Wikipedia testwiki https://test.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.22 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Thread Thread talk Summary Summary talk Test namespace 1 Test namespace 1 talk Test namespace 2 Test namespace 2 talk Draft Draft talk Campaign Campaign talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk SecurePoll SecurePoll talk CNBanner CNBanner talk Translations Translations talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk Topic Newsletter Newsletter talk File:MP sounds-pwb.png 6 78320 519299 519259 2022-07-30T15:07:50Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot-test uploaded a new version of [[File:MP sounds-pwb.png]] wikitext text/x-wiki pywikibot test mvex885are6ahaz42kwh4kn9swdrp8i 519300 519299 2022-07-30T15:09:59Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot-test uploaded a new version of [[File:MP sounds-pwb.png]] wikitext text/x-wiki pywikibot test mvex885are6ahaz42kwh4kn9swdrp8i 519301 519300 2022-07-30T15:11:04Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot-test uploaded a new version of [[File:MP sounds-pwb.png]] wikitext text/x-wiki pywikibot test mvex885are6ahaz42kwh4kn9swdrp8i 519302 519301 2022-07-30T15:13:14Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot-test uploaded a new version of [[File:MP sounds-pwb.png]] wikitext text/x-wiki pywikibot test mvex885are6ahaz42kwh4kn9swdrp8i User:PhantomTech/common.js 2 81111 519335 232174 2022-07-31T04:49:41Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript mw.loader.load('https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&title=User:PhantomTech/invisible_chars.js'); jow1bk4ppqeksktp6dn2v22uds70lic User:John Vandenberg/async test write 2 81547 519289 519252 2022-07-30T14:38:08Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot 7.6.0.dev2 wikitext text/x-wiki 1659191878.7916756 l8pf11eqgn9oaskdw7mbbcp9n7kflzy 519295 519289 2022-07-30T14:41:29Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot 7.6.0.dev2 wikitext text/x-wiki 1659192079.8897986 qpve1zbsnpy9cqkd5500qc6obllu9bi User:John Vandenberg/appendtext test 2 81788 519288 519251 2022-07-30T14:37:58Z Pywikibot-test 23124 wikitext text/x-wiki 1433650768.531433650922.331433651729.111433670166.311433675620.231434189298.391434190713.181434466819.82218051434544025.22135851434556196.60172341435173199.59346151435175699.59451271435227022.74044541435528701.75742911435530425.45590261435603389.080081437231694.72999551437247968.58793571437249806.3797741437298795.05681351437299498.54262071437301447.66920381437302227.7655441437303194.27986031437304101.72397661437310188.7074311437310950.0167771437312161.48824671437313010.34581731437313729.64502261437508795.02368621437509778.81783961437516631.40031891438256915.00195531438380338.75435851438383980.68647171438454064.30758831438457192.55998851438473558.4497151438475370.52737021438888563.82252121439048615.09364531439242551.86522051439284878.94054751439567068.00147221439645869.40761881439653355.34343361439892097.89366271439893989.92894151439937872.74017361439942911.25551271440071096.08264111440280762.25626281440718001.3262011440893319.42683861441040710.94389411441045094.56088661441367039.71286131441492543.00856571441494238.9647241443131370.03606581443212814.54482251454969098.621455143085.01455479939.331458010578.141646415352.6267931646418236.303551646419108.5554141646480673.1255151646486361.30947541646489252.55788281646497776.8472891646500951.96962931646503090.90285371646508464.6270851646557704.72482941646560644.88797711646568704.91856581646573733.00244281646576832.29534481646608917.34515641646654969.60378361646656319.4402261646656560.3573951646667875.37336181646669840.47606131646671473.95034121646674984.85814431646826562.7642131646830600.84946161646833174.90316631646834856.9354641646836733.8114731646848463.33862281646854361.6220061646921244.61630941646929392.52481341646933478.7709891646989628.14013271646993317.0693991647006535.8758381647010068.79893281647067797.81312181647070228.9538041647088146.43666861647129259.68616061647160403.20344641647161418.68453741647165213.34464841647182471.8682351647203984.8648061647204146.85476951647205856.08880071647229928.91692161647232863.2489111647244837.81863951647253131.60572861647253341.66492151647257374.36275241647261586.3715681647328114.68083791647328863.86457971647338369.03202411647345322.46875211647352352.98292641647362207.4400921647376689.68484851647377054.13237741647507817.3071141647520722.49061581647537658.91502861647537706.9929851647537724.92751151647537734.26552411647537734.81241751647537796.29433751647600884.78828861647603345.3407491647607378.26923131647607451.39406541647610335.08369161647619863.80975681647636713.9665881647684938.94061331647686327.2922681647690808.45028761647692744.59212851647732431.32598611647772952.28326751647781284.95441991647800669.47089581647849904.41088181647854192.1383851647860875.18231251647874602.63781051647879297.1874931647883065.4647961647924265.03851251647936769.8719151647951966.8961621648054226.68201351648059130.80152961648060298.43086981648069938.0877581648125306.6112961648143342.68760181648143650.04991751648188528.68711191648196925.6356741648203876.69900561648211369.0150091648230332.54617121648281987.22994761648283693.56241941648285224.71328661648286447.91258651648291573.67376261648291846.70330291648294060.07191231648296246.83941861648298801.97048331648305016.80210021648334644.85586831648379305.4112821648389448.81566381648405605.99447971648411133.04927181648412522.24783181648422117.89680721648446617.8572281648450264.77608821648454199.90044761648467787.75208971648467856.83117841648718888.7086471648726868.34113621648731002.50412491648735298.12991521649690895.66212321649691467.9696281649743553.52938491649755873.90303251649763327.8892521649774138.0124031649777526.37097861649778489.48823021649784790.27565621649860160.37698861649936556.74318031649955430.38933971650002447.5759611650006360.23943541650028605.97354981650039495.475341650041154.52726721650041204.27767731650043469.9524181650182871.47858071650185429.33433821650203503.7359421650214109.96521881650231719.77891951650281824.2778291650288925.13755371650295721.33825951650295882.12538961650300339.22233131650341815.28370641650380832.94509431650402613.69048711650518905.2356281650522569.2941071650530608.544891650531430.3989611650533914.10076831650542738.41888791650546175.9846881650568044.03694751650631023.97239781650632899.72227331650634830.3925491650637007.66384821650640862.5720661650689309.4054381650701657.98250581650703185.78357031650703771.5033541650735123.8095531650738484.06956341650776192.5568211650813066.8977991650848683.918771650861187.31198121650876020.82570171650880474.35385231650881868.45988561650883153.22984271650884549.92777321650886892.40727421650897830.36771461650949494.34935431650949911.4991251650954397.3235271650990281.23737171650995523.8559241651056953.48302131651058845.9713631651060365.91917781651065711.69361521651066891.44208121651068680.67229721651068949.30104371651068950.86070821651069866.21405341651077973.48218511651150569.5798041651150701.53431841651159306.89410231651163972.5414571651207135.13229251651314580.08892971651323639.1569731651335350.97018341651337464.3604491651343671.43810871651358144.34414821651358991.73634841651403991.80600071651408466.43860861651410629.6915031651424095.3323751651424215.430631651424217.16175171651424260.61668921651435316.36143421651477433.62521861651497967.4008731651570956.43188331651571040.13904711651574112.83837941651576178.2236351651585370.21917181651635290.6039241651635576.97641251651635655.45832421651635743.04751161651652652.44804481651673300.35671471651690999.9594171651756658.2204551651756671.9024541651780115.29231761651804123.6068891651841232.36630061651872084.1808571651914696.15967461651915185.17890741651924981.59495141651924985.67764931651947461.11864161652010451.4397451652013169.15126091652018291.04681441652101981.57916931652102144.73755261652205259.24803381652228263.38625721652241111.3187991652241991.0605551652246545.13976341652249133.80611011652345322.74670461652349556.01237941652349776.2655691652350144.64992761652353480.50348451652355561.35055181652355572.5898951652363359.53054261652423597.3604321652425345.54388571652434442.67079141652466898.8122741652467998.09214571652481119.60053971652515900.4313781652516491.8247921652517245.8858371652517458.95822791652523536.91254641652525004.91378931652529117.52156421652530351.27152131652549586.46723871652562013.24319481652614409.32601761652616114.78897861652640389.54013231652701163.91744661652701218.71869951652704583.73101121652736636.34235531652809358.14918331652809500.2787851652885818.32253531652895677.120911652946764.21459771652958152.14900661653025900.08983161653065810.43916341653077663.07969381653095577.50154731653096778.42144161653097676.23765561653097888.80603721653116153.01087381653117420.85944841653118936.11491161653125313.7796781653126335.42993711653134067.09842161653139182.64564281653140672.3829011653154587.25496341653199373.6701311653226953.91169641653231963.08484821653232304.7106561653232554.38019971653232554.62967321653232677.8029061653256433.89535141653299432.4922731653306400.6730731653306472.8736611653393355.7553971653418909.73856261653565475.12498951653565552.10120181653644012.96268871653661508.7837781653661589.44294881653680694.40217831653757986.47126131653758797.5201131653758875.8009641653759516.43632131653815204.55978871653824578.46436481653842638.63208631653842909.72020081653892126.12672331653892420.81626921653892767.61418631653902922.38997861653910982.26115511653911098.50605081653912234.13429621653924819.25348691653941654.93242031653982713.13638191654003151.13523241654003174.6005821654264812.17732931654266724.5675461654268127.23252031654270160.76145861654301043.6971021654301072.0992181654301079.82639071654301896.66440531654334439.6818731654371822.44146631654428936.93347531654437095.0085341654508132.13094881654508335.43588731654520334.84838561654524063.79315451654525364.53509121654534180.4449181654953821.0468051654961938.94488381655036873.3743951655057492.40380381655057801.47854161655062300.50764231655129886.96682861655141011.99076751655166294.6540651655166301.61901331655216132.3208221655223573.8453581655225751.37171321655246178.10818171655296810.23211931655301828.3813591655368778.396751655379956.18857221655380431.36770651655472945.27423521655484574.08949831655507527.0224681655537627.60304521655558615.17976361655563633.72554421655569614.23738551655634387.11088251655645988.83602711655657438.1813961655713626.63884621655721946.37590861655722438.1599561655723778.13386921655725062.77537751655725269.6044051655728370.88312841655752608.5468571655809347.31652141655821992.57788371655831959.40542841655832768.65955691655843607.9513691655847927.774761655910557.06128741655930286.04162761655984718.1677731655984784.72391371656084284.91802841656091464.9171381656108569.03781821656144910.73668431656237464.9551931656238061.17135551656238140.40173581656238882.40057641656238919.37414531656239293.42675191656242411.12083081656246784.30946971656260465.50201821656261907.03887151656263294.21785121656264857.22691631656268330.1211061656268437.60271121656301508.07333091656330302.93307041656330502.12784811656356829.9017161656385974.7934371656387732.02068971656483270.8206721656596673.7715261656635713.02665231656667311.15519761656667757.71407681656693761.8080651656705954.52436731656753744.37684461656763015.42648551656767146.81630661656841740.58635851656845713.36385511656846091.09794041656928094.63535641656948795.61005121656950066.0852351656964699.3929741657002316.55603961657010505.2748941657013544.80798841657015413.77136021657025003.4560941657038750.15809251657039417.24476391657043605.9258891657044407.42733961657051733.92174651657088120.63696361657104460.7448131657108288.86261561657121273.51174641657125154.85219221657140234.29372531657192424.43024661657197439.27889011657198301.67318251657201269.89470821657211198.80976871657271744.8218321657281300.4610831657374150.77523261657476775.62064481657481255.09343081657482599.06296831657497382.093291657539578.63450741657539781.1762681657558369.09502081657799038.87918231657799116.29259251657859471.084171657859516.10439011657962545.19483261657962787.59437661657967228.37440181657974597.18307661658049488.68201351658060577.18078541658064128.90686661658064263.8123631658069341.93958781658077026.34067771658078706.88455961658079600.63347741658081221.23908161658081285.91025161658085023.94248371658128817.5476131658136214.41560361658152834.47753431658166801.45076581658196924.6985691658234310.5858651658247533.30726621658296567.73139791658300378.65953061658303756.00198131658305698.39711261658382887.724681658383856.37543231658384121.3366351658390189.93443231658392025.1128251658412468.54568721658412797.65880041658438616.3758981658471521.65448121658472954.71186351658474751.5916821658474776.28065591658486284.59899661658486319.77809761658486383.9840391658490944.0040541658491220.88122321658494083.36627481658572911.5845361658577899.82729891658587022.79079221658591743.12070351658599637.18309741658603076.26439361658607840.53604631658608068.95690061658632322.36042521658663105.38651751658665771.35931851658667025.4637931658668018.09719041658669787.80982111658691321.1552461658692788.99276071658694425.02418141658719342.8613571658719344.900981658736094.62209821658744041.35345391658748345.99290781658749553.6679561658749620.34319641658764308.11469481658819039.0050441658824812.17245531658842921.14167791658862950.05908541658866951.6806491658867535.5773941658877498.26109531658877516.4155781658896342.94982431658896469.47555181658939089.75173661658940109.93389181658940199.76201341658944478.1677931658949832.38372451658975346.1412181658988816.19879631659008462.91326981659008575.73063641659012991.48196961659082566.04576251659111734.59138541659191868.258702 n61phxx2re965fnuc39pqkd357k2v2v 519294 519288 2022-07-30T14:41:19Z Pywikibot-test 23124 wikitext text/x-wiki 1433650768.531433650922.331433651729.111433670166.311433675620.231434189298.391434190713.181434466819.82218051434544025.22135851434556196.60172341435173199.59346151435175699.59451271435227022.74044541435528701.75742911435530425.45590261435603389.080081437231694.72999551437247968.58793571437249806.3797741437298795.05681351437299498.54262071437301447.66920381437302227.7655441437303194.27986031437304101.72397661437310188.7074311437310950.0167771437312161.48824671437313010.34581731437313729.64502261437508795.02368621437509778.81783961437516631.40031891438256915.00195531438380338.75435851438383980.68647171438454064.30758831438457192.55998851438473558.4497151438475370.52737021438888563.82252121439048615.09364531439242551.86522051439284878.94054751439567068.00147221439645869.40761881439653355.34343361439892097.89366271439893989.92894151439937872.74017361439942911.25551271440071096.08264111440280762.25626281440718001.3262011440893319.42683861441040710.94389411441045094.56088661441367039.71286131441492543.00856571441494238.9647241443131370.03606581443212814.54482251454969098.621455143085.01455479939.331458010578.141646415352.6267931646418236.303551646419108.5554141646480673.1255151646486361.30947541646489252.55788281646497776.8472891646500951.96962931646503090.90285371646508464.6270851646557704.72482941646560644.88797711646568704.91856581646573733.00244281646576832.29534481646608917.34515641646654969.60378361646656319.4402261646656560.3573951646667875.37336181646669840.47606131646671473.95034121646674984.85814431646826562.7642131646830600.84946161646833174.90316631646834856.9354641646836733.8114731646848463.33862281646854361.6220061646921244.61630941646929392.52481341646933478.7709891646989628.14013271646993317.0693991647006535.8758381647010068.79893281647067797.81312181647070228.9538041647088146.43666861647129259.68616061647160403.20344641647161418.68453741647165213.34464841647182471.8682351647203984.8648061647204146.85476951647205856.08880071647229928.91692161647232863.2489111647244837.81863951647253131.60572861647253341.66492151647257374.36275241647261586.3715681647328114.68083791647328863.86457971647338369.03202411647345322.46875211647352352.98292641647362207.4400921647376689.68484851647377054.13237741647507817.3071141647520722.49061581647537658.91502861647537706.9929851647537724.92751151647537734.26552411647537734.81241751647537796.29433751647600884.78828861647603345.3407491647607378.26923131647607451.39406541647610335.08369161647619863.80975681647636713.9665881647684938.94061331647686327.2922681647690808.45028761647692744.59212851647732431.32598611647772952.28326751647781284.95441991647800669.47089581647849904.41088181647854192.1383851647860875.18231251647874602.63781051647879297.1874931647883065.4647961647924265.03851251647936769.8719151647951966.8961621648054226.68201351648059130.80152961648060298.43086981648069938.0877581648125306.6112961648143342.68760181648143650.04991751648188528.68711191648196925.6356741648203876.69900561648211369.0150091648230332.54617121648281987.22994761648283693.56241941648285224.71328661648286447.91258651648291573.67376261648291846.70330291648294060.07191231648296246.83941861648298801.97048331648305016.80210021648334644.85586831648379305.4112821648389448.81566381648405605.99447971648411133.04927181648412522.24783181648422117.89680721648446617.8572281648450264.77608821648454199.90044761648467787.75208971648467856.83117841648718888.7086471648726868.34113621648731002.50412491648735298.12991521649690895.66212321649691467.9696281649743553.52938491649755873.90303251649763327.8892521649774138.0124031649777526.37097861649778489.48823021649784790.27565621649860160.37698861649936556.74318031649955430.38933971650002447.5759611650006360.23943541650028605.97354981650039495.475341650041154.52726721650041204.27767731650043469.9524181650182871.47858071650185429.33433821650203503.7359421650214109.96521881650231719.77891951650281824.2778291650288925.13755371650295721.33825951650295882.12538961650300339.22233131650341815.28370641650380832.94509431650402613.69048711650518905.2356281650522569.2941071650530608.544891650531430.3989611650533914.10076831650542738.41888791650546175.9846881650568044.03694751650631023.97239781650632899.72227331650634830.3925491650637007.66384821650640862.5720661650689309.4054381650701657.98250581650703185.78357031650703771.5033541650735123.8095531650738484.06956341650776192.5568211650813066.8977991650848683.918771650861187.31198121650876020.82570171650880474.35385231650881868.45988561650883153.22984271650884549.92777321650886892.40727421650897830.36771461650949494.34935431650949911.4991251650954397.3235271650990281.23737171650995523.8559241651056953.48302131651058845.9713631651060365.91917781651065711.69361521651066891.44208121651068680.67229721651068949.30104371651068950.86070821651069866.21405341651077973.48218511651150569.5798041651150701.53431841651159306.89410231651163972.5414571651207135.13229251651314580.08892971651323639.1569731651335350.97018341651337464.3604491651343671.43810871651358144.34414821651358991.73634841651403991.80600071651408466.43860861651410629.6915031651424095.3323751651424215.430631651424217.16175171651424260.61668921651435316.36143421651477433.62521861651497967.4008731651570956.43188331651571040.13904711651574112.83837941651576178.2236351651585370.21917181651635290.6039241651635576.97641251651635655.45832421651635743.04751161651652652.44804481651673300.35671471651690999.9594171651756658.2204551651756671.9024541651780115.29231761651804123.6068891651841232.36630061651872084.1808571651914696.15967461651915185.17890741651924981.59495141651924985.67764931651947461.11864161652010451.4397451652013169.15126091652018291.04681441652101981.57916931652102144.73755261652205259.24803381652228263.38625721652241111.3187991652241991.0605551652246545.13976341652249133.80611011652345322.74670461652349556.01237941652349776.2655691652350144.64992761652353480.50348451652355561.35055181652355572.5898951652363359.53054261652423597.3604321652425345.54388571652434442.67079141652466898.8122741652467998.09214571652481119.60053971652515900.4313781652516491.8247921652517245.8858371652517458.95822791652523536.91254641652525004.91378931652529117.52156421652530351.27152131652549586.46723871652562013.24319481652614409.32601761652616114.78897861652640389.54013231652701163.91744661652701218.71869951652704583.73101121652736636.34235531652809358.14918331652809500.2787851652885818.32253531652895677.120911652946764.21459771652958152.14900661653025900.08983161653065810.43916341653077663.07969381653095577.50154731653096778.42144161653097676.23765561653097888.80603721653116153.01087381653117420.85944841653118936.11491161653125313.7796781653126335.42993711653134067.09842161653139182.64564281653140672.3829011653154587.25496341653199373.6701311653226953.91169641653231963.08484821653232304.7106561653232554.38019971653232554.62967321653232677.8029061653256433.89535141653299432.4922731653306400.6730731653306472.8736611653393355.7553971653418909.73856261653565475.12498951653565552.10120181653644012.96268871653661508.7837781653661589.44294881653680694.40217831653757986.47126131653758797.5201131653758875.8009641653759516.43632131653815204.55978871653824578.46436481653842638.63208631653842909.72020081653892126.12672331653892420.81626921653892767.61418631653902922.38997861653910982.26115511653911098.50605081653912234.13429621653924819.25348691653941654.93242031653982713.13638191654003151.13523241654003174.6005821654264812.17732931654266724.5675461654268127.23252031654270160.76145861654301043.6971021654301072.0992181654301079.82639071654301896.66440531654334439.6818731654371822.44146631654428936.93347531654437095.0085341654508132.13094881654508335.43588731654520334.84838561654524063.79315451654525364.53509121654534180.4449181654953821.0468051654961938.94488381655036873.3743951655057492.40380381655057801.47854161655062300.50764231655129886.96682861655141011.99076751655166294.6540651655166301.61901331655216132.3208221655223573.8453581655225751.37171321655246178.10818171655296810.23211931655301828.3813591655368778.396751655379956.18857221655380431.36770651655472945.27423521655484574.08949831655507527.0224681655537627.60304521655558615.17976361655563633.72554421655569614.23738551655634387.11088251655645988.83602711655657438.1813961655713626.63884621655721946.37590861655722438.1599561655723778.13386921655725062.77537751655725269.6044051655728370.88312841655752608.5468571655809347.31652141655821992.57788371655831959.40542841655832768.65955691655843607.9513691655847927.774761655910557.06128741655930286.04162761655984718.1677731655984784.72391371656084284.91802841656091464.9171381656108569.03781821656144910.73668431656237464.9551931656238061.17135551656238140.40173581656238882.40057641656238919.37414531656239293.42675191656242411.12083081656246784.30946971656260465.50201821656261907.03887151656263294.21785121656264857.22691631656268330.1211061656268437.60271121656301508.07333091656330302.93307041656330502.12784811656356829.9017161656385974.7934371656387732.02068971656483270.8206721656596673.7715261656635713.02665231656667311.15519761656667757.71407681656693761.8080651656705954.52436731656753744.37684461656763015.42648551656767146.81630661656841740.58635851656845713.36385511656846091.09794041656928094.63535641656948795.61005121656950066.0852351656964699.3929741657002316.55603961657010505.2748941657013544.80798841657015413.77136021657025003.4560941657038750.15809251657039417.24476391657043605.9258891657044407.42733961657051733.92174651657088120.63696361657104460.7448131657108288.86261561657121273.51174641657125154.85219221657140234.29372531657192424.43024661657197439.27889011657198301.67318251657201269.89470821657211198.80976871657271744.8218321657281300.4610831657374150.77523261657476775.62064481657481255.09343081657482599.06296831657497382.093291657539578.63450741657539781.1762681657558369.09502081657799038.87918231657799116.29259251657859471.084171657859516.10439011657962545.19483261657962787.59437661657967228.37440181657974597.18307661658049488.68201351658060577.18078541658064128.90686661658064263.8123631658069341.93958781658077026.34067771658078706.88455961658079600.63347741658081221.23908161658081285.91025161658085023.94248371658128817.5476131658136214.41560361658152834.47753431658166801.45076581658196924.6985691658234310.5858651658247533.30726621658296567.73139791658300378.65953061658303756.00198131658305698.39711261658382887.724681658383856.37543231658384121.3366351658390189.93443231658392025.1128251658412468.54568721658412797.65880041658438616.3758981658471521.65448121658472954.71186351658474751.5916821658474776.28065591658486284.59899661658486319.77809761658486383.9840391658490944.0040541658491220.88122321658494083.36627481658572911.5845361658577899.82729891658587022.79079221658591743.12070351658599637.18309741658603076.26439361658607840.53604631658608068.95690061658632322.36042521658663105.38651751658665771.35931851658667025.4637931658668018.09719041658669787.80982111658691321.1552461658692788.99276071658694425.02418141658719342.8613571658719344.900981658736094.62209821658744041.35345391658748345.99290781658749553.6679561658749620.34319641658764308.11469481658819039.0050441658824812.17245531658842921.14167791658862950.05908541658866951.6806491658867535.5773941658877498.26109531658877516.4155781658896342.94982431658896469.47555181658939089.75173661658940109.93389181658940199.76201341658944478.1677931658949832.38372451658975346.1412181658988816.19879631659008462.91326981659008575.73063641659012991.48196961659082566.04576251659111734.59138541659191868.2587021659192069.3737714 glglc2spicplj5fwfktlzw24sg3gu2a User:Unicodesnowman/DeleteMark 2 82252 519286 519250 2022-07-30T14:37:41Z Pywikibot-test 23124 pywikibot unit test. Do NOT actually delete. wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|1=pywikibot unit test. Do NOT actually delete.