "type": "string", "required": true }, "style": { "label": "Inline CSS", "description": "Any extra inline CSS3 style definitions can be supplied to this parameter for inclusion in the <div>...</div> wrapper tags (don't forget to include the semicolon at the end of each one)", "example": "font-size: 1.1em; font-weight: bold;", "type": "line" } } }</templatedata><includeonly> {{Sandbox other||<!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata --> [[Category:Text formatting templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Typing-aid templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Utility templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] }}</includeonly> jkjpjun5jyyumc1ae0jqkpes1ro9top 0 448468 4095693 2022-08-24T07:26:50Z K Kompanichenko 3399135 Added contents section. wikitext text/x-wiki PLEASE write a reference of the article you are critiquing at the top of the page. == Contents == * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20is%20the%20background%20to%20this%20research%3F|1What is the background to this research?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#Where%20is%20the%20research%20from%3F|2Where is the research from?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20kind%20of%20research%20was%20this%3F|3What kind of research was this?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20did%20the%20research%20involve%3F|4What did the research involve?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20were%20the%20basic%20results%3F|5What were the basic results?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20conclusions%20can%20we%20take%20from%20this%20research%3F|6What conclusions can we take from this research?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#Practical%20advice|7Practical advice]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#Further%20information/resources|8Further information/resources]] * 9References bvzy4k2mwwfcjcd1tgdtnds45vh21ao 4095695 4095693 2022-08-24T07:36:03Z K Kompanichenko 3399135 Added template sections and inserted article information. wikitext text/x-wiki This page is a critique of the article ''[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34743682/ Body mass index and physical activity in seven-year-old children whose mothers exercised during pregnancy: follow-up of a multicentre randomised controlled trial] which was published in BMC Paediatrics 2021 November 8. The article was authored by'' Bjøntegaard KA, Stafne SN, Mørkved S, Salvesen KÅ and Evensen KAI. == Contents == * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#What is the background to this research?|1What is the background to this research?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#Where is the research from?|2Where is the research from?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Exemplar template#What%20kind%20of%20research%20was%20this%3F|3What kind of research was this?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#What did the research involve?|4What did the research involve?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#What were the basic results?|5What were the basic results?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#What conclusions can we take from this research?|6What conclusions can we take from this research?]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#Practical advice|7Practical advice]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#Further information/resources|8Further information/resources]] * [[Exercise as it relates to Disease/Physical health of children resultant to prenatal exercise#References|9References]] == What is the background to this research?[edit | edit source] == * a very brief introduction to what the paper is about, * how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, * and why it is important == Where is the research from?[edit | edit source] == * Is the location, or group, in which this research was conducted important to share? * Do the authors of the research have a track-record/reputation in the field? * Are there organisational/sponsorship links that may be a conflict of interest/bias the findings? == What kind of research was this?[edit | edit source] == * What kind of study was it? Observational, an RCT, a meta-analysis? * Does the level of evidence from these, and other types of studies, differ? == What did the research involve?[edit | edit source] == * Provide a lay summary of what the participants did in the study? * Was the methodology the best approach? * What limitations exist related to the important measures taken, or other aspects of the methodology (participant recruitment for instance)? == What were the basic results?[edit | edit source] == * What were the important findings? * How did the researchers interpret the results? * Do they over-emphasis the implications of their findings? == What conclusions can we take from this research?[edit | edit source] == * Provide your own insights on the conclusion (it may not quite be the same as the authors) * How do the findings align with other research in the area (in particular more recent publications that won't be mentioned in the paper) == Practical advice[edit | edit source] == * What real-world implications does this research have? Examples might includes: ** criteria for not exercising, ** recommendations on what exercises to do, how to do them, ** recommendations on monitoring and progressing exercises within specific populations, ** considerations for encouraging physical activity within a specific setting, etc * Are there other considerations readers should know about before taking on this practical advice? Perhaps health/safety more information/resources? == Further information/resources[edit | edit source] == * What further reading may interested readers benefit from? * What website, or online organisations, offer further information/support to groups that are linked to your assignment? * Consider the audience you are pitching this information for - are the links appropriate (e.g. links to research papers are probably not appropriate if