}} foo cymfz8u3wtlps4m6nlzq7086mgmr0cz 519287 519286 2022-07-30T14:37:46Z Pywikibot-test 23124 unit test wikitext text/x-wiki foo 1e6gpc3ehk0mu2jqu8cg42g009s796b 519292 519287 2022-07-30T14:41:03Z Pywikibot-test 23124 pywikibot unit test. Do NOT actually delete. wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|1=pywikibot unit test. Do NOT actually delete.}} foo cymfz8u3wtlps4m6nlzq7086mgmr0cz 519293 519292 2022-07-30T14:41:07Z Pywikibot-test 23124 unit test wikitext text/x-wiki foo 1e6gpc3ehk0mu2jqu8cg42g009s796b User:JohanahoJ/sandbox 2 98278 519364 518481 2022-07-31T08:27:29Z JohanahoJ 37147 Replaced content with "[[File:Republica 2013 - Ai Weiwei.ogv|thumb|Intervju med Ai Weiwei 2013.]]" wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Republica 2013 - Ai Weiwei.ogv|thumb|Intervju med Ai Weiwei 2013.]] g25by2sjwc8e7txq6j39ykbrmy1w311 User:Yahya/sandbox 2 106981 519306 514833 2022-07-30T16:57:53Z Yahya 44996 wikitext text/x-wiki == টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক == {| width="100%" style="border:3px solid #cc4400; padding:.25em;" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" style="width: 100px;" | [[চিত্র:Islam Barnstar Hires.png|160px]] | rowspan="2" | | style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''অবদানকারী পদক''' |- |style="padding: 5px; vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | প্রিয় {{USERNAME}},<br>বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ায় [[WP:TW|টুইংকল গ্যাজেটে]] ব্যবহৃত টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ ও মানোন্নয়নে আয়োজিত [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ|টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ এডিটাথন ২০২২]] -এ অংশ নেয়ায় আপনাকে অসংখ্য ধন্যবাদ। শুভেচ্ছাস্মারক হিসেবে আপনাকে উইকিপদকটি প্রদান করা হলো। [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ/তালিকা|এই তালিকায়]] বাকি থাকা টেমপ্লেটগুলোও তৈরি করার অনুরোধ রইলো। আশা করি বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ার অগ্রযাত্রায় আপনার ভূমিকা অব্যাহত থাকবে। সুস্থ, সুন্দর ও নিরাপদে থাকুন। |} —ধন্যবাদান্তে, 4d1jerxw596sv5xcr30lkvaji3l7gsf 519308 519306 2022-07-30T17:01:40Z Yahya 44996 /* টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক */ wikitext text/x-wiki == টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক == {| width="100%" style="border:3px solid #cc4400; padding:.25em;" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" style="width: 100px;" | [[File:Template symbol big.svg|160px]] | rowspan="2" | | style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''অবদানকারী পদক''' |- |style="padding: 5px; vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | প্রিয় {{USERNAME}},<br>বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ায় [[WP:TW|টুইংকল গ্যাজেটে]] ব্যবহৃত টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ ও মানোন্নয়নে আয়োজিত [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ|টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ এডিটাথন ২০২২]] -এ অংশ নেয়ায় আপনাকে অসংখ্য ধন্যবাদ। শুভেচ্ছাস্মারক হিসেবে আপনাকে উইকিপদকটি প্রদান করা হলো। [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ/তালিকা|এই তালিকায়]] বাকি থাকা টেমপ্লেটগুলোও তৈরি করার অনুরোধ রইলো। আশা করি বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ার অগ্রযাত্রায় আপনার ভূমিকা অব্যাহত থাকবে। সুস্থ, সুন্দর ও নিরাপদে থাকুন। |} —ধন্যবাদান্তে, qte38l7kv3d8lp8umikh15zjsrx4spn 519309 519308 2022-07-30T17:03:28Z Yahya 44996 /* টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক */ wikitext text/x-wiki == টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক == {| width="100%" style="border:3px solid #cc4400; padding:.25em;" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" style="width: 100px;" | [[File:Template symbol big.svg|160px]] | rowspan="2" | | style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''অবদানকারী পদক''' |- |style="padding: 5px; vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | প্রিয় {{BASEPAGENAME}},<br>বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ায় [[WP:TW|টুইংকল গ্যাজেটে]] ব্যবহৃত টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ ও মানোন্নয়নে আয়োজিত [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ|টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ এডিটাথন ২০২২]] -এ অংশ নেয়ায় আপনাকে অসংখ্য ধন্যবাদ। শুভেচ্ছাস্মারক হিসেবে আপনাকে উইকিপদকটি প্রদান করা হলো। [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ/তালিকা|এই তালিকায়]] বাকি থাকা টেমপ্লেটগুলোও তৈরি করার অনুরোধ রইলো। আশা করি বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ার অগ্রযাত্রায় আপনার ভূমিকা অব্যাহত থাকবে। সুস্থ, সুন্দর ও নিরাপদে থাকুন। |} —ধন্যবাদান্তে, 2a540p2e22420eraaxj955ck2qyafmw 519310 519309 2022-07-30T17:08:43Z Yahya 44996 /* টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক */ wikitext text/x-wiki == টেমপ্লেট এডিটাথন পদক == {| width="100%" style="border:3px solid #0000FF; padding:.25em;" | rowspan="2" valign="middle" style="width: 100px;" | [[File:Template symbol big.svg|160px]] | rowspan="2" | | style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''অবদানকারী পদক''' |- |style="padding: 5px; vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | প্রিয় {{BASEPAGENAME}},<br>বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ায় [[WP:TW|টুইংকল গ্যাজেটে]] ব্যবহৃত টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ ও মানোন্নয়নে আয়োজিত [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ|টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ এডিটাথন ২০২২]] -এ অংশ নেয়ায় আপনাকে অসংখ্য ধন্যবাদ। শুভেচ্ছাস্মারক হিসেবে আপনাকে উইকিপদকটি প্রদান করা হলো। [[উইকিপিডিয়া:অনলাইন এডিটাথন/২০২২/টেমপ্লেট অনুবাদ/তালিকা|এই তালিকায়]] বাকি থাকা টেমপ্লেটগুলোও তৈরি করার অনুরোধ রইলো। আশা করি বাংলা উইকিপিডিয়ার অগ্রযাত্রায় আপনার ভূমিকা অব্যাহত থাকবে। সুস্থ, সুন্দর ও নিরাপদে থাকুন। |} —ধন্যবাদান্তে, k0f5idrv47u5cdmd2z6m74v0hh5t51e User:JohanahoJ/common.css 2 112883 519366 518351 2022-07-31T10:40:02Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css li.interlanguage-link { display: list-item; } .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(50%); } .mw-redirect { background-color: #ffd; } /* Fixerad toppmeny i Vector 2010 */ body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal { position: fixed; top: 10px; left: 300px; right: 12px; z-index: 10; background: rgba( 246, 247, 248, .85 ); border-radius: 10px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; text-align: right; } body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal ul { padding-left: 10px; } #siteSub { display: none; } .skin-minerva li.mw-changeslist-watchedunseen a.mw-changeslist-title { color: #14866d; } /* Workaround for T252467 */ #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.interProject, #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.wb-otherproject-link { background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: left center; padding-left: 18px; } /* Workaround for T256373 */ /*.skin-vector-max-width .mw-logo-wordmark { display: none; } */ /* #p-personal { margin-left: 75px; } */ /* .mw-page-container { background: red !important; } .mw-page-container-inner { background: green !important; } .mw-content-container { background: lightblue !important; } .mw-header { background: blue !important; } .mw-workspace-container { background: yellow !important; } .mw-article-toolbar-container { background: pink !important; } #right-navigation { background: purple !important; } .mw-body { background: brown !important; } .mw-footer { background: orange !important; } */ 902asks5561u7jv0dr1uu7w3m8tno6l 519368 519366 2022-07-31T11:41:55Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css li.interlanguage-link { display: list-item; } .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(60%); } .mw-redirect { background-color: #ffd; } /* Fixerad toppmeny i Vector 2010 */ body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal { position: fixed; top: 10px; left: 300px; right: 12px; z-index: 10; background: rgba( 246, 247, 248, .85 ); border-radius: 10px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; text-align: right; } body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal ul { padding-left: 10px; } #siteSub { display: none; } .skin-minerva li.mw-changeslist-watchedunseen a.mw-changeslist-title { color: #14866d; } /* Workaround for T252467 */ #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.interProject, #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.wb-otherproject-link { background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: left center; padding-left: 18px; } /* Workaround for T256373 */ /*.skin-vector-max-width .mw-logo-wordmark { display: none; } */ /* #p-personal { margin-left: 75px; } */ /* .mw-page-container { background: red !important; } .mw-page-container-inner { background: green !important; } .mw-content-container { background: lightblue !important; } .mw-header { background: blue !important; } .mw-workspace-container { background: yellow !important; } .mw-article-toolbar-container { background: pink !important; } #right-navigation { background: purple !important; } .mw-body { background: brown !important; } .mw-footer { background: orange !important; } */ fyulhewqf5sn9qy4priatrcibel23ly 519369 519368 2022-07-31T11:42:46Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css li.interlanguage-link { display: list-item; } .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(55%); } .mw-redirect { background-color: #ffd; } /* Fixerad toppmeny i Vector 2010 */ body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal { position: fixed; top: 10px; left: 300px; right: 12px; z-index: 10; background: rgba( 246, 247, 248, .85 ); border-radius: 10px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; text-align: right; } body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal ul { padding-left: 10px; } #siteSub { display: none; } .skin-minerva li.mw-changeslist-watchedunseen a.mw-changeslist-title { color: #14866d; } /* Workaround for T252467 */ #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.interProject, #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.wb-otherproject-link { background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: left center; padding-left: 18px; } /* Workaround for T256373 */ /*.skin-vector-max-width .mw-logo-wordmark { display: none; } */ /* #p-personal { margin-left: 75px; } */ /* .mw-page-container { background: red !important; } .mw-page-container-inner { background: green !important; } .mw-content-container { background: lightblue !important; } .mw-header { background: blue !important; } .mw-workspace-container { background: yellow !important; } .mw-article-toolbar-container { background: pink !important; } #right-navigation { background: purple !important; } .mw-body { background: brown !important; } .mw-footer { background: orange !important; } */ of3imtrqnx4t9ekz9yh7j5vz8knzbu5 519370 519369 2022-07-31T11:43:36Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css li.interlanguage-link { display: list-item; } .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(60%); } .mw-redirect { background-color: #ffd; } /* Fixerad toppmeny i Vector 2010 */ body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal { position: fixed; top: 10px; left: 300px; right: 12px; z-index: 10; background: rgba( 246, 247, 248, .85 ); border-radius: 10px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; text-align: right; } body.skin-vector-legacy #p-personal ul { padding-left: 10px; } #siteSub { display: none; } .skin-minerva li.mw-changeslist-watchedunseen a.mw-changeslist-title { color: #14866d; } /* Workaround for T252467 */ #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.interProject, #p-wikibase-otherprojects li.wb-otherproject-link { background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: left center; padding-left: 18px; } /* Workaround for T256373 */ /*.skin-vector-max-width .mw-logo-wordmark { display: none; } */ /* #p-personal { margin-left: 75px; } */ /* .mw-page-container { background: red !important; } .mw-page-container-inner { background: green !important; } .mw-content-container { background: lightblue !important; } .mw-header { background: blue !important; } .mw-workspace-container { background: yellow !important; } .mw-article-toolbar-container { background: pink !important; } #right-navigation { background: purple !important; } .mw-body { background: brown !important; } .mw-footer { background: orange !important; } */ fyulhewqf5sn9qy4priatrcibel23ly User:JohanahoJ/sandbox.css 2 112884 519319 519267 2022-07-30T20:50:21Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 900; } hy1vz8z2qsmiobsfi95kyboacfiqyc5 519320 519319 2022-07-30T20:50:46Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 500; } j73e06s8izc9srlf2adneigmpl313fm 519321 519320 2022-07-30T20:51:18Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 700; } sl6igm5lezxxv5dhpifo5yoi5i4yh52 519322 519321 2022-07-30T20:51:39Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 600; } h1u85ksmjqh7is336qv78wa87jl8ijx 519323 519322 2022-07-30T20:52:08Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 500; } j73e06s8izc9srlf2adneigmpl313fm 519324 519323 2022-07-30T20:53:01Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 550; } 6n48mcrdznu6ho5t653bf1vqzysd0v6 519325 519324 2022-07-30T20:53:15Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 510; } jhbn7ra3cotnct24wz6nrozz8qoy9x4 519326 519325 2022-07-30T20:53:28Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: 500; } j73e06s8izc9srlf2adneigmpl313fm 519327 519326 2022-07-30T20:55:08Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css a { font-weight: bolder; } 52ljf7k0wvr4zt0ktuh5p9ud17mw0xw 519328 519327 2022-07-30T20:57:36Z JohanahoJ 37147 Blanked the page css text/css phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 519347 519328 2022-07-31T07:20:14Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player a .mw-tmh-play-icon { margin: 0; top: auto; right: auto; bottom: 0; left: 0; } tc43llpruz696jo8kbyy5bduhy2qzoo 519348 519347 2022-07-31T07:21:42Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player .mw-tmh-play-icon { margin: 0; top: auto; right: auto; bottom: 0; left: 0; } buzrgujggwtmzza8ls7ctqizgnr79ov 519349 519348 2022-07-31T07:23:28Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { margin: 0; top: auto; right: auto; bottom: 0; left: 0; } j3lmlluj19nadtz8sftk9p49hihxxop 519350 519349 2022-07-31T07:24:37Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-play-icon { margin: 0; top: auto; right: auto; bottom: 0; left: 0; } ez60e3mbx2ahxcrkze7ww9evo53c0oy 519351 519350 2022-07-31T07:28:35Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-play-icon { margin: 0 !important; top: auto !important; right: auto !important; bottom: 0 !important; left: 0 !important; } 2kaa11canamyyqjgc6u55y24glk8rgy 519352 519351 2022-07-31T07:30:00Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-play-icon { /*margin: 0 !important;*/ top: auto !important; right: auto !important; bottom: 0 !important; left: 0 !important; } qezoxt3wgxv8nm5b324tm99i67dcnzz 519353 519352 2022-07-31T07:43:02Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { background: rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0.8 ) url( play-invert.svg ) center no-repeat; } 9g6hiocw1vleac3p3z7ys0d9lfesyfx 519354 519353 2022-07-31T07:46:13Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { background: center no-repeat; } 74ydsy5ymoompz79zqb6d8glip4ks2q 519355 519354 2022-07-31T07:49:07Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { position: relative; left: 0; bottom: 0; } q7q49vifbsyqyxwowez18mjpobheq1s 519356 519355 2022-07-31T07:50:04Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { position: absolute; left: 0; bottom: 0; } jgr8rpo3ahi3itap3xfvd4q7lv5k0v7 519357 519356 2022-07-31T07:50:49Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { position: absolute; left: 15px; bottom: 0; } nr9qcows2y6qf8kw82v7042g9w8oiem 519358 519357 2022-07-31T07:59:15Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(30%); } p6uebbdciyit0ago14mw5i7vv6kd6xr 519360 519358 2022-07-31T08:04:26Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(50%); } hktqwmyesnxupptf4svdeaa38r9vsuw 519361 519360 2022-07-31T08:05:37Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(40%); } q1gnqsq151ii1wnm59ykc5sx3yrea6i 519362 519361 2022-07-31T08:25:24Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(50%); } hktqwmyesnxupptf4svdeaa38r9vsuw 519363 519362 2022-07-31T08:26:47Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css /* .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(50%); } */ 2r8l6nrnkdb1btt2rsrqduvrz4gi5gr 519365 519363 2022-07-31T08:27:59Z JohanahoJ 37147 css text/css .mw-tmh-player.video .mw-tmh-play .mw-tmh-play-icon { filter: opacity(50%); } 28ffrqh1i3dx0mqukuwpb7x3v4p5f0n 519367 519365 2022-07-31T10:40:31Z JohanahoJ 37147 Blanked the page css text/css phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 User:JohanahoJ/common.js 2 112885 519303 518908 2022-07-30T16:14:18Z JohanahoJ 37147 javascript text/javascript // mobileOptPrefLink mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/mobileOptPrefLink.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css', 'text/css' ); mw.loader.using( [ 'mediawiki.user', 'oojs-ui-core', 'oojs-ui.styles.icons-interactions' ] , function() { mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/mobileOptPrefLink.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); } ); // desktopMobileToggler mw.loader.using( 'mediawiki.util', function() { mw.loader.getScript( 'https://sv.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Gadget-desktopMobileToggler.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); } ); // Displays current MediaWiki-version at end of #firstHeading. mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/versionLink.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css', 'text/css' ); mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/versionLink.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); // Close the "More" menu by just tapping somewhere else (Legacy Vector) mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/dblClkMore.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); // Sandboxes mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/sandbox.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css', 'text/css' ); mw.loader.using( [ 'mediawiki.util', 'mediawiki.user', 'mediawiki.api' ], function() { mw.loader.load( '/w/index.php?title= user:JohanahoJ/sandbox.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript' ); } ); n801r758326rhcgi9uraclwft9juugi User:JohanahoJ/sandbox.js 2 112889 519304 519266 2022-07-30T16:14:33Z JohanahoJ 37147 javascript text/javascript $( function() { if ( mw.config.get( 'wgCanonicalSpecialPageName' ) != 'Log' || !$( '.mw-logline-newusers' ).length ) { // Annan sida än [[Special:Logg]] med poster för nya användare return; } var api = new mw.Api(), options = { action: 'query', list: 'logevents', letype: 'newusers', leprop: [ 'ids', 'details' ], lelimit: 'max' }, start = new URLSearchParams( $( '.mw-prevlink' ).attr( 'href' ) ).get( 'offset' ), end = new URLSearchParams( $( '.mw-nextlink' ).attr( 'href' ) ).get( 'offset' ), params = new URLSearchParams( window.location.search ); if ( params.get( 'user' ) ) { options.leuser = params.get( 'user' ); } if ( params.get( 'page' ) ) { options.letitle = params.get( 'page' ); } if ( params.get( 'tagfilter' ) ) { options.letag = params.get( 'tagfilter' ); } if ( params.get( 'subtype' ) ) { options.leaction = 'newusers/' + params.get( 'subtype' ); } if ( start ) { options.lestart = start; } if ( end ) { options.leend = end; } api.get( options ).done( function ( d ) { if ( !d || !d.query || !d.query.logevents ) { return; } var users = {}; d.query.logevents.forEach( function( e ) { if ( e.logid && e.params && e.params.userid ) { users[ e.params.userid ] = e.logid; } } ); api.post( { action: 'query', list: 'users', usprop: 'blockinfo', ususerids: Object.keys( users ) } ).done( function( d ) { if ( !d || !d.query || !d.query.users ) { return; } d.query.users.forEach( function( u ) { if ( u.blockid ) { logline = $( '.mw-logline-newusers[data-mw-logid="' + users[ u.userid ] + '"]' ); logline.append( ' (Blockerad)' ); logline.addClass( 'blocked-new-user' ); } } ); } ); } ); } ); sqhgx0gdvdibl7ijicggsyr16yjyan7 519305 519304 2022-07-30T16:26:17Z JohanahoJ 37147 Undo revision 519304 by [[Special:Contributions/JohanahoJ|JohanahoJ]] ([[User talk:JohanahoJ|talk]]) javascript text/javascript function main() { 'use strict'; } if ( document.readyState === 'loading' ) { document.addEventListener( 'DOMContentLoaded', main ); } else { main(); } q0qcluf46dcal489h0fxu7iyy70lcqt Wikipedia 0 118839 519359 493583 2022-07-31T08:03:48Z JohanahoJ 37147 wikitext text/x-wiki == History == {{main|History of Wikipedia}} {{Multiple image | footer = [[Jimmy Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] | width = | image1 = Jimmy Wales September 2015.jpg | width1 = 100 | image2 = L Sanger.jpg | width2 = 116 }} === Nupedia === {{main|Nupedia}} [[File:Nupedia logo and wordmark.png|thumb|alt=Logo reading "Nupedia.com the free encyclopedia" in blue with the large initial "N"|Wikipedia originally developed from another encyclopedia project called Nupedia]] Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were as successful.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.niemanlab.org/2011/10/the-contribution-conundrum-why-did-wikipedia-succeed-while-other-encyclopedias-failed/ |title = The contribution conundrum: Why did Wikipedia succeed while other encyclopedias failed? |website = Nieman Lab |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref> Wikipedia began as a complementary project for [[Nupedia]], a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process.<ref name="KockJungSyn2016">Kock, N., Jung, Y., & Syn, T. (2016). [http://cits.tamiu.edu/kock/pubs/journals/2016JournalIJeC_WikipediaEcollaboration/Kock_etal_2016_IJeC_WikipediaEcollaboration.pdf Wikipedia and e-Collaboration Research: Opportunities and Challenges.] (PDF) {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927001627/http://cits.tamiu.edu/kock/pubs/journals/2016JournalIJeC_WikipediaEcollaboration/Kock_etal_2016_IJeC_WikipediaEcollaboration.pdf |date=September 27, 2016}} ''International Journal of e-Collaboration'' (IJeC), 12(2), 1–8.</ref> It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of [[Bomis]], a [[Web portal|web portal]] company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia.<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref name="Meyers"/> Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia [[free content|Open Content]] License, but even before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] at the urging of [[Richard Stallman]].<ref name="stallman1999"/> Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia,<ref name="SangerMemoir" /><ref name="Sanger"/> while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a [[wiki]] to reach that goal.<ref name="WM foundation of WP 1">{{cite web |url = https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2001-October/000671.html |title = Wikipedia-l: LinkBacks? |access-date = February 20, 2007}}</ref> On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia.<ref name="nupedia feeder from WP 1">{{cite news |first = Larry |last = Sanger |title = Let's Make a Wiki |date = January 10, 2001 |publisher = Internet Archive |url = http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000676.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20030414014355/http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000676.html |archive-date = April 14, 2003 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> === Launch and early growth === The [[domain name|domain]]s ''wikipedia.com'' and ''wikipedia.org'' were registered on January 12, 2001,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.networksolutions.com/whois/results.jsp?domain=wikipedia.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193149/http://www.networksolutions.com/whois/results.jsp?domain=wikipedia.com|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 27, 2007|title=WHOIS domain registration information results for wikipedia.com from Network Solutions|date=September 27, 2007|access-date=August 31, 2018}}</ref> and January 13, 2001,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.networksolutions.com/whois/results.jsp?domain=wikipedia.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194913/http://www.networksolutions.com/whois/results.jsp?domain=wikipedia.org|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 27, 2007|title=WHOIS domain registration information results for wikipedia.org from Network Solutions|date=September 27, 2007|access-date=August 31, 2018}}</ref> respectively, and Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001,<ref name="KockJungSyn2016" /> as a single English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com,<ref name="WikipediaHome" /> and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list.<ref name="SangerMemoir" /> Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view"<ref name="NPOV" /> was codified in its first few months. Otherwise, there were relatively few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia.<ref name="SangerMemoir" /> Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit.<ref name="Seth-Finkelstein">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/sep/25/wikipedia.internet |title = Read me first: Wikipedia isn't about human potential, whatever Wales says |author = Finkelstein, Seth |work = [[The Guardian]] |date = September 25, 2008 |location = London}}</ref> [[File:English Wikipedia main page 20011217.jpg|thumb|The Wikipedia home page on December 17, 2001]] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, [[Slashdot]] postings, and web [[search engine]] indexing. Language editions were also created, with a total of 161 by the end of 2004.<ref name="WP early language stats 1">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Multilingual_statistics |title = Multilingual statistics |website = Wikipedia |date = March 30, 2005 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of two million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'' made during the [[Ming Dynasty]] in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600&nbsp;years.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia" /> Citing fears of commercial [[advertising]] and lack of control in [[list of Wikipedias|Wikipedia]], users of the [[Spanish Wikipedia]] [[fork (software development)|fork]]ed from Wikipedia to create the [[Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español|Enciclopedia Libre]] in February 2002.<ref name="EL fears and start 1">{{cite web |title = [long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008 |url = http://osdir.com/ml/science.linguistics.wikipedia.international/2003-03/msg00008.html |website = Osdir |access-date = December 26, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081006065927/http://osdir.com/ml/science.linguistics.wikipedia.international/2003-03/msg00008.html |archive-date = October 6, 2008 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from ''wikipedia.com'' to ''wikipedia.org''.<ref name="Shirky" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Vibber|first=Brion|date=August 16, 2002|title=Brion VIBBER at pobox.com|url=https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2002-August/003982.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620071550/https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2002-August/003982.html|archive-date=June 20, 2014|access-date=December 8, 2020|website=[[Wikimedia]]}}</ref> Though the English Wikipedia reached three million articles in August 2009, the growth of the edition, in terms of the numbers of new articles and of contributors, appears to have peaked around early 2007.<ref name="guardian WP user peak 1">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/aug/12/wikipedia-deletionist-inclusionist |title = Wikipedia approaches its limits |first = Bobbie |last = Johnson |work = The Guardian |location = London |date = August 12, 2009 |access-date = March 31, 2010}}</ref> Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800.<ref name="WP growth modelling 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia extended growth}}</ref> A team at the [[Palo Alto Research Center]] attributed this slowing of growth to the project's increasing exclusivity and resistance to change.<ref name="wikisym slowing growth 1">{{cite conference |url = http://www.wikisym.org/ws2009/procfiles/p108-suh.pdf |title = The Singularity is Not Near: Slowing Growth of Wikipedia |year = 2009 |location = Orlando, Florida |conference = The International Symposium on Wikis |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511110022/http://www.wikisym.org/ws2009/procfiles/p108-suh.pdf |archive-date = May 11, 2011}}</ref><!-- ''Hidden whilst in discussion on the talk page'': New or occasional editors have significantly higher rates of their edits reverted (removed) than an elite group of regular editors, colloquially known as "the [[cabal]]". This could make it more difficult for the project to recruit and retain new contributors over the long term, resulting in stagnation in article creation. --> Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called "[[wikt:low-hanging fruit|low-hanging fruit]]"—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created and built up extensively.<ref name="bostonreview the end of WP 1">{{cite magazine |url = https://bostonreview.net/books-ideas/edit-page-wikipedia-evgeny-morozov |title = Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia |magazine = Boston Review |first = Evgeny |last = Morozov |date = November–December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211050926/http://bostonreview.net/books-ideas/edit-page-wikipedia-evgeny-morozov|archive-date=December 11, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last = Cohen |first = Noam |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/29/weekinreview/29cohen.html |title = Wikipedia&nbsp;– Exploring Fact City |work = The New York Times |date = March 28, 2009 |access-date = April 19, 2011}}</ref><ref name="stanford WP lack of future growth 1">{{cite journal |first1=Austin |last1=Gibbons |first2=David |last2=Vetrano |first3=Susan |last3=Biancani |year=2012 |url=https://snap.stanford.edu/class/cs341-2012/reports/09-GibbonsVetranoBiancaniCS341.pdf |title=Wikipedia: Nowhere to grow |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718091331/http://snap.stanford.edu/class/cs341-2012/reports/09-GibbonsVetranoBiancaniCS341.pdf |archive-date=July 18, 2014 |url-status=live }} {{open access}}</ref> {{anchor|Decline in participation since 2009}} [[File:Wikipedia Edit 2014.webm|thumb|right|A promotional video of the Wikimedia Foundation that encourages viewers to edit Wikipedia, mostly reviewing 2014 via Wikipedia content]]<!-- Appropriateness debated in Talk:Wikipedia#Promotional video --> In November 2009, a researcher at the [[Rey Juan Carlos University]] in [[Madrid]] found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, the project lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008.<ref name="guardian editors leaving 1">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/nov/26/wikipedia-losing-disgruntled-editors |title = Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words |work = The Guardian |location = London |first = Jenny |last = Kleeman |date = November 26, 2009 |access-date = March 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url = http://libresoft.es/publications/thesis-jfelipe |title = Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis |website=Libresoft |format = PDF |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120403172516/http://libresoft.es/publications/thesis-jfelipe |archive-date = April 3, 2012}}</ref> ''The Wall Street Journal'' cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend.<ref name="WSJ WP losing editors 1">Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages, The Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2009.</ref> Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the methodology of the study.<ref name="telegraph Wales WP not losing editors 1">{{cite news |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/wikipedia/6660646/Wikipedias-Jimmy-Wales-denies-site-is-losing-thousands-of-volunteer-editors.html |title = Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors |first = Emma |last = Barnett |work = The Daily Telegraph |location = London |date = November 26, 2009 |access-date = March 31, 2010}}</ref> Two years later, in 2011, Wales acknowledged the presence of a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, Wales also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable".<ref name="wiki-women" /> A 2013 article titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" in ''[[MIT Technology Review]]'' questioned this claim. The article revealed that since 2007, Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and those still there have focused increasingly on minutiae.<ref name="Simonite-2013">{{cite journal |last = Simonite |first = Tom |url = https://www.technologyreview.com/2013/10/22/175674/the-decline-of-wikipedia/ |title = The Decline of Wikipedia |date = October 22, 2013 |journal = [[MIT Technology Review]] |access-date = November 30, 2013}}</ref> In July 2012, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' reported that the number of administrators is also in decline.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/07/3-charts-that-show-how-wikipedia-is-running-out-of-admins/259829 |title = 3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins |work = The Atlantic |date = July 16, 2012}}</ref> In the November 25, 2013, issue of ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'' magazine, Katherine Ward stated "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis".<ref>Ward, Katherine. ''New York'' Magazine, issue of November 25, 2013, p. 18.</ref> === Milestones === [[File:European Wikipedias article count 2019 map.svg|thumb|[[Cartogram]] showing number of articles in each European language as of January 2019. One square represents 10,000 articles. Languages with fewer than 10,000 articles are represented by one square. Languages are grouped by language family and each language family is presented by a separate color.]] In January 2007, Wikipedia entered for the first time the top-ten [[list of most popular websites|list of the most popular websites]] in the US, according to [[comscore]] Networks. With 42.9&nbsp;million unique visitors, Wikipedia was ranked number 9, surpassing ''[[The New York Times]]'' (#10) and [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] (#11). This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when the rank was number 33, with Wikipedia receiving around 18.3&nbsp;million unique visitors.<ref>{{cite magazine |url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/129135/wikipedia_breaks_into_us_top_10_sites.html |title = Wikipedia Breaks Into US Top 10 Sites |magazine = PCWorld |date = February 17, 2007}}</ref> {{as of|2020|March}}, Wikipedia has rank 13<ref name="Alexa siteinfo" /> among websites in terms of popularity according to [[Alexa Internet]]. In 2014, it received eight billion page views every month.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/squids/SquidReportPageViewsPerCountryOverview.htm |title = Wikimedia Traffic Analysis Report&nbsp;– Wikipedia Page Views Per Country |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = March 8, 2015}}</ref> On February 9, 2014, ''The New York Times'' reported that Wikipedia has 18&nbsp;billion [[pageview|page view]]s and nearly 500&nbsp;million [[unique user#Unique visitor|unique visitor]]s a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore".<ref name="small screen">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/10/technology/wikipedia-vs-the-small-screen.html?_r=0 |title = Wikipedia vs. the Small Screen |work = The New York Times |date = February 9, 2014 |last = Cohen |first = Noam}}</ref> Loveland and Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that accumulated improvements piecemeal through "[[stigmergy|stigmergic]] accumulation".<ref name="sagepub WP and encyclopedic production 1">{{cite journal|first1=Jeff|last1=Loveland|first2=Joseph|last2=Reagle|date=January 15, 2013|title=Wikipedia and encyclopedic production|journal=New Media & Society|volume=15|issue=8|page=1294|doi=10.1177/1461444812470428|s2cid=27886998}}</ref><ref name="theatlantic WP actually a reversion 1">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/what-if-the-great-wikipedia-revolution-was-actually-a-reversion/272697|title=What If the Great Wikipedia 'Revolution' Was Actually a Reversion? • The Atlantic|first=Rebecca J.|last=Rosen|date=January 30, 2013|access-date=February 9, 2013}}</ref> {{anchor|BlackoutProtest}} [[File:History Wikipedia English SOPA 2012 Blackout2.jpg|thumb|right|Wikipedia blackout protest against [[Stop Online Piracy Act|SOPA]] on January 18, 2012]] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the [[United States Congress]]—the [[Stop Online Piracy Act]] (SOPA) and the [[PROTECT IP Act]] (PIPA)—by [[protest against SOPA and PIPA|blacking out its pages for 24 hours]].<ref name="LA Times Jan 19">{{cite news |url = http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/technology/2012/01/wikipedia-sopa-blackout-congressional-representatives.html |title = Wikipedia: SOPA protest led eight million to look up reps in Congress |first = Deborah |last = Netburn |work = Los Angeles Times |date = January 19, 2012 |access-date = March 6, 2012}}</ref> More than 162&nbsp;million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced Wikipedia content.<ref name="BBC WP blackout protest 1">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia joins blackout protest at US anti-piracy moves |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-16590585 |work = BBC News |date = January 18, 2012 |access-date = January 19, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/SOPA/Blackoutpage |title = SOPA/Blackoutpage |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = January 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622185443/https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/SOPA/Blackoutpage |archive-date = June 22, 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for ''[[The Economic Times]]'' indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about two billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost nine percent."<ref name="economictimes.indiatimes.com">{{cite news |first = Subodh |last = Varma |title = Google eating into Wikipedia page views? |date = January 20, 2014 |url = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/29094246.cms |work = The Economic Times |access-date = February 10, 2014}}</ref> Varma added that "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's [[Knowledge Graph]]s project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users."<ref name="economictimes.indiatimes.com" /> When contacted on this matter, [[Clay Shirky]], associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's [[Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society]] indicated that he suspected much of the page view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]."<ref name="economictimes.indiatimes.com" /> By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked fifth in the most popular websites globally.<ref name="Alexa">{{cite web |url = http://www.alexa.com/topsites |title = Alexa Top 500 Global Sites |website = [[Alexa Internet]] |access-date = December 28, 2016}}</ref> In January 2013, [[274301 Wikipedia]], an [[asteroid]], was named after Wikipedia; in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the ''[[Wikipedia Monument]]''; and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as [[Print Wikipedia]]. In April 2019, an Israeli [[lunar lander]], [[Beresheet]], crash landed on the surface of the [[Moon]] carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash.<ref name="WRD-20190805">{{cite news |last=Oberhaus |first=Daniel |title=A Crashed Israeli Lunar Lander Spilled Tardigrades On The Moon |url=https://www.wired.com/story/a-crashed-israeli-lunar-lander-spilled-tardigrades-on-the-moon/ |date=August 5, 2019 |work=[[wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=August 6, 2019}}</ref><ref name="VOX-20190806">{{cite news |last=Resnick |first=Brian |title=Tardigrades, the toughest animals on Earth, have crash-landed on the moon&nbsp;– The tardigrade conquest of the solar system has begun. |url=https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/8/6/20756844/tardigrade-moon-beresheet-arch-mission |date=August 6, 2019|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |access-date=August 6, 2019}}</ref> In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16&nbsp;GB of article text from the English Wikipedia have been encoded into [[synthetic genomics|synthetic DNA]].<ref name="CNET-20190629">{{cite news |last=Shankland |first=Stephen |title=Startup packs all 16GB of Wikipedia onto DNA strands to demonstrate new storage tech&nbsp;– Biological molecules will last a lot longer than the latest computer storage technology, Catalog believes. |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/startup-packs-all-16gb-wikipedia-onto-dna-strands-demonstrate-new-storage-tech/ |date=June 29, 2019 |work=[[CNET]] |access-date=August 7, 2019}}</ref>}}}} == Openness == {{Wikipedia article graph|caption=Number of English Wikipedia articles}} {{Wikipedia editor graph}} [[File:History Comparison Example (Vector).png|thumb|Differences between versions of an article are highlighted]] Unlike traditional encyclopedias, Wikipedia follows the [[procrastination]] principle<ref group=note>The procrastination principle dictates that you should wait for problems to arise before solving them.</ref> regarding the security of its content.<ref name=zittrain>{{cite book |last = Zittrain |first = Jonathan |title = The Future of the Internet and How to Stop It&nbsp;– Chapter 6: The Lessons of Wikipedia |author-link = Jonathan Zittrain |publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2008 |url = https://archive.org/details/futureofinternet00zitt |isbn = 978-0-300-12487-3 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> It started almost entirely open—anyone could create articles, and any Wikipedia article could be edited by any reader, even those who did not have a Wikipedia account. Modifications to all articles would be published immediately. As a result, any article could contain inaccuracies such as errors, [[ideological bias on Wikipedia|ideological bias]]es, and nonsensical or irrelevant text. === Restrictions === Due to the increasing popularity of Wikipedia, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only registered users may create a new article.<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Tutorial/Registration|Registration notes}}</ref> On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees.<ref name="WP protection policy 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Protection policy|Protection Policy}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1 = Hafner |first1 = Katie |title = Growing Wikipedia Refines Its 'Anyone Can Edit' Policy |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/17/technology/17wiki.html |access-date = December 5, 2016 |work = The New York Times |date = June 17, 2006}}</ref> A frequently vandalized article can be [[Help:Semi-protection|semi-protected]] or [[WP:ECP|extended confirmed protected]], meaning that only [[Wikipedia:Autoconfirmed|autoconfirmed]] or [[WP:XCON|extended confirmed]] editors are able to modify it.<ref>[[Wikipedia:Protection policy|English Wikipedia's protection policy]]</ref> A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only [[Wikipedia administrators|administrators]] are able to make changes.<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Full protection|English Wikipedia's full protection policy}}</ref> A 2021 article in the ''[[Columbia Journalism Review]]'' identified Wikipedia's page protection policies as "[p]erhaps the most important" means at Wikipedia's disposal to "regulate its market of ideas".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harrison|first1=Stephen|last2=Benjakob|first2=Omer|title=Wikipedia is twenty. It's time to start covering it better.|date=2021-01-14|url=https://www.cjr.org/opinion/wikipedia-is-twenty-its-time-to-start-covering-it-better.php|access-date=2021-01-15|website=[[Columbia Journalism Review]]|location=New York, USA|language=en}}</ref> In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the [[German Wikipedia]] maintains "stable versions" of articles,<ref name="WP some sites stable versions 1">{{cite mailing list |first = P. |last = Birken |url = https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikide-l/2008-December/021594.html |title = Bericht Gesichtete Versionen |mailing-list = Wikide-l |date = December 14, 2008 |language = de |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = February 15, 2009}}</ref> which have passed certain reviews. Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012.<ref name="BInsider pending changes intro 1">{{cite news |url = http://www.businessinsider.com/pending-changes-safeguard-on-wikipedia-2012-12 |title = Wikipedia Has Figured Out A New Way To Stop Vandals In Their Tracks |work = Business Insider |first = William |last = Henderson |date = December 10, 2012}}</ref> Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published.<ref>{{cite news |last = Frewin |first = Jonathan |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/10312095 |title = Wikipedia unlocks divisive pages for editing |journal = BBC News |date = June 15, 2010 |access-date = August 21, 2014}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia editing interface.png|thumb|left|The editing interface of Wikipedia]] === Review of changes === Although changes are not systematically reviewed, the software that powers Wikipedia provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. The "History" page of each article links to each revision.<ref group=note>Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements [[WP:Suppression|may be removed completely]].</ref><ref name="Torsten_Kleinz" /> On most articles, anyone can undo others' changes by clicking a link on the article's history page. Anyone can view the [[Help:Recent changes|latest changes]] to articles, and anyone may maintain a [[wiki#Controlling changes|"watchlist"]] of articles that interest them so they can be notified of any changes. "New pages patrol" is a process whereby newly created articles are checked for obvious problems.<ref>[[Wikipedia:New pages patrol]]</ref> In 2003, economics Ph.D. student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low [[transaction cost]]s of participating in a [[wiki]] create a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favor "creative construction" over "creative destruction".<ref name="FMonday collaborative effort 1">Andrea Ciffolilli, [http://firstmonday.org/article/view/1108/1028 "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment, and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206104747/http://firstmonday.org/article/view/1108/1028 |date=December 6, 2016}}, ''[[First Monday (journal)|First Monday]]'' December 2003.</ref> === Vandalism === {{main|Vandalism on Wikipedia}} Any change or edit that manipulates content in a way that purposefully compromises the integrity of Wikipedia is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor. Vandalism can also include advertising and other types of spam.<ref name="upenn link spamming 1">{{cite conference |last1 = West |first1 = Andrew G. |last2 = Chang |first2 = Jian |last3 = Venkatasubramanian |first3 = Krishna |last4 = Sokolsky |first4 = Oleg |last5 = Lee |first5 = Insup |title = Link Spamming Wikipedia for Profit |conference = 8th Annual Collaboration, Electronic Messaging, Anti-Abuse, and Spam Conference |pages = 152–161 |date = 2011 |url = http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1508&context=cis_papers |doi = 10.1145/2030376.2030394}}</ref> Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information to an article can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the underlying code of an article, or use images disruptively.<ref name="WP vandalism manipulation 1" /> [[File:John Seigenthaler Sr. speaking.jpg|thumb|alt=White-haired elderly gentleman in suit and tie speaks at a podium.|American journalist [[John Seigenthaler]] (1927–2014), subject of the [[Seigenthaler incident]].]] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix vandalism is a few minutes.<ref name="MIT_IBM_study" /><ref name="CreatingDestroyingAndRestoringValue" /> However, some vandalism takes much longer to repair.<ref name="Seigenthaler" /> In the [[Seigenthaler biography incident]], an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure [[John Seigenthaler]] in May 2005. Seigenthaler was falsely presented as a suspect in the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].<ref name="Seigenthaler" /> The article remained uncorrected for four months.<ref name="Seigenthaler" /> Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of ''[[USA Today]]'' and founder of the [[Freedom Forum]] [[First Amendment Center]] at [[Vanderbilt University]], called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales replied that he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced.<ref name="book The World is Flat 1">{{cite book |last = Friedman |first = Thomas L. |title = The World is Flat |year = 2007 |publisher = [[Farrar, Straus & Giroux]] |isbn = 978-0-374-29278-2 |page = 124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://archive.firstamendmentcenter.org/news.aspx?id=17798 |title = Founder shares cautionary tale of libel in cyberspace |last = Buchanan |first = Brian |date = November 17, 2006 |publisher = archive.firstamendmentcenter.org |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121221140311/http://archive.firstamendmentcenter.org/news.aspx?id=17798 |archive-date = December 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date = November 17, 2012}}</ref> After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool".<ref name="Seigenthaler" /> This incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia, specifically targeted at tightening up the verifiability of {{srlink|Wikipedia:Biographies of living persons|biographical articles of living people}}.<ref>{{cite news |last = Helm |first = Burt |title = Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress" |url = http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-12-13/wikipedia-a-work-in-progress |newspaper = [[BusinessWeek]] |date = December 13, 2005 |access-date = July 26, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120708062333/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2005-12-13/wikipedia-a-work-in-progress |archive-date = July 8, 2012}}</ref> In 2010, Daniel Tosh encouraged viewers of his show, ''[[Tosh.0]]'', to visit the show's Wikipedia article and edit it at will. On a later episode, he commented on the edits to the article, most of them offensive, which had been made by the audience and had prompted the article to be locked from editing.<ref name="tosh CC WP funny 1">{{cite web |url = http://tosh.comedycentral.com/blog/2010/02/03/your-wikipedia-entries |title = Your Wikipedia Entries |date = February 3, 2010 |website = Tosh.0 |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref><ref name="tosh CC WP funny 2">{{cite web |url = http://tosh.comedycentral.com/video-clips/wikipedia-updates |title = Wikipedia Updates |date = February 3, 2010 |website = Tosh.0 |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> === Edit warring === Wikipedians often have disputes regarding content, which may result in repeatedly making opposite changes to an article, known as [[Wikipedia:EW|"edit warring"]].<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Dispute Resolution|Dispute Resolution}}</ref><ref name="NBC WP editorial warzone 12">{{cite news |last=Coldewey |first=Devin |date=June 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140822010030/http://sys03-public.nbcnews.com/technology/wikipedia-editorial-warzone-says-study-838793 |title=Wikipedia is editorial warzone, says study |department=Technology |work=[[NBC News]] |url=http://sys03-public.nbcnews.com/technology/wikipedia-editorial-warzone-says-study-838793 |archive-date=August 22, 2014}}</ref> The process is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kalyanasundaram |first1=Arun |last2=Wei |first2=Wei |last3=Carley |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Herbsleb |first4=James D. |date=December 2015 |title=An agent-based model of edit wars in Wikipedia: How and when is consensus reached |journal=2015 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC) |location=Huntington Beach, CA, USA |publisher=IEEE |pages=276–287 |doi=10.1109/WSC.2015.7408171 |isbn=9781467397438|s2cid=9353425 }}</ref> This practice is also criticized as creating a competitive,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Suh |first1=Bongwon |last2=Convertino |first2=Gregorio |last3=Chi |first3=Ed H. |last4=Pirolli |first4=Peter |date=2009 |title=The singularity is not near: slowing growth of Wikipedia |url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1641309.1641322 |journal=Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration&nbsp;– WikiSym '09 |location=Orlando, Florida |publisher=ACM Press |page=1 |doi=10.1145/1641309.1641322 |isbn=9781605587301|doi-access=free }}</ref> conflict based<ref>{{cite news |url=https://hbr.org/2016/06/why-do-so-few-women-edit-wikipedia |title=Why Do So Few Women Edit Wikipedia? |last=Torres |first=Nicole |date=June 2, 2016 |work=Harvard Business Review |access-date=August 20, 2019 |issn=0017-8012}}</ref> editing culture associated with traditional masculine [[gender role]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bear |first1=Julia B. |last2=Collier |first2=Benjamin |date=March 2016 |title=Where are the Women in Wikipedia? Understanding the Different Psychological Experiences of Men and Women in Wikipedia |journal=Sex Roles |volume=74 |issue=5–6 |pages=254–265 |doi=10.1007/s11199-015-0573-y |s2cid=146452625 |issn=0360-0025}}</ref> which contributes to the [[gender bias on Wikipedia]]. Special interest groups have engaged in edit wars to advance their own political interests. == <span id="Rules_and_laws_governing_content">Policies and laws</span>{{anchor|Rules and laws governing content and editor behavior}} == {{anchor|Censorship}} {{selfref|"Wikipedia policy" redirects here, for an introduction see [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]] for a list see [[Wikipedia:List of policies]]}} {{External media | width = 220px | float = right |headerimage = [[File:Jimbo at Fosdem cropped.jpg|210px]] | video1 = [https://www.cbsnews.com/news/wikipedia-jimmy-wales-morley-safer-60-minutes/ Wikimania], ''[[60 Minutes]]'', [[CBS]], 20 minutes, April 5, 2015, co-founder Jimmy Wales at [[Fosdem]] | access-date = April 5, 2015}} Content in Wikipedia is subject to the laws (in particular, [[copyright]] laws) of the United States and of the US state of [[Virginia]], where the majority of Wikipedia's servers are located. Beyond legal matters, the editorial principles of Wikipedia are embodied in the {{srlink|WP:Five pillars|"five pillars"}} and in numerous {{srlink|Wikipedia:List of policies and guidelines|policies and guidelines}} intended to appropriately shape content. Even these rules are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines.<ref name="pcworld who's behind WP">{{cite web |url = http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;1866322157;fp;2;fpid;2 |title = Who's behind Wikipedia? |website = PC World |date = February 6, 2008 |access-date = February 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080209110303/http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id%3B1866322157%3Bfp%3B2%3Bfpid%3B2 |archive-date = February 9, 2008}}</ref> Editors can {{srlink|Wikipedia:Enforcement|enforce these rules}} by deleting or modifying non-compliant material. Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent.<ref name="WP some sites stable versions 1" /> === Content policies and guidelines{{anchor|Content policies}} === According to the rules on the English Wikipedia, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is [[wikt:encyclopedic|encyclopedic]] and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style.<ref name="WP content policy 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|What Wikipedia is not}}. Retrieved April 1, 2010. "Wikipedia is not a dictionary, usage, or jargon guide."</ref> A topic should also meet [[notability in the English Wikipedia|Wikipedia's standards of "notability"]],<ref name="WP notability guide 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Notability|Notability}}. Retrieved February 13, 2008. "A topic is presumed to be notable if it has received significant coverage in reliable secondary sources that are independent of the subject."</ref> which generally means that the topic must have been covered in mainstream media or major academic journal sources that are independent of the article's subject. Further, Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized.<ref name="NOR" /> [[WP:No original research|It must not present original research]]. A claim that is likely to be challenged requires a reference to a [[WP:Identifying reliable sources|reliable source]]. Among Wikipedia editors, this is often phrased as "verifiability, not truth" to express the idea that the readers, not the encyclopedia, are ultimately responsible for checking the truthfulness of the articles and making their own interpretations.<ref name="WP Verifiability policy 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Verifiability|Verifiability}}. February 13, 2008. "Material challenged or likely to be challenged, and all quotations must be attributed to a reliable, published source."</ref> This can at times lead to the removal of information that, though valid, is not properly sourced.<ref name="IHT WP valid info wrong removable 1">{{cite news |last = Cohen |first = Noam |title = For inclusive mission, Wikipedia is told that written word goes only so far |newspaper = [[International Herald Tribune]] |page = 18 |date = August 9, 2011}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Finally, Wikipedia must not take sides.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> All opinions and viewpoints, if attributable to external sources, must enjoy an appropriate share of coverage within an article. This is known as a neutral point of view (NPOV). == Governance == {{further|Wikipedia:Administration}} Wikipedia's initial [[anarchy]] integrated [[democracy|democratic]] and hierarchical elements over time.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Sanger |first1 = Larry |title = The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir |url = http://features.slashdot.org/story/05/04/18/164213/the-early-history-of-nupedia-and-wikipedia-a-memoir |website = Slashdot |publisher = Dice |date = April 18, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Kostakis |first1 = Vasilis |title = Identifying and understanding the problems of Wikipedia's peer governance: The case of inclusionists versus deletionists |issue = 3 |url = http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2613/2479 |journal = First Monday |volume = 15 |date = March 2010}}</ref> An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article.<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Ownership of articles|Ownership of articles}}</ref> === Administrators === [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Editors]] in good standing in the community can run for one of many levels of volunteer stewardship: this begins with "[[administrators (Wikipedia)|administrator]]",<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Administrators}}</ref><ref name="David_Mehegan"/> privileged users who can delete pages, prevent articles from being changed in case of vandalism or editorial disputes (setting protective measures on articles), and try to prevent certain people from editing. Despite the name, administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent certain persons from making disruptive edits (such as vandalism).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators#Administrator_conduct |title = Wikipedia:Administrators |access-date = July 12, 2009 |date = October 3, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:RfA_Review/Reflect |title = Wikipedia:RfA_Review/Reflect |access-date = September 24, 2009 |date = January 22, 2017}}</ref> Fewer editors become administrators than in years past, in part because the process of vetting potential Wikipedia administrators has become more rigorous.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/07/3-charts-that-show-how-wikipedia-is-running-out-of-admins/259829 |title = 3 Charts That Show How Wikipedia Is Running Out of Admins |last = Meyer |first = Robinson |website = [[The Atlantic]] |date = July 16, 2012 |access-date = September 2, 2012}}</ref> [[Wikipedia:Bureaucrats|Bureaucrats]] name new administrators solely upon the recommendations from the community. === Dispute resolution === Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process to assist in such circumstances. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums,<ref group=note>See for example the [[Wikipedia:Biographies of living persons/Noticeboard|Biographies of Living Persons Noticeboard]] or [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view/Noticeboard|Neutral Point of View Noticeboard]], created to address content falling under their respective areas.</ref> or seek outside input through [[Wikipedia:Third opinion|third opinion requests]] or by initiating a more general community discussion known as a [[WP:RfC|"request for comment"]]. ==== Arbitration Committee ==== {{main|Arbitration Committee}} The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. Statistical analyses suggest that the committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted,<ref name="emory disputes handled 1" /> functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. Therefore, the committee does not dictate the<!-- The committee may (directly) rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may NOT (directly) rule that certain content is inappropriate. --> content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|biased]]). Its remedies<!-- Although caution is no remedy, this is the language used in the reference. This could be quoted or changed. --> include cautions and [[WP:Probation|probations]] (used in 63% of cases) and [[WP:BAN|banning editors from articles]] (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and [[anti-social behavior]]. When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather anti-consensus<!-- This needs to be clarified. Anti-consensus behavior appears to be defined mostly as "edit warring". --> or in violation of editing policies, remedies tend to be limited to warnings.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Wikitruth through Wikiorder |ssrn = 1354424 |journal = [[Emory Law Journal]] |volume = 59 |issue = 1 |year = 2009 |pages = 151–210 |first = David A. |last = Hoffman |first2 = Salil K.|last2 = Mehra}}</ref> == Community == {{main|Wikipedia community}} [[File:Wikimania - the Wikimentary.webm|thumb|Video of [[Wikimania#2005|Wikimania 2005]]—an annual conference for users of Wikipedia and other projects operated by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], was held in [[Frankfurt am Main]], Germany, August 4–8.]] Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated "Talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.research.ibm.com/visual/papers/wikipedia_coordination_final.pdf |first = Fernanda B. |last = Viégas |first2 = Martin M. |last2 = Wattenberg |first3 = Jesse |last3 = Kriss |first4 = Frank |last4 = van Ham |title = Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia |publisher = Visual Communication Lab, [[IBM Research]] |date = January 3, 2007 |access-date = June 27, 2008 |author2-link = Martin M. Wattenberg |author-link = Fernanda B. Viégas}}</ref> [[File:Editing Hoxne Hoard at the British Museum.ogv|thumb|right|Wikipedians and [[British Museum]] curators collaborate on the article [[Hoxne Hoard]] in June 2010]] Wikipedia's community has been described as [[cult]]like,<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2005/dec/15/wikipedia.web20 |title = Log on and join in, but beware the web cults |first = Charles |last = Arthur |date = December 15, 2005 |work = [[The Guardian]] |location = London |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> although not always with entirely negative connotations.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/internet/08/03/wikipedia/index.html |title = Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site |first = Kristie |last = Lu Stout |publisher = CNN |date = August 4, 2003 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> The project's preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of [[credential]]s, has been referred to as "[[anti-elitism]]".<ref>{{cite web |title = Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism |url = http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/12/30/142458/25 |website = [[Kuro5hin]], Op–Ed |first = Larry |last = Sanger |date = December 31, 2004 |quote = There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. (Those who were there will, I hope, remember that I tried very hard.) |author-link = Larry Sanger}}</ref> Wikipedians sometimes award one another [[Wikipedia:Barnstars|virtual barnstar]]s for good work. These personalized tokens of appreciation reveal a wide range of valued work extending far beyond simple editing to include social support, administrative actions, and types of articulation work.<ref>{{cite book|title = Articulations of wikiwork: uncovering valued work in Wikipedia through barnstars | first1 = Travis Kriplean | last1 = Kriplean | first2 = Ivan | last2 = Beschastnikh |last3 = McDonald |first3 = David W. |name-list-style = vanc |publisher = Proceedings of the ACM |year = 2008 |doi = 10.1145/1460563.1460573 |page = 47 |isbn = 978-1-60558-007-4 |chapter = Articulations of wikiwork| s2cid = 7164949 }} {{subscription required|s}}</ref><!-- This is already covered in "Wikipedia community" and might be superfluous here. --> Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification.<ref name="user identification" /> As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked on the project.<ref>{{cite book |chapter= Power of the Few vs. Wisdom of the Crowd: Wikipedia and the Rise of the Bourgeoisie |title=CHI '07: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |publisher = Viktoria Institute |first = Aniket |last = Kittur |year = 2007 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.212.8218}}</ref> Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community&nbsp;... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization".<ref name="blodget">{{cite news |url = http://www.businessinsider.com/2009/1/who-the-hell-writes-wikipedia-anyway |title = Who The Hell Writes Wikipedia, Anyway? |first = Henry |last = Blodget |work = Business Insider |date = January 3, 2009}}</ref> In 2008, a ''Slate'' magazine article reported that: "According to researchers in Palo Alto, one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits."<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.slate.com/id/2184487 |title = The Wisdom of the Chaperones |date = February 22, 2008 |first = Chris |last = Wilson |work = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |access-date = August 13, 2014}}</ref> This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by [[Aaron Swartz]], who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/whowriteswikipedia |title = Raw Thought: Who Writes Wikipedia? |first = Aaron |last = Swartz |date = September 4, 2006 |access-date = February 23, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140803134036/http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/whowriteswikipedia |archive-date = August 3, 2014 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <!-- Obsolete chart image needs to be updated as current definition of active users is over 125,000 [[File:ActiveWikipedians.PNG|thumb|356x356px|Historical chart of the number of Wikipedians considered as active by the Wikimedia Foundation]] --> {{anchor|Decline in participation since 2007}} The English Wikipedia has {{srlink|Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}}} articles, {{srlink|Special:ActiveUsers|{{NUMBEROFUSERS}}}} registered editors, and {{srlink|Special:ActiveUsers|{{NUMBEROFACTIVEUSERS}}}} active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as [[WP:SIG|signing talk page comments]], may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references".<ref name="labor squeeze on WP 1" /> Editors who do not log in are in some sense second-class citizens on Wikipedia,<ref name="labor squeeze on WP 1">{{cite journal |title = Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences |journal = Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law |author = Goldman, Eric |volume = 8}}</ref> as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation",<ref name="legal edu and WP 1">{{cite journal |title = Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education |author = Noveck, Beth Simone |journal = Journal of Legal Education |volume = 57}}</ref> but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their [[IP address]]es cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. === Studies === A 2007 study by researchers from [[Dartmouth College]] found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia [...] are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site".<ref name="sciam good samaritans 1">{{cite news |url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=good-samaritans-are-on-the-money |title = Wikipedia "Good Samaritans" Are on the Money |work = Scientific American |date = October 19, 2007 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just .7% of the users{{nbsp}}... 524 people{{nbsp}}... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits."<ref name="blodget" /> However, ''[[Business Insider]]'' editor and journalist [[Henry Blodget]] showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most content in Wikipedia (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders".<ref name="blodget" /> A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others,<ref name="liebertonline view on WP users 1">{{cite journal | last1 = Amichai-Hamburger | first1 = Yair | last2 = Lamdan | first2 = Naama | last3 = Madiel | first3 = Rinat | last4 = Hayat | first4 = Tsahi | year = 2008| title = Personality Characteristics of Wikipedia Members | journal = CyberPsychology & Behavior | volume = 11 | issue = 6| pages = 679–681 | doi = 10.1089/cpb.2007.0225 | pmid = 18954273 }}</ref><ref name="newscientist view on WP users 1">{{cite web |url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20126883.900-wikipedians-are-closed-and-disagreeable.html |title = Wikipedians are 'closed' and 'disagreeable' |website = New Scientist |access-date = July 13, 2010}} {{subscription required|s}}</ref> although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/unique-everybody-else/201303/the-misunderstood-personality-profile-wikipedia-members |title = The Misunderstood Personality Profile of Wikipedia Members |website = psychologytoday.com |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref> According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content".<ref name="newscientist WP boom to bust 1">{{cite web |last = Giles |first = Jim |title = After the boom, is Wikipedia heading for bust? |url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17554-after-the-boom-is-wikipedia-heading-for-bust.html |website = New Scientist |date = August 4, 2009}}</ref> === Diversity === Several studies have shown that most of the Wikipedia contributors are male. Notably, the results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female.<ref>{{cite news |last = Cohen |first = Noam |title = Define Gender Gap? Look Up Wikipedia's Contributor List |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/31/business/media/31link.html?_r=0 |work = The New York Times |access-date = October 28, 2013}}</ref> Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage females to become Wikipedia contributors. Similarly, many of these universities, including [[Yale University|Yale]] and [[Brown University|Brown]], gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ocad-to-storm-wikipedia-this-fall-1.1412807 |title = OCAD to 'Storm Wikipedia' this fall |work = CBC News |date = August 27, 2013 |access-date = August 21, 2014}}</ref> [[Andrew Lih]], a professor and scientist, wrote in ''[[The New York Times]]'' that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior".<ref>Dimitra Kessenides (December 26, 2017). [[Bloomberg News]] Weekly, "Is Wikipedia 'Woke'". p. 73.</ref> Data has shown that [[Africa]]ns are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors.<ref name="memeb">{{cite web|url=https://memeburn.com/2018/06/wikipedia-wikimania-africa-numbers/|title=The startling numbers behind Africa's Wikipedia knowledge gaps|date=June 21, 2018|website=memeburn.com}}</ref> == Language editions == {{main|List of Wikipedias}} [[File:Most popular edition of Wikipedia by country.svg|thumb|right|Most popular edition of Wikipedia by country in January 2021.]] [[File:Wikipedia page views by language over time.png|thumb|Most viewed editions of Wikipedia over time.]] [[File:Wikipedia editors by language over time.png|thumb|Most edited editions of Wikipedia over time.]] There are currently {{NUMBEROF|languages|Wikipedia}} language editions of Wikipedia (also called ''language versions'', or simply ''Wikipedias''). As of {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}, the six largest, in order of article count, are the {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|1}}, {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|2}}, {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|3}}, {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|4}}, {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|5}}, and {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|6}} Wikipedias.<ref name="WP list of WPs by article 1">{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias#All_Wikipedias_ordered_by_number_of_articles|title=Wikipedia:List of Wikipedias|publisher=English Wikipedia|access-date={{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}, {{CURRENTYEAR}}}}</ref> The second and third largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating [[Internet bot|bot]] [[Lsjbot]], which as of 2013 had created about half the articles in the [[Swedish Wikipedia]], and most of the articles in the [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] and [[Waray Wikipedia]]s. The latter are both languages of the Philippines. In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ([[Russian Wikipedia|Russian]], [[Italian Wikipedia|Italian]], [[Spanish Wikipedia|Spanish]], [[Polish Wikipedia|Polish]], [[Waray Wikipedia|Waray]], [[Vietnamese Wikipedia|Vietnamese]], [[Japanese Wikipedia|Japanese]], [[Egyptian Arabic Wikipedia|Egyptian Arabic]], [[Chinese Wikipedia|Chinese]], [[Arabic Wikipedia|Arabic]], [[Ukrainian Wikipedia|Ukrainian]] and [[Portuguese Wikipedia|Portuguese]]), seven more have over 500,000 articles ([[Persian Wikipedia|Persian]], [[Catalan Wikipedia|Catalan]], [[Serbian Wikipedia|Serbian]], [[Indonesian Wikipedia|Indonesian]], [[Norwegian Wikipedia|Norwegian (Bokmål)]], [[Korean Wikipedia|Korean]] and [[Finnish Wikipedia|Finnish]]), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000.<ref name="ListOfWikipedias" /><ref name="WP list of WPs 1">[[meta:List of Wikipedias|List of Wikipedias]]</ref> The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over {{#expr: 0.1*floor({{NUMBEROFARTICLES:R}}/100000)}} million articles. {{As of|2021|01}}, the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic.<ref>[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wikipedia_page_views_by_language_over_time.png File:Wikipedia page views by language over time.png], on Wikimedia Commons, based on Wikimedia's official API.</ref> {{Pie chart | caption = '''Distribution of the {{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total|N}} articles in different language editions (as of {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}, {{CURRENTYEAR}})'''<ref name="meta.wikimedia">[[:m:List of Wikipedias#1+ articles|List of Wikipedias—Meta]]</ref> | other = yes | label1 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|1}} | value1 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|1}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color1 = #666666 | label2 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|2}} | value2 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|2}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color2 = #E69F00 | label3 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|3}} | value3 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|3}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color3 = #56B4E9 | label4 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|4}} | value4 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|4}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color4 = #009E73 | label5 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|5}} | value5 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|5}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color5 = #F0E442 | label6 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|6}} | value6 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|6}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color6 = #0072B2 | label7 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|7}} | value7 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|7}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color7 = #D55E00 | label8 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|8}} | value8 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|8}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color8 = #CC79A7 | label9 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|9}} | value9 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|9}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color9 = #33CC99 | label10 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|10}} | value10 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|10}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color10 = #333333 | label11 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|11}} | value11 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|11}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color11 = #9A459A | label12 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|12}} | value12 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|12}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color12 = #A60D14 | label13 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|13}} | value13 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|13}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color13 = #FF82AA | label14 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|14}} | value14 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|14}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color14 = #167432 | label15 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|15}} | value15 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|15}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color15 = #FFA500 | label16 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|16}} | value16 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|16}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color16 = #483D8B | label17 = {{Wikipedia rank by size/WP|17}} | value17 = {{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|{{Wikipedia rank by size|17}}}}/{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|total}}*100 round 1}} | color17 = #00FFFF }} {{Largest Wikipedias/graph}} [[File:TurkishWikipedia block pageviews february-may2017.png|thumb|right|A graph for pageviews of [[Turkish Wikipedia]] shows a large drop of roughly 80% immediately after the [[block of Wikipedia in Turkey]] was imposed in 2017.]] Since Wikipedia is based on the [[World Wide Web|Web]] and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the [[English Wikipedia|English edition]]). These differences may lead to some conflicts over [[American and British English spelling differences|spelling differences]] (e.g. ''colour'' versus ''[[color]]'')<ref name="WP spelling MOS 1">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Spelling |title = Spelling |website = Manual of Style |publisher = Wikipedia |access-date = May 19, 2007 |date = September 26, 2018}}</ref> or points of view.<ref name="WP countering bias 1">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias |title = Countering systemic bias |access-date = May 19, 2007 |date = July 15, 2018}}</ref> Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not [[free content|licensed freely]] may be used under a claim of [[fair use]].<ref name="WP meta fair use 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fair_use |title = Fair use |publisher = Meta-Wiki |access-date = July 14, 2007}}</ref><ref name="WP meta WP images 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Images_on_Wikipedia |title = Images on Wikipedia |access-date = July 14, 2007}}</ref><ref name="IBM visual WP 1">{{cite journal |url = http://www.research.ibm.com/visual/papers/viegas_hicss_visual_wikipedia.pdf |first = Fernanda B. |last = Viégas |title = The Visual Side of Wikipedia |journal = Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research |date = January 3, 2007 |access-date = October 30, 2007}}</ref> Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language".<ref name="WP Wales free multi-lingual encyclopedia">[[Jimmy Wales]], [[:mailarchive:wikipedia-l/2005-March/020469.html|"Wikipedia is an encyclopedia"]], March 8, 2005, &lt;Wikipedia-l@wikimedia.org&gt;</ref> Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others).<ref name="WP metawiki maintenance 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org |title = Meta-Wiki |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = March 24, 2009}}</ref> For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia,<ref name="WP meta stats 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Statistics |title = Meta-Wiki Statistics |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = March 24, 2008}}</ref> and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have.<ref name="WP meta articles on all sites 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_articles_every_Wikipedia_should_have |title = List of articles every Wikipedia should have |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = March 24, 2008}}</ref> The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [[File:User - demography.svg|thumb|left|upright=2.27|Estimation of contributions shares from different regions in the world to different Wikipedia editions<ref name="PLoS One 2012" />]] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles.<ref name="WP auto-translations rules 1">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation |title = Wikipedia: Translation |website = English Wikipedia |access-date = February 3, 2007 |date = September 27, 2018}}</ref> Articles available in more than one language may offer "[[interwiki links]]", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. A study published by ''[[PLOS One]]'' in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from [[North America]] was 51% for the [[English Wikipedia]], and 25% for the [[simple English Wikipedia]].<ref name="PLoS One 2012">{{cite journal |last1 = Yasseri |first1 = Taha |last2 = Sumi |first2 = Robert |last3 = Kertész |first3 = János |author-link3 = János Kertész |title = Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis |journal = [[PLOS One]] |date = January 17, 2012 |volume = 7 |issue = 1 |pages = e30091 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 |pmid = 22272279 |pmc = 3260192 |arxiv = 1109.1746 |bibcode = 2012PLoSO...730091Y}}</ref> === English Wikipedia editor decline === [[File:Editors English Wikipedia History.png|thumb|Number of editors on the English Wikipedia over time.]] On March 1, 2014, ''[[The Economist]]'', in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "[t]he number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years."<ref name="economist1">{{cite news |url = https://www.economist.com/news/international/21597959-popular-online-encyclopedia-must-work-out-what-next-wikipeaks |title = The future of Wikipedia: WikiPeaks? |work = The Economist |date = March 1, 2014 |access-date = March 11, 2014}}</ref> The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by ''The Economist'' as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). ''The Economist'' reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. Should this attrition have continued unabated at the quoted trend rate of approximately 20,000 editors lost within seven years, by 2021 there would be only 10,000 active editors on English Wikipedia.<ref name="economist1" /> In contrast, the trend analysis published in ''The Economist'' presents Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) as successful in retaining their active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000.<ref name="economist1" /> No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively ameliorating substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia.<ref>Andrew Lih. ''Wikipedia''. Alternative edit policies at Wikipedia in other languages.</ref> == Reception == {{see also|Academic studies about Wikipedia|Criticism of Wikipedia}} {{update section|date=March 2018}} Various Wikipedians have [[criticism of Wikipedia#Excessive regulation|criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation]], which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words {{as of|2014|lc=y}}.<ref name="bureaucracy">{{cite magazine |url = http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2014/06/wikipedia_s_bureaucracy_problem_and_how_to_fix_it.html |title = The Unbearable Bureaucracy of Wikipedia |last = Jemielniak |first = Dariusz |magazine = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date = June 22, 2014 |access-date = August 18, 2014}}</ref><ref>D. Jemielniak, ''Common Knowledge'', Stanford University Press, 2014.</ref> Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits [[systemic bias]]. In 2010, columnist and journalist [[Edwin Black]] described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods".<ref name=EdwinBlack>[[Edwin Black|Black, Edwin]] (April 19, 2010) [http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/125437 Wikipedia&nbsp;– The Dumbing Down of World Knowledge] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909210831/http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/125437 |date=September 9, 2016}}, [[History News Network]] Retrieved October 21, 2014</ref> Articles in ''[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]'' and ''[[The Journal of Academic Librarianship]]'' have criticized Wikipedia's [[WP:Undue|Undue Weight]] policy, concluding that the fact that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information.<ref>Messer-Kruse, Timothy (February 12, 2012) [http://chronicle.com/article/The-Undue-Weight-of-Truth-on/130704/ The 'Undue Weight' of Truth on Wikipedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218162359/http://chronicle.com/article/The-Undue-Weight-of-Truth-on/130704/ |date=December 18, 2016}} ''[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]'' Retrieved March 27, 2014</ref><ref>Colón-Aguirre, Monica & Fleming-May, Rachel A. (October 11, 2012) [http://faculty.washington.edu/jwj/lis521/colon%20wikipedia.pdf "You Just Type in What You Are Looking For": Undergraduates' Use of Library Resources vs. Wikipedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419031904/http://faculty.washington.edu/jwj/lis521/colon%20wikipedia.pdf |date=April 19, 2016}} (p. 392) ''[[The Journal of Academic Librarianship]]'' Retrieved March 27, 2014</ref><ref>Bowling Green News (February 27, 2012) [http://www.bgsu.edu/news/2012/02/wikipedia-experience-sparks-national-debate.html Wikipedia experience sparks national debate] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827120800/http://www.bgsu.edu/news/2012/02/wikipedia-experience-sparks-national-debate.html |date=August 27, 2016}} [[Bowling Green State University]] Retrieved March 27, 2014</ref> Journalists [[Oliver Kamm]] and [[Edwin Black]] alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic.<ref name=EdwinBlack /><ref name=okw>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110814104256/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2267665.ece Wisdom? "More like dumbness of the crowds". Oliver Kamm. Times Online (archive version 2011-08-14)] ([http://oliverkamm.typepad.com/blog/2007/08/wisdom-more-lik.html Author's own copy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905131644/http://oliverkamm.typepad.com/blog/2007/08/wisdom-more-lik.html |date=September 5, 2016}})</ref> A 2008 article in ''[[Education Next]]'' Journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and [[spin (propaganda)|spin]].<ref name=Petrilli>J. Petrilli, Michael (Spring 2008/Vol. 8, No. 2) [http://educationnext.org/wikipedia-or-wickedpedia/ Wikipedia or Wickedpedia?] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121024654/http://educationnext.org/wikipedia-or-wickedpedia/ |date=November 21, 2016}}, [[Education Next]] Retrieved October 22, 2014</ref> In 2006, the ''Wikipedia Watch'' criticism website listed dozens of examples of [[plagiarism]] in the English Wikipedia.<ref name="wwplagiarism" /> === Accuracy of content === {{main|Reliability of Wikipedia}} {{External media | width = 230px | align = right | audio1 = [https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/the-great-book-of-knowledge-part-1-1.2497560 The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1], ''Ideas with [[Paul Kennedy (host)|Paul Kennedy]]'', [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], January 15, 2014}} Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' are carefully and deliberately written by experts, lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://archive.wired.com/culture/lifestyle/news/2005/12/69844 |title = Wikipedia, Britannica: A Toss-Up |work = Wired |date = December 15, 2005 |access-date = August 8, 2015 |agency = Associated Press}}</ref> However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' by the science journal ''Nature'' found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; ''Britannica'', about three."<ref name="GilesJ2005Internet" /> Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects."<ref name="Reagle, pp. 165–166">Reagle, pp. 165–166.</ref> Others raised similar critiques.<ref name="Orlowski2005">{{cite news|last1=Orlowski|first1=Andrew|date=December 16, 2005|title=Wikipedia science 31% more cronky than Britannica's Excellent for Klingon science, though|work=[[The Register]]|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/12/16/wikipedia_britannica_science_comparison/|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref> The findings by ''Nature'' were disputed by ''Encyclopædia Britannica'',<ref name="corporate.britannica.com" /><ref name="nature.com britannica response 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.nature.com/press_releases/Britannica_response.pdf?item |format = PDF |title = Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response |access-date = July 13, 2010}}</ref> and in response, ''Nature'' gave a rebuttal of the points raised by ''Britannica''.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite web |website = Nature |url = http://www.nature.com/nature/britannica/index.html |title = Nature's responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica |date = March 30, 2006 |access-date = February 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515025717/http://www.nature.com/nature/britannica/index.html|archive-date=May 15, 2017}}</ref> In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the ''Nature'' effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in ''Nature''{{'}}s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported [[confidence interval]]s), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small [[sample size determination|sample size]], 42 or 4{{nbsp}}× 10<sup>1</sup> articles compared, vs >10<sup>5</sup> and >10<sup>6</sup> set sizes for ''Britannica'' and the English Wikipedia, respectively).<ref>See author acknowledged comments in response to the citation of the ''Nature'' study, at ''PLoS ONE'', 2014, "Citation of fundamentally flawed ''Nature'' quality 'study' ", In response to T. Yasseri et al. (2012) Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia, Published June 20, 2012, {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0038869}}, see {{cite web |url = http://www.plosone.org/annotation/listThread.action?root%3D80078 |title = Dynamics of Conflicts in Wikipedia |access-date = July 22, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160116210930/http://www.plosone.org/annotation/listThread.action?root=80078 |archive-date = January 16, 2016 |df = mdy-all}}, accessed July 21, 2014.</ref> As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it.<ref name="WP general disclaimer 1">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer |title = Wikipedia:General disclaimer |publisher = English Wikipedia |access-date = April 22, 2008 |date = September 18, 2018}}</ref> Concerns have been raised by ''PC World'' in 2009 regarding the lack of [[accountability]] that results from users' anonymity,<ref name="WikipediaWatch" /> the insertion of false information,<ref name="pcworld WP blunders 1">{{cite web |last = Raphel |first = JR |url = http://www.pcworld.com/article/170874/the_15_biggest_wikipedia_blunders.html |title = The 15 Biggest Wikipedia Blunders |website = [[PC World]] |access-date = September 2, 2009 |date = August 26, 2009}}</ref> [[vandalism on Wikipedia|vandalism]], and similar problems. Economist [[Tyler Cowen]] wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles and relevant information is omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them.<ref name="tnr experts vigilant in correcting WP 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.tnr.com/story.html?id=82eb5d70-13bd-4086-9ec0-cb0e9e8411b3 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080318103017/http://www.tnr.com/story.html?id=82eb5d70-13bd-4086-9ec0-cb0e9e8411b3 |archive-date = March 18, 2008 |title = Cooked Books |first = Tyler |last = Cowen |website = The New Republic |date = March 14, 2008 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable.<ref name="TNY reliability issues 1">{{cite news |first = Stacy |last = Schiff |date = July 31, 2006 |title = Know It All |work = [[The New Yorker]] |author-link = Stacy Schiff}}</ref> Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear.<ref name="AcademiaAndWikipedia" /> Editors of traditional [[reference work]]s such as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' have questioned the project's [[utility]] and status as an encyclopedia.<ref name="McHenry_2004" /> Wikipedia co-founder [[Jimmy Wales]] has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/04/27/606393983/wikipedia-founder-says-internet-users-are-adrift-in-the-fake-news-era|title=Wikipedia Founder Says Internet Users Are Adrift In The 'Fake News' Era|work=NPR.org|access-date=May 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213220/https://www.npr.org/2018/04/27/606393983/wikipedia-founder-says-internet-users-are-adrift-in-the-fake-news-era|archive-date=June 25, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> {{External media | width = 210px | align = right | video1 = [http://www.dw.de/inside-wikipedia-attack-of-the-pr-industry/av-17745881 Inside Wikipedia&nbsp;– Attack of the PR Industry], [[Deutsche Welle]], 7:13 mins<ref name="dw">{{cite web |title = Inside Wikipedia&nbsp;– Attack of the PR Industry |publisher = [[Deutsche Welle]] |date = June 30, 2014 |url = http://www.dw.de/inside-wikipedia-attack-of-the-pr-industry/av-17745881 |access-date = July 2, 2014}}</ref>}} Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for [[Internet troll]]s, [[spamming|spammer]]s, and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia.<ref name="Torsten_Kleinz" /><ref name="citizendium WP trolling issues 1">{{cite web |title = Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version) |url = http://www.citizendium.org/essay.html |website = Citizendium |access-date = October 10, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061011230402/http://www.citizendium.org/essay.html |archive-date = October 11, 2006}}</ref> In response to [[conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia|paid advocacy editing]] and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in ''The Wall Street Journal'', to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia Strengthens Rules Against Undisclosed Editing |url = https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2014/06/16/wikipedia-strengthens-rules-against-undisclosed-editing/ |author = Elder, Jeff |newspaper = [[The Wall Street Journal]] |date = June 16, 2014}}</ref> The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. [[Katherine Maher]], the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that, 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia.{{'"}}<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="DeathByWikipedia" /><ref name="cnet politicians and WP 1">{{cite web |url = http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-6032713-7.html |title = Politicians notice Wikipedia |website = CNET |author = Kane, Margaret |date = January 30, 2006 |access-date = January 28, 2007}}</ref><ref name="msnbc MS cash for WP edits 1">{{cite web |url = https://www.nbcnews.com/id/16775981 |title = Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit |publisher = NBC News |author = Bergstein, Brian |author-link = Brian Bergstein |date = January 23, 2007 |access-date = February 1, 2007}}</ref><ref name="Seeing Corporate Fingerprints" /> These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by [[Stephen Colbert]] on ''[[The Colbert Report]]''.<ref name="wikiality" /> A Harvard law textbook, ''Legal Research in a Nutshell'' (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources".<ref name="Nutshell in-depth resources">{{cite book|title=Legal Research in a Nutshell|last=Cohen|first=Morris|author2=Olson, Kent|publisher=Thomson Reuters|year=2010|isbn=978-0-314-26408-4|edition=10th|location=St. Paul, Minnesota|pages=[https://archive.org/details/legalre_coh_2010_00_0532/page/32 32–34]|url=https://archive.org/details/legalre_coh_2010_00_0532/page/32}}</ref> === Discouragement in education === {{update section|date=December 2020}} Most university [[lecturer]]s discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in [[academia|academic work]], preferring [[primary source]]s;<ref name="WideWorldOfWikipedia" /> some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations.<ref name="insidehighered against WP 1">{{cite journal |last1 = Waters |first1 = N.L. |title = Why you can't cite Wikipedia in my class |doi = 10.1145/1284621.1284635 |journal = Communications of the ACM |volume = 50 |issue = 9 |page = 15 |year = 2007 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.380.4996|s2cid = 11757060 }}</ref><ref name="insidehighered wiki no cite">{{cite web |first = Scott |last = Jaschik |title = A Stand Against Wikipedia |url = http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/01/26/wiki |website = Inside Higher Ed |date = January 26, 2007 |access-date = January 27, 2007}}</ref> Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative.<ref name="AWorkInProgress" /> Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten [[email]]s weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia," he said.<ref name="Jimmy Wales don't cite WP 1">"Jimmy Wales", ''Biography Resource Center Online''. (Gale, 2006.)</ref> In February 2007, an article in ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'' newspaper reported that a few of the professors at [[Harvard University]] were including Wikipedia articles in their [[syllabus|syllabi]], although without realizing the articles might change.<ref name="thecrimson wiki debate">Child, Maxwell L., [https://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=517305 "Professors Split on Wiki Debate"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220125910/http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=517305 |date=December 20, 2008}}, ''The Harvard Crimson'', February 26, 2007.</ref> In June 2007, former president of the [[American Library Association]] [[Michael Gorman (librarian)|Michael Gorman]] condemned Wikipedia, along with [[Google]],<ref name="stothart" /> stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". In contrast, academic writing{{clarify|date=December 2020}} in Wikipedia has evolved in recent years and has been found to increase student interest, personal connection to the product, creativity in material processing, and international collaboration in the learning process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quest-cdecjournal.it/focus.php?id=403|title=Wikishtetl: Commemorating Jewish Communities that Perished in the Holocaust through the Wikipedia Platform :: Quest CDEC journal|website=www.quest-cdecjournal.it|access-date=January 15, 2020}}</ref> ==== Medical information ==== {{see also|Health information on Wikipedia}} On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for ''The Atlantic'' magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information."<ref name="Julie Beck 2014">Julie Beck. "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia". ''The Atlantic'', March 5, 2014.</ref> Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of [[Amin Azzam]] at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve [[health information on Wikipedia|Wikipedia articles on health-related issues]], as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by [[James Heilman]] to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process.<ref name="Julie Beck 2014" /> In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in ''The Atlantic'' titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine|WikiProject Medicine]]'s James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference."<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite magazine |last = Beck |first = Julie |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/05/can-wikipedia-ever-be-a-definitive-medical-text/361822/ |title = Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text? |magazine = The Atlantic |date = May 7, 2014 |access-date = June 14, 2014}}</ref> Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed."<ref name="theatlantic.com" /> === Quality of writing === In 2008, researchers at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] found that the quality of a Wikipedia article would suffer rather than gain from adding more writers when the article lacked appropriate explicit or implicit coordination.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Kittur |first1 = Aniket |last2 = Kraut |first2 = Robert E. |chapter-url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.546.9900&rep=rep1&type=pdf |chapter = Harnessing the wisdom of crowds in Wikipedia: quality through coordination |title = Proceedings of the 2008 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work |pages = 37–46 |place = New York |publisher = ACM |date = 2008 |doi = 10.1145/1460563.1460572 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.546.9900 |isbn = 978-1-60558-007-4|s2cid = 1184433 |chapter-format=PDF }}</ref> For instance, when contributors rewrite small portions of an entry rather than making full-length revisions, high- and low-quality content may be intermingled within an entry. [[Roy Rosenzweig]], a history professor, stated that ''American National Biography Online'' outperformed Wikipedia in terms of its "clear and engaging prose", which, he said, was an important aspect of good historical writing.<ref name="Rosenzweig" /> Contrasting Wikipedia's treatment of [[Abraham Lincoln]] to that of [[American Civil War|Civil War]] historian [[James M. McPherson|James McPherson]] in ''American National Biography Online'', he said that both were essentially accurate and covered the major episodes in Lincoln's life, but praised "McPherson's richer contextualization [...] his artful use of quotations to capture Lincoln's voice [...] and [...] his ability to convey a profound message in a handful of words." By contrast, he gives an example of Wikipedia's prose that he finds "both verbose and dull". Rosenzweig also criticized the "waffling—encouraged by the NPOV policy—[which] means that it is hard to discern any overall interpretive stance in Wikipedia history". While generally praising the article on [[William Clarke Quantrill]], he quoted its conclusion as an example of such "waffling", which then stated: "Some historians [...] remember him as an opportunistic, bloodthirsty outlaw, while others continue to view him as a daring soldier and local folk hero."<ref name="Rosenzweig" /> Other critics have made similar charges that, even if Wikipedia articles are factually accurate, they are often written in a poor, almost unreadable style. Frequent Wikipedia critic Andrew Orlowski commented, "Even when a Wikipedia entry is 100 percent factually correct, and those facts have been carefully chosen, it all too often reads as if it has been translated from one language to another then into a third, passing an illiterate translator at each stage."<ref name="theregister Wales WP founder on quality 1">{{cite web |url = https://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/10/18/wikipedia_quality_problem/page2.html |title = Wikipedia founder admits to serious quality problems |first = Andrew |last = Orlowski |website = The Register |date = October 18, 2005 |access-date = September 30, 2007}}</ref> A study of Wikipedia articles on [[cancer]] was conducted in 2010 by Yaacov Lawrence of the Kimmel Cancer Center at [[Thomas Jefferson University]]. The study was limited to those articles that could be found in the ''Physician Data Query'' and excluded those written at the "start" class or "stub" class level. Lawrence found the articles accurate but not very readable, and thought that "Wikipedia's lack of readability (to non-college readers) may reflect its varied origins and haphazard editing".<ref name="upi accuracy 1">{{cite news |url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100601114641.htm |title = Cancer information on Wikipedia is accurate, but not very readable, study finds |work = Science Daily |date = June 2, 2010 |access-date = December 31, 2010}}</ref> ''The Economist'' argued that better-written articles tend to be more reliable: "inelegant or ranting prose usually reflects muddled thoughts and incomplete information".<ref name="economist incomplete info">{{cite news |url = https://www.economist.com/node/8820422?story_id=8820422 |title = Fact or fiction? Wikipedia's variety of contributors is not only a strength |work = The Economist |date = March 10, 2007 |access-date = December 31, 2010}}</ref> === Coverage of topics and systemic bias === {{see also|Notability in the English Wikipedia|Criticism of Wikipedia#Systemic bias in coverage}} {{update|[[:d:Wikidata:Statistics/Wikipedia]]|date=March 2017}} Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has [[byte#Multiple-byte units|terabyte]]s of disk space, it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia.<ref name="WP advantages over trad media 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:PAPER}}</ref> The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see [[deletionism and inclusionism in Wikipedia|deletionism and inclusionism]]).<ref name="Economist disagreements not uncommon">{{cite news |title = The battle for Wikipedia's soul |url = https://www.economist.com/printedition/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10789354 |work = The Economist |date = March 6, 2008 |access-date = March 7, 2008 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref name="telegraph WP torn apart 1">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia: an online encyclopedia torn apart |first = Ian |last = Douglas |work = The Daily Telegraph |location = London |date = November 10, 2007 |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3354752/Wikipedia-an-online-encyclopedia-torn-apart.html |access-date = November 23, 2010}}</ref> Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. The '[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not censored|Wikipedia is not censored]]' policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of [[online petition on Wikipedia Muhammad article|images of Muhammad]] in the [[English Wikipedia|English edition]] of its [[Muhammad]] article, citing this policy. The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the [[censorship of Wikipedia]] by national authorities in China<ref name="Taylor" /> and Pakistan,<ref name="washington post state censorship 1">{{cite news |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/20/AR2010052005073.html |title = Pakistan blocks YouTube a day after shutdown of Facebook over Muhammad issue |first = Karin |last = Bruilliard |work = The Washington Post |date = May 21, 2010 |access-date = October 24, 2011}}</ref> amongst other countries. [[File:Wikipedia content by subject.png|thumb|upright=2.27|Pie chart of Wikipedia content by subject as of January 2008<ref name=Kittur2009 />]] A 2008 study conducted by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University and Palo Alto Research Center gave a distribution of topics as well as growth (from July 2006 to January 2008) in each field:<ref name="Kittur2009" /> *Culture and the arts: 30% (210%) *Biographies and persons: 15% (97%) *Geography and places: 14% (52%) *Society and social sciences: 12% (83%) *History and events: 11% (143%) *Natural and physical sciences: 9% (213%) *Technology and the applied sciences: 4% (−6%) *Religions and belief systems: 2% (38%) *Health: 2% (42%) *Mathematics and logic: 1% (146%) *Thought and philosophy: 1% (160%) These numbers refer only to the number of articles: it is possible for one topic to contain a large number of short articles and another to contain a small number of large ones. Through its "[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Loves Libraries|Wikipedia Loves Libraries]]" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the [[New York Public Library for the Performing Arts]] to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles.<ref name="NYT subjects and articles">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/21/theater/editing-wikipedia-at-the-new-york-public-library-for-the-performing-arts.html |title = Wikipedia's Deep Dive Into a Library Collection |last = Petrusich |first = Amanda |work = The New York Times |date = October 20, 2011 |access-date = October 28, 2011}}</ref> A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the [[University of Minnesota]] indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the People and Arts category, while males focus more on Geography and Science.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lam |first = Shyong (Tony) K.|first2 = Anuradha |last2 = Uduwage |first3 = Zhenhua |last3 = Dong |first4 = Shilad |last4 = Sen |first5 = David R. |last5 = Musicant |first6 = Loren |last6 = Terveen |first7 = John |last7 = Riedl |title = WP: Clubhouse? An Exploration of Wikipedia's Gender Imbalance |journal = WikiSym 2011 |date = October 3–5, 2011 |page = 4 |url = http://files.grouplens.org/papers/wp-gender-wikisym2011.pdf}}</ref> ==== Coverage of topics and selection bias ==== Research conducted by Mark Graham of the [[Oxford Internet Institute]] in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven. Africa is the most underrepresented.<ref>Mark Graham, [https://web.archive.org/web/20161002051150/http://zerogeography.net/post/144973716228/mapping-the-geographies-of-wikipedia-content Mapping the Geographies of Wikipedia Content], ''Zerogeography.net'' (November 12, 2009).</ref> Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events.<ref>{{cite book |last = Strohmaier |first = Markus |date = March 6, 2017 |title = Multilingual historical narratives on Wikipedia |chapter = KAT50 Society, Culture |doi = 10.7802/1411 |quote = Wikipedia narratives about national histories (i) are skewed towards more recent events (recency bias) and (ii) are distributed unevenly across the continents with significant focus on the history of European countries (Eurocentric bias). |publisher = GESIS Data Archive}}</ref> An editorial in ''[[The Guardian]]'' in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for [[list of pornographic performers by decade|a list of female porn actors]] than a [[list of women writers]].<ref name=GuardianAugust2014>''[[The Guardian]]'' 2014 (London) [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/aug/07/guardian-view-wikipedia-evolving-truth The Guardian view on Wikipedia: evolving truth] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112212758/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/aug/07/guardian-view-wikipedia-evolving-truth |date=November 12, 2016}}</ref> Data has also shown that Africa-related material often faces omission; a knowledge gap that a July 2018 Wikimedia conference in [[Cape Town]] sought to address.<ref name="memeb"/> ==== Systemic bias ==== When multiple editors contribute to one topic or set of topics, [[systemic bias]] may arise, due to the demographic backgrounds of the editors. In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare".<ref name="wiki-women">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia seeks women to balance its 'geeky' editors |first = Kevin |last = Rawlinson |newspaper = The Independent |url = https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/wikipedia-seeks-women-to-balance-its-geeky-editors-2333605.html |date = August 8, 2011 |access-date = April 5, 2012}}</ref> The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's ''Technology Review'' titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and [[criticism of Wikipedia#Excessive regulation|policy creep]] on the [[#English Wikipedia editor decline|downward trend in the number of editors]].<ref name="Simonite-2013" /> Systemic bias on Wikipedia may follow that of culture generally,{{vague|date=August 2019}} for example favoring certain nationalities, ethnicities or majority religions.<ref name="Quilter">{{cite web |url = http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=laura_quilter |title = Systemic Bias in Wikipedia: What It Looks Like, and How to Deal with It |author = Quilter, Laura |publisher = University of Massachusetts–Amherst |date = October 24, 2012 |access-date = November 26, 2012}}</ref> It may more specifically follow the biases of [[Internet culture]], inclining to be young, male, English-speaking, educated, technologically aware, and wealthy enough to spare time for editing. Biases, intrinsically, may include an overemphasis on topics such as pop culture, technology, and current events.<ref name="Quilter" /> [[Taha Yasseri]] of the [[University of Oxford]], in 2013, studied the statistical trends of systemic bias at Wikipedia introduced by editing conflicts and their resolution.<ref>"[https://www.technologyreview.com/s/517101/edit-wars-reveal-the-10-most-controversial-topics-on-wikipedia/ Edit Wars Reveal the 10 Most Controversial Topics on Wikipedia]", MIT Technology Review, July 17, 2013.</ref><ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite book |ssrn = 2269392 |editor1=Fichman, P. |editor2=Hara, N. |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2014 |arxiv = 1305.5566 |last1 = Yasseri |first1 = Taha |last2 = Spoerri |first2 = Anselm |last3 = Graham |first3 = Mark |last4 = Kertesz |first4 = Janos|title= The Most Controversial Topics in Wikipedia: A Multilingual and Geographical Analysis |doi= 10.2139/SSRN.2269392 |s2cid = 12133330 }}</ref> His research examined the [[counterproductive work behavior]] of edit warring. Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive behavior at Wikipedia and relied instead on the [[statistical measurement]] of detecting "reverting/reverted pairs" or "mutually reverting edit pairs". Such a "mutually reverting edit pair" is defined where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor in the "mutually reverting edit pairs". The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles [[George W. Bush]], [[Anarchism]], and [[Muhammad]].<ref name="autogenerated3" /> By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the [[Oxford]] study were for the articles covering [[Croatia]], [[Scientology]], and [[9/11 conspiracy theories]].<ref name="autogenerated3"/> Researchers from [[Washington University]] developed a statistical model to measure systematic bias in the behavior of Wikipedia's users regarding controversial topics. The authors focused on behavioral changes of the encyclopedia's administrators after assuming the post, writing that systematic bias occurred after the fact.<ref> {{cite conference |url = https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2505566 |title = Manipulation among the arbiters of collective intelligence: How Wikipedia administrators mold public opinion |last1 = Das |first1 = Sanmay |last2 = Allen |first2 = Lavoie |last3 = Malik |first3 = Magdon-Ismail |date = November 1, 2013 |publisher = ACM |book-title = CIKM '13 Proceedings of the 22nd ACM international conference on Information & Knowledge Management |pages = 1097–1106 |location = San Francisco, California |doi = 10.1145/2505515.2505566 |isbn = 978-1-4503-2263-8}} </ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Das |first1 = Sanmay |last2 = Allen |first2 = Lavoie |last3 = Malik |first3 = Magdon-Ismail |title = Manipulation among the arbiters of collective intelligence: How Wikipedia administrators mold public opinion |journal = ACM Transactions on the Web |volume = 10 |issue = 4 |pages = 24 |date = December 24, 2016 |doi = 10.1145/3001937|s2cid = 12585047 }} </ref> === Explicit content === {{see also|Internet Watch Foundation and Wikipedia|Reporting of child pornography images on Wikimedia Commons}} {{selfref|"Wikipedia censorship" redirects here. For the government censorship of Wikipedia, see [[Censorship of Wikipedia]]. For Wikipedia's policy concerning censorship, see [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not censored]]}} Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as [[feces]], [[cadaver]], [[human penis]], [[vulva]], and [[nudity]]) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. The site also includes [[sexual content]] such as images and videos of [[masturbation]] and [[ejaculation]], illustrations of [[zoophilia]], and photos from [[hardcore pornography|hardcore pornographic]] films in its articles. It also has non-sexual [[child nudity|photographs of nude children]]. The Wikipedia article about ''[[Virgin Killer]]—''a 1976 album from the [[music of Germany|German]] [[rock music|rock]] [[rock band|band]] [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]]—features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked [[preadolescence#Prepubescence, puberty, and age range|prepubescent]] girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article ''Virgin Killer'' was blocked for four days by most [[Internet service provider]]s in the United Kingdom after the [[Internet Watch Foundation]] (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers.<ref name="Register ISP censorship">{{cite news |title = Brit ISPs censor Wikipedia over 'child porn' album cover |first = Cade |last = Metz |work = [[The Register]] |date = December 7, 2008 |url = https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/12/07/brit_isps_censor_wikipedia |access-date = May 10, 2009}}</ref> In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on [[Wikimedia Commons]] contained child pornography, and were in violation of [[United States obscenity law|US federal obscenity law]].<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/wikipedia-rejects-child-porn-accusation-20100428-tsvh |title = Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation |date = April 29, 2010 |work = The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date = May 14, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170902180523/http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/wikipedia-rejects-child-porn-accusation-20100428-tsvh |archive-date = September 2, 2017 |url-status=live |df = mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Inquirer child abuse allegations">{{cite news |last = Farrell |first = Nick |title = Wikipedia denies child abuse allegations: Co-founder grassed the outfit to the FBI |newspaper = The Inquirer |date = April 29, 2010 |url = http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1603521/wikipedia-denies-child-abuse-allegations |access-date = October 9, 2010}}</ref> Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to [[pedophilia]] and one about [[lolicon]], were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the [[child pornography laws in the United States#Section 1466A|PROTECT Act of 2003]].<ref name="The Register-April" /> That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are [[obscenity#United States obscenity law|obscene under American law]].<ref name="The Register-April" /> Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools.<ref name="TET child porn accusations">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia blasts co-founder's accusations of child porn on website |date = April 29, 2010 |work = The Economic Times |location = India |url = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/infotech/internet/Wikipedia-blasts-co-founders-accusations-of-child-porn-on-website/articleshow/5871943.cms |access-date = April 29, 2010}}</ref> [[Wikimedia Foundation]] spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation,<ref name="AFP" /> saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it."<ref name="AFP" /> Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted".<ref name="BBC News Wales cedes rights">{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/10104946.stm |title = Wikimedia pornography row deepens as Wales cedes rights |work = BBC News |date = May 10, 2010 |access-date = May 19, 2010}}</ref> Critics, including [[Wikipediocracy]], noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared.<ref name="XBIZ">{{cite news |url = http://newswire.xbiz.com/view.php?id=169017 |work = XBIZ.com |date = September 17, 2013 |first = Lila |last = Gray |title = Wikipedia Gives Porn a Break |access-date = November 10, 2013}}</ref> === Privacy === One [[privacy]] concern in the case of Wikipedia is the right of a private citizen to remain a "private citizen" rather than a "[[public figure]]" in the eyes of the law.<ref>Andrew McStay, 2014, [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Privacy-Philosophy-Affective-Protocol-Formations/dp/143311898X Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414204326/http://www.amazon.co.uk/Privacy-Philosophy-Affective-Protocol-Formations/dp/143311898X |date=April 14, 2016}}, New York Peter Lang.</ref><ref group=note>See [https://web.archive.org/web/20101130081035/http://texaspress.com/index.php/publications/law-media/731-law-a-the-media-in-texas--libel-cases "Libel"] by David McHam for the legal distinction.</ref> It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in [[cyberspace]] and the right to be anonymous in [[real life]] ("[[meatspace]]"). A particular problem occurs in the case of a relatively unimportant individual and for whom there exists a Wikipedia page against her or his wishes. In January 2006, a German court ordered the [[German Wikipedia]] shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of [[Tron (hacker)|Boris Floricic]], aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's [[right to privacy]] or that of his parents was being violated.<ref name="heise Tron public issue 1">[http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Gericht-weist-einstweilige-Verfuegung-gegen-Wikimedia-Deutschland-ab-Update-173587.html Heise] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913054949/http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Gericht-weist-einstweilige-Verfuegung-gegen-Wikimedia-Deutschland-ab-Update-173587.html |date=September 13, 2012}}—{{lang|de|Gericht weist einstweilige Verfügung gegen Wikimedia Deutschland ab (update)}}, by Torsten Kleinz, February 9, 2006.</ref> Wikipedia has a "{{visible anchor|Volunteer Response Team}}" that uses the [[OTRS]] system to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project.<ref>{{cite web |title = IT Service Management Software |url = http://www.otrs.com/en/ |publisher = OTRS.com |access-date = June 9, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131030215341/http://www.otrs.com/en/ |archive-date = October 30, 2013 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> === Sexism === {{main|Gender bias on Wikipedia}} Wikipedia has been described as harboring a battleground culture of [[sexism]] and [[harassment]].<ref name="Paling">{{cite web |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/10/how-wikipedia-is-hostile-to-women/411619/ |title = Wikipedia's Hostility to Women |last = Paling |first = Emma |date = October 21, 2015 |website = The Atlantic |access-date = October 24, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Auerbach |first1 = David |title = Encyclopedia Frown |url = http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/bitwise/2014/12/wikipedia_editing_disputes_the_crowdsourced_encyclopedia_has_become_a_rancorous.html |journal = Slate |access-date = October 24, 2015 |date = December 11, 2014}}</ref> The perceived toxic attitudes and tolerance of violent and abusive language are also reasons put forth for the gender gap in Wikipedia editors.<ref name="CSM-misogyny">{{cite journal |url = http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/Backchannels/2013/0801/In-UK-rising-chorus-of-outrage-over-online-misogyny |title = In UK, rising chorus of outrage over online misogyny |journal = Christian Science Monitor |date = August 2013}}</ref> In 2014, a female editor who requested a separate space on Wikipedia to discuss improving civility had her proposal referred to by a male editor using the words "the easiest way to avoid being called a [[cunt]] is not to act like one".{{r|Paling}} == Operation == === Wikimedia Foundation and Wikimedia movement affiliates === {{main|Wikimedia Foundation}} [[File:Katherine Maher.jpg|thumb|[[Katherine Maher]] became the third executive director of Wikimedia in 2016, succeeding [[Lila Tretikov]], who had taken over from [[Sue Gardner]] in 2014.|alt=Katherine Maher in 2016. She is seen with light skin, blonde hair, and blue eyes. She is seen wearing a black shirt.]] Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as [[Wiktionary]] and [[Wikibooks]]. The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission.<ref name="financialstatements">{{cite web |url = http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/foundation/a/ac/FINAL_10_11From_KPMG.pdf |title = Wikimedia Foundation&nbsp;– Financial Statements&nbsp;– June 30, 2011 and 2010 |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref> The foundation's 2013 IRS Form 990 shows revenue of $39.7&nbsp;million and expenses of almost $29&nbsp;million, with assets of $37.2&nbsp;million and liabilities of about $2.3&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/foundation/5/5c/Form_990_-_FY_12-13_-_Public.pdf |title = Wikimedia Foundation IRS Form 990 |access-date = October 14, 2014}}</ref> In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named [[Lila Tretikov]] as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Press_releases/WMF_announces_new_ED_Lila_Tretikov |title = Press releases/WMF announces new ED Lila Tretikov |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |date = May 31, 2018|access-date = June 14, 2014}}</ref> The ''Wall Street Journal'' reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free."<ref name="Jeff Elder 2014">Jeff Elder, ''The Wall Street Journal'', May 1, 2014, "Wikipedia's New Chief: From Soviet Union to World's Sixth-Largest Site".</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/02/business/media/open-source-software-specialist-selected-as-executive-director-of-wikipedia.html?_r=0 |title = Media: Open-Source Software Specialist Selected as Executive Director of Wikipedia |first = Noam |last = Cohen |date = May 1, 2014 |work = The New York Times}}</ref> The same ''Wall Street Journal'' article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ([[conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia|paid advocacy]]) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency{{nbsp}}... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities," Walsh said.<ref name="Jeff Elder 2014" /> Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016.<ref>Dimitra Kessenides. Bloomberg News Weekly. December 26, 2016. "Is Wikipedia 'Woke'".</ref> Maher has stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. Maher stated regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority{{nbsp}}... (and that correction requires that) it has to be more than words."<ref>Dimitra Kessenides. Bloomberg News Weekly. December 26, 2016, p. 74. "Is Wikipedia 'Woke'".</ref> Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called [[Wikimedia movement affiliates]]. These include [[list of Wikimedia chapters|Wikimedia chapters]] (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimédia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the [[Catalan language]] community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. === Software operations and support === {{see also|MediaWiki}} The operation of Wikipedia depends on [[MediaWiki]], a custom-made, [[free software|free]] and [[open-source software|open source]] [[wiki software]] platform written in [[PHP]] and built upon the [[MySQL]] database system.<ref name="nedworks database system">{{cite web |url = http://www.nedworks.org/~mark/presentations/san/Wikimedia%20architecture.pdf |title = Wikimedia Architecture |first = Mark |last = Bergsma |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = June 27, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090303204708/http://www.nedworks.org/~mark/presentations/san/Wikimedia%20architecture.pdf |archive-date = March 3, 2009}}</ref> The software incorporates programming features such as a [[macro (computer science)|macro language]], [[variable (programming)|variable]]s, a [[transclusion]] system for [[web template system|template]]s, and [[URL redirection]]. MediaWiki is licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. Originally, Wikipedia ran on [[UseModWiki]] written in [[Perl]] by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required [[CamelCase]] for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a [[PhpWiki|PHP wiki]] engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by [[Magnus Manske]]. The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the [[exponential growth|exponentially increasing]] demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]. Several MediaWiki extensions are installed<ref name="WP extensions installed">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Version |title = Version: Installed extensions |date = September 28, 2018}}. Retrieved August 18, 2014.</ref> to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. In April 2005, a [[Lucene]] extension<ref>{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2005-04-18/Lucene_search |title = Lucene search: Internal search function returns to service |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |first = Michael |last = Snow |access-date = February 26, 2009 |date = December 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2005-April/016297.html |title = [Wikitech-l&#93; Lucene search |first = Brion |last = Vibber |access-date = February 26, 2009}}</ref> was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from [[MySQL]] to Lucene for searching. The site currently uses Lucene Search 2.1,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Lucene-search |title = Extension:Lucene-search |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = August 31, 2009}}</ref>{{update inline|date=November 2016}} which is written in [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and based on Lucene library 2.3.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/diffusion/SVN/browse/branches/lucene-search-2.1/lib/ |title = mediawiki –Revision 55688: /branches/lucene-search-2.1/lib |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = August 31, 2009}}</ref> In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, [[VisualEditor]], was opened to public use.<ref name="thenextwebve">{{cite web |website = The Next Web |url = https://thenextweb.com/insider/2013/07/02/wikimedia-rolls-out-its-wysiwyg-visual-editor-for-logged-in-users-accessing-wikipedia-articles-in-english/ |title = Wikimedia rolls out WYSIWYG visual editor for logged-in users accessing Wikipedia articles in English |first = Emil |last = Protalinski |date = July 2, 2013 |access-date = July 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/wikipedia/10196578/Wikipedia-introduces-new-features-to-entice-editors.html |newspaper = The Daily Telegraph |title = Wikipedia introduces new features to entice editors |author = Curtis, Sophie |date = July 23, 2013 |access-date = August 18, 2013}}</ref><ref name="TheEconomistVE">{{cite news |work = [[The Economist]] |url = https://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2011/12/changes-wikipedia |title = Changes at Wikipedia: Seeing things |author = L. M. |date = December 13, 2011 |access-date = July 28, 2013}}</ref><ref name="softpedia-best">{{cite web |website = [[Softpedia]] |url = http://news.softpedia.com/news/Wikipedia-s-New-VisualEditor-Is-the-Best-Update-in-Years-and-You-Can-Make-It-Better-365072.shtml |title = Wikipedia's New VisualEditor Is the Best Update in Years and You Can Make It Better |first = Lucian |last = Parfeni |date = July 2, 2013 |access-date = July 30, 2013}}</ref> It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy".<ref name="Orlowski, Andrew">{{cite web |url = https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/08/01/wikipedians_reject_wysiwyg_editor/ |title = Wikipedians say no to Jimmy's 'buggy' WYSIWYG editor |author = Orlowski, Andrew |date = August 1, 2013 |website = The Register |access-date = August 18, 2013}}</ref> The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. === Automated editing === {{main|Wikipedia bots}} Computer programs called [[Internet bot|bot]]s have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data.<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Bots|Wikipedia Bot Information}}</ref><ref name="meetbots">{{cite news |title = Meet the 'bots' that edit Wikipedia |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18892510 |first = Daniel |last = Nasaw |work = BBC News |date = July 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last = Halliday |first = Josh |author2 = Arthur, Charles |title = Boot up: The Wikipedia vandalism police, Apple analysts, and more |url = https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2012/jul/26/boot-up-wikipedia-apple |newspaper = [[The Guardian]] |date = July 26, 2012 |access-date = September 5, 2012}}</ref> One controversial contributor, {{ill|Sverker Johansson|sv}}, creating articles with his [[Lsjbot|bot]] was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://online.wsj.com/articles/for-this-author-10-000-wikipedia-articles-is-a-good-days-work-1405305001|title=For This Author, 10,000 Wikipedia Articles Is a Good Day's Work|last=Jervell|first=Ellen Emmerentze|date=July 13, 2014|work=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=August 18, 2014}}</ref> Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2009-03-23/Abuse_Filter |title = Wikipedia signpost: Abuse Filter is enabled |publisher = English Wikipedia |date = March 23, 2009 |access-date = July 13, 2010}}</ref><!-- And prevent the creation of links to particular websites. Bots also find and revert changes by suspicious new accounts, enforce bans against shared [[IP address]]es or the use of [[sockpuppet (Internet)|sockpuppet]]s by a banned person operating from an alternate IP address.(unsourced/unverifiable) --> Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. [[User:ClueBot NG|An anti-vandal bot]] is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly.<ref name="meetbots" /> Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or [[IP address]] ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 17|MH17 jet]] incident in July 2014 when it was reported edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://stream.aljazeera.com/story/201407211855-0023944 |title = MH17 Wikipedia entry edited from Russian government IP address |publisher = Al Jazeera |access-date = July 22, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161116002928/http://stream.aljazeera.com/story/201407211855-0023944 |archive-date = November 16, 2016 |df = mdy |date = July 21, 2014}}</ref> Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation.<ref>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Bot policy|Wikipedia's policy on bots}}</ref> According to [[Andrew Lih]], the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots.<ref>Andrew Lih (2009). ''[[The Wikipedia Revolution]]'', chapter ''Then came the Bots'', pp. 99–106.</ref> === Hardware operations and support === {{see also|Wikimedia Foundation#Hardware}} Wikipedia receives between 25,000 and 60,000-page requests per second, depending on the time of the day.<ref name="WP tools requests per day">[https://web.archive.org/web/20081028185204/https://toolserver.org/~leon/stats/reqstats/reqstats-monthly.png "Monthly request statistics"], Wikimedia. Retrieved October 31, 2008.</ref>{{update inline|date=July 2019}} {{As of|2019}}, page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of [[Varnish (software)|Varnish]] caching servers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Varnish|title=Varnish – Wikitech|website=wikitech.wikimedia.org|access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref>{{update inline|date=November 2020|reason=ATS too now}} Further statistics, based on a publicly available 3-month Wikipedia access trace, are available.<ref name="globule access trace">{{cite web |url = http://www.globule.org/publi/WWADH_comnet2009.html |title = Wikipedia Workload Analysis for Decentralized Hosting |author = Guido Urdaneta, Guillaume Pierre and Maarten van Steen |publisher = Elsevier Computer Networks 53 (11), pp. 1830–1845, June 2009 |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref> Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the [[Linux Virtual Server]] software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} [[File:Wikipedia webrequest flow 2020.png|alt=Diagram showing flow of data between Wikipedia's servers.|thumb|Overview of system architecture {{as of|2020|04|lc=on}}]] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated [[Computer cluster|clusters]] of [[Linux]] servers (mainly [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]).<ref name="CW WP simplifies infrastructure">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia simplifies IT infrastructure by moving to one Linux vendor |first = Todd R. |last = Weiss |newspaper = [[Computerworld]] |date = October 9, 2008 |url = http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9116787/Wikipedia_simplifies_IT_infrastructure_by_moving_to_one_Linux_vendor?taxonomyId=154&pageNumber=1&taxonomyName=Servers%20and%20Data%20Center |access-date = November 1, 2008}}</ref><ref name="ars tech Ubuntu server infra">{{cite web |title = Wikipedia adopts Ubuntu for its server infrastructure |first = Ryan |last = Paul |url = https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/wikipedia-adopts-ubuntu-for-its-server-infrastructure.ars |website = Ars Technica |date = October 9, 2008 |access-date = November 1, 2008}}</ref>{{update inline|date=November 2020|reason=No ubuntu left, prod runs debian stable/oldstable}} {{As of|2009|12}}, there were 300 in Florida and 44 in [[Amsterdam]].<ref name="servers" /> By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an [[Equinix]] facility in [[Ashburn, Virginia]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://diff.wikimedia.org/2013/01/19/wikimedia-sites-move-to-primary-data-center-in-ashburn-virginia/ |title = Wikimedia sites to move to primary data center in Ashburn, Virginia |first = Guillaume |last = Palmier |publisher = WMF |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2013/01/14/its-official-equinix-ashburn-is-wikimedias-home/ |title = It's Official: Ashburn is Wikipedia's New Home |first = Jason |last = Verge |publisher = Data Center Knowledge |access-date = June 5, 2016 |date = January 14, 2013}}</ref> in 2017, Wikipedia had installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in [[Singapore]], the first of its kind in Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T156028|title=⚓ T156028 Name Asia Cache DC site|website=Wikimedia Phabricator|access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> === Internal research and operational development === Following growing amounts of incoming donations exceeding seven digits in 2013 as recently reported,<ref name="Simonite-2013" /> the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of [[industrial organization]] economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation.<ref name=autogenerated5>Frederic M. Scherer and David Ross, [1970] 1990. ''Industrial Market Structure and Economic Performance'', 3rd ed. Houghton-Mifflin. {{SSRN|1496716}} and 1st ed. review [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3003013 extract].<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; • [[Google Scholar]] search of [https://archive.today/20120721074339/http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Frederic+M.+Scherer&hl=en&btnG=Search&as_sdt=1,47&as_sdtp=on Frederic M. Scherer]</ref> Two of the recent projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and a largely under-utilized "Thank" tab which were developed to ameliorate issues of editor attrition, which have met with limited success.<ref name="Simonite-2013" /><ref name="Orlowski, Andrew" /> The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe, who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment.<ref name="Patents, Citations pp 89-153">''Patents, Citations, and Innovations'', by Adam B. Jaffe, Manuel Trajtenberg, pp. 89–153.</ref> At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45&nbsp;million dollars, the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe and Caballero for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8&nbsp;million and 11.3&nbsp;million dollars annually.<ref name="Patents, Citations pp 89-153" /> In 2016, the level of contributions were reported by'' Bloomberg News'' as being at $77&nbsp;million annually, updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08&nbsp;million and $19.2&nbsp;million annually.<ref name="Patents, Citations pp 89-153" /> === Internal news publications === Community-produced news publications include the [[English Wikipedia]]'s ''[[WP:Signpost|The Signpost]]'', founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, an attorney, Wikipedia administrator, and former chair of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] board of trustees.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/05/technology/05wikipedia.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1 |title = A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side |first = Noam |last = Cohen |work = The New York Times |date = March 5, 2007 |access-date = October 18, 2008}}</ref> It covers news and events from the site, as well as major events from other [[Wikimedia project]]s, such as [[Wikimedia Commons]]. Similar publications are the German-language ''[[:de:WP:Kurier|Kurier]]'', and the Portuguese-language ''[[:pt:wp:Correio da Wikipédia|Correio da Wikipédia]]''. Other past and present community news publications on English Wikipedia include the ''Wikiworld'' webcomic, the [[WP:Wikipedia Weekly|Wikipedia Weekly]] podcast, and newsletters of specific WikiProjects like ''[[Wikipedia:BUGLE|The Bugle]]'' from [[WP:Milhist|WikiProject Military History]] and the monthly newsletter from [[WP:GOCE|The Guild of Copy Editors]]. There are also several publications from the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] and multilingual publications such as [https://diff.wikimedia.org/ Wikimedia Diff] and ''[[:outreach:This Month in Education|This Month in Education]]''. == Access to content == === Content licensing === When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL), a [[copyleft]] license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work.<ref name="WP copyright and commerciality 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Copyrights}}</ref> The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with [[free software]] programs licensed under the GPL. This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. In December 2002, the [[Creative Commons license]] was released: it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The license gained popularity among bloggers and others distributing creative works on the Web. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons.<ref name="WPF switch to CC">{{cite web |url = https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Resolution:License_update |title = Resolution:License update |year = 2007 |first = Walter |last = Vermeir |publisher = Wikizine |access-date = December 4, 2007}}</ref> Because the two licenses, GFDL and Creative Commons, were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to {{srlink|Wikipedia:Licensing update|relicense its content to CC BY-SA}} by August 1, 2009. (A new version of the GFDL automatically covers Wikipedia contents.) In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009.<ref name="voteresult" /><ref name="MW licensing QA">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Licensing_update/Questions_and_Answers |title = Licensing update/Questions and Answers |website = Wikimedia Meta |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = February 15, 2009}}</ref><ref name="MW licensing timeline 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Licensing_update/Timeline |title = Licensing_update/Timeline |website = Wikimedia Meta |publisher = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = April 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name="WP blog license migration">{{cite web |url = https://diff.wikimedia.org/2009/05/21/wikimedia-community-approves-license-migration |title = Wikimedia community approves license migration |website = Wikimedia Foundation |access-date = May 21, 2009}}</ref> The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under [[fair use]] doctrine, while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in [[copyright law of Japan|Japanese copyright law]]). Media files covered by [[free content]] licenses (e.g. [[Creative Commons]]' CC BY-SA) are shared across language editions via [[Wikimedia Commons]] repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text.<ref name="NYT photos on WP">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/20/arts/20funny.html |title = Wikipedia May Be a Font of Facts, but It's a Desert for Photos |date = July 19, 2009 |last = Cohen |first = Noam |work = New York Times |access-date = March 9, 2013}}</ref> The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content, but merely a hosting service for the contributors (and licensors) of the Wikipedia. This position has been successfully defended in court.<ref name="reuters French defamation case">{{cite news |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSL0280486220071102?feedType=RSS&feedName=internetNews |title = Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case |work = Reuters |date = November 2, 2007 |access-date = November 2, 2007}}</ref><ref name="ars tech WP dumb suing case">{{cite web |url = https://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20080502-dumb-idea-suing-wikipedia-for-calling-you-dumb.html |title = Dumb idea: suing Wikipedia for calling you "dumb" |first = Nate |last = Anderson |website = Ars Technica |date = May 2, 2008 |access-date = May 4, 2008}}</ref> === {{anchor|Reusing Wikipedia's content}}Methods of access === Because Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. *'''Websites''': Thousands of "[[mirror site]]s" exist that republish content from Wikipedia: two prominent ones, that also include content from other reference sources, are [[Reference.com]] and [[Answers.com]]. Another example is [[Wapedia]], which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. *'''Mobile apps''': A variety of mobile apps provide access to Wikipedia on [[mobile device|hand-held device]]s, including both [[Android (operating system)|Android]] and [[iOS]] devices (see [[Wikipedia App|Wikipedia apps]]). (see also [[#Mobile access|Mobile access]].) *'''Search engines''': Some web [[search engine]]s make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include [[Microsoft Bing]] (via technology gained from [[Powerset (company)|Powerset]])<ref name="bing WP research and referencing" /> and [[DuckDuckGo]]. *'''Compact discs, DVDs''': Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on [[optical disc]]s. An English version, 2006 [[Wikipedia CD Selection]], contained about 2,000 articles.<ref name="wikipediaondvd authorized 1">[http://www.wikipediaondvd.com/ "Wikipedia on DVD"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603205800/http://www.wikipediaondvd.com/ |date=June 3, 2013}} Linterweb. Retrieved June 1, 2007. "Linterweb is authorized to make a commercial use of the Wikipedia trademark restricted to the selling of the Encyclopedia CDs and DVDs".</ref><ref name="wikipediaondvd commercially available 1">[http://www.wikipediaondvd.com/site.php?temp=buy "Wikipedia 0.5 Available on a CD-ROM"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503073535/http://www.wikipediaondvd.com/site.php?temp=buy |date=May 3, 2013}} ''Wikipedia on DVD''. Linterweb. "The DVD or CD-ROM version 0.5 was commercially available for purchase." Retrieved June 1, 2007.</ref> The Polish-language version contains nearly 240,000 articles.<ref name="WM polish WP on dvd">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Polska_Wikipedia_na_DVD_%28z_Helionem%29/en |title = Polish Wikipedia on DVD |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> There are German- and Spanish-language versions as well.<ref name="WP german on dvd 1">{{cite web |url = https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:DVD |title = Wikipedia:DVD |access-date = December 26, 2008 |date = July 31, 2018}}</ref><ref name="python.org CDPedia Argentina 1">{{cite web |url = http://python.org.ar/pyar/Proyectos/CDPedia |title = CDPedia (Python Argentina) |access-date = July 7, 2011}}</ref> Also, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedians and [[SOS Children's Villages UK|SOS Children]], is a free, hand-checked, non-commercial selection from Wikipedia targeted around the [[National Curriculum (UK)|UK National Curriculum]] and intended to be useful for much of the English-speaking world.<ref name="WP CD selection 1" /> The project is available online; an equivalent print encyclopedia would require roughly 20 volumes. *'''Printed books''': There are efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form.<ref name="WP into books 1">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia turned into book |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5549589/Wikipedia-turned-into-book.html |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/5jeCgQjpj?url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5549589/Wikipedia-turned-into-book.html |work = The Daily Telegraph |location = London |date = June 16, 2009 |access-date = September 8, 2009 |archive-date = September 9, 2009 |url-status=dead |df = mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="WP schools selection 1">{{cite web |url = http://schools-wikipedia.org |title = Wikipedia Selection for Schools |access-date = July 14, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120804093730/http://schools-wikipedia.org/ |archive-date = August 4, 2012 |url-status=dead |df = mdy-all}}</ref> Since 2009, tens of thousands of [[print on demand|print-on-demand]] books that reproduced English, German, Russian and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company [[Books LLC]] and by three [[Mauritius|Mauritian]] subsidiaries of the German publisher [[VDM Publishing|VDM]].<ref name="FAZ" /> *'''Semantic Web''': The website [[DBpedia]], begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. Wikimedia has created the [[Wikidata]] project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and the other WMF wikis and make it available in a queriable [[Semantic Web|semantic]] format, [[Resource Description Framework|RDF]]. This is still under development. As of February 2014, it has 15,000,000 items and 1,000 properties for describing them. Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a [[web crawler]] is discouraged.<ref name="WP DB usage policy 1" /> Wikipedia publishes [[Wikipedia:Database download|"dumps"]] of its contents, but these are text-only; {{as of|2007|lc=y}} there was no dump available of Wikipedia's images.<ref name="WP image data dumps 1">[[meta:Data dumps#Downloading Images|Data dumps: Downloading Images]], [[Meta-Wiki]]</ref> Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a [[WP:REFDESK|reference desk]], where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the ''[[Journal of Documentation]]'', the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library [[reference desk]], with an accuracy of 55 percent.<ref name="slis WP reference desk 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.slis.indiana.edu/news/story.php?story_id=2064 |title = Wikipedia Reference Desk |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> ==== Mobile access{{anchor|Wikipedia mobile access|Wikipedia mobile}} ==== {{see also|Help:Mobile access}} [[File:Wikipedia on Mobile screenshot 2019.png|thumb|The mobile version of the English Wikipedia's main page, from August 3, 2019]] Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard [[web browser]] through a fixed [[Internet access|Internet connection]]. Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the [[mobile web]] since July 2013, ''The New York Times'' on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller, deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry.<ref name="small screen" /> The article in ''The New York Times'' reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more."<ref name="small screen" /> ''The New York Times'' reports that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by ''The New York Times'' for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment.<ref name="small screen" /> ''[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]'' reported in July 2014 that Google's Android mobile apps have dominated the largest share of global smartphone shipments for 2013 with 78.6% of market share over their next closest competitor in iOS with 15.2% of the market.<ref>Brad Stone, "How Google's Android chief, Sundar Pichai, became the most powerful man in mobile", June 30{{snd}}July 6, 2014, ''Bloomberg BusinessWeek'', pp. 47–51.</ref> At the time of the Tretikov appointment and her posted web interview with [[Sue Gardner]