the information is for patients, but it may be if it is for other allied health professionals) == References[edit | edit source] == Add in the references using this code (if you have done the in-text referencing correctly, it will appear here - check the tips on Moodle for details, or of course the help options in wikimedia (or google it) And add code in so this below appears (see Moodle - 2. Creating your page and editing tips - please look on this) ifoirz54o3hbcfy6in8hk0hmoo7ig5s 10 448469 4095694 2022-08-24T07:29:03Z RogueScholar 847443 Create use-count template subpage wikitext text/x-wiki 750+&use<noinclude> {{Possible-risk/subpage-doc}}</noinclude> crpm8l8kawjcke4vibwl3i0ukttn32d 102 448470 4095717 2022-08-24T09:44:00Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Created article wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough i0axo64tx39q681r7ssjv6aadjepi2a 4095718 4095717 2022-08-24T09:45:24Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon tsnhbpq62uehvc5qy6db07pme3le789 4095719 4095718 2022-08-24T09:46:57Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes mxj3b0fmd4iis3c9g89u0b1juawbymv 4095720 4095719 2022-08-24T09:48:25Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter a88yjdeas572thu0qj3ctgbomwplqb4 4095721 4095720 2022-08-24T09:52:21Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken fosguhfu3c7optkisge0s15aj16lwb8 4095722 4095721 2022-08-24T09:53:41Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content, wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew kneicopjbr79wnljallpf5tr4fpva2l 4095723 4095722 2022-08-24T09:59:58Z Kingaustin07 3388213 wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo. Pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. axkcvizdck1bouhny0aqlyhdbnybd6w 4095724 4095723 2022-08-24T10:05:46Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces.) lksg8665m9e0fs9dt6k3rajywk0dlj2 4095725 4095724 2022-08-24T10:11:06Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. sl4zi4cxma7wkd594dln6c1ajwrgdke 4095726 4095725 2022-08-24T10:12:55Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. 43wdibu5k15ul6memrpft7o1hnmemuf 4095727 4095726 2022-08-24T10:21:12Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. 354xkbnz9cl4qeppsjrbcgt31zjmc4a 4095728 4095727 2022-08-24T10:21:56Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] 26vu5rofcjof8fbcp2whsxpu238z98a 4095730 4095728 2022-08-24T10:22:59Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] 7i908r612pqnv2haq5b28q3s31acx3v 4095731 4095730 2022-08-24T10:23:31Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] ras2tjpmfr358x1y12ah6az0bw06ku9 4095732 4095731 2022-08-24T10:24:01Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added category wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1tbsp of oil and 1tbsp of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. (To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Pizza recipes]] cshfsfqgz0l0q3h6hggjxsuaul437ry 4095733 4095732 2022-08-24T10:29:18Z Kingaustin07 3388213 Added content wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nigerian chicken suya pizza''' is a type of pizza that is made weed chicken pizza is a common food in Nigeria do it was not first prepared in Nigeria was becoming a very common food in Nigeria. Domino's Pizza is one of the outlet that sells different kinds of pizza. == Ingredients == === For the dough === * Flour * Yeast * Olive oil * Nutmeg * Sugar * Oil for greasing the dough === For pizza sauce === * Red Bell pepper * Tomatoes * Garlic * Onion * Salt * Bouillon === For topping === * onion * Maggi * Cheese * Tomatoes === For Chicken === * Chicken breast * Yaji powder * Peanut Oil * Salt * Butter === Optional Ingredients === * Green pepper - for topping * Ara Rido - for pizza sauce * Chili pepper - for chicken * Alternative to Pizza Sauce is to have an already prepared Nigerian stew == Equipments == * Knife * Oven * Mixture bowl * Slicer * Pot * == Procedures == === Making the dough === *Mix all the dry ingredients together, then add the water and oil to make the dough. If the dough becomes too hard, add a small amount of water to soften. If the dough becomes too soft, add a few dustings of flour to level it out. A teaspoon of oil should be used to coat the dough before placing it in a bowl and warming it up for around an hour. === To prepare pizza sauce === *Combine tomatoes, red bell pepper, red onion, garlic clove, and ata-rodo.pour the mixed ingredients into the hot oil in a sauce pan after heating one cooking spoon of olive oil. To prevent an oily mess, drain the oil after seasoning and frying until the oil floats to the top. === To Prepare the chicken === *Clean the chicken, then pat it dry. After salting, set the food aside for a while. Combine the oil and all of the chicken's ingredients (except 1table spoon of oil and 1table spoon of butter). Allow it to marinade for 20 to 60 minutes. The sides of the chicken should be seared in a pan with a tablespoon of oil and a tablespoon of butter until they are just beginning to turn golden. Finish cooking the chicken in the oven at 350 degrees. If you don't have an oven, you can use your stovetop to sear until cooked through on medium heat. To prevent the cooked chicken from losing its juices when cut, let it rest for about 10 minutes. Then, chop or cut it into bite-sized pieces. === to prepare pizza === *Punch the dough down after an hour; it should have doubled in size. A 400 degree oven is recommended. For about five minutes, lightly knead the dough on a surface that has been lightly dusted with flour. Use a rolling pin and your hands to flatten the dough. The sides of the now-flattened pizza dough should be brushed with the final 1 tea spoon of olive oil using a brush. Apply the cooked sauce on the pizza dough with a ladle before adding the toppings. For 8 to 15 minutes, or until thoroughly cooked, bake at 400 degrees in the oven. *And your chicken Suya pizza is ready. [[Category:Nigerian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Chicken recipes]] [[Category:Pizza recipes]] il5mw67ruv6uifj90rl7ofna613e8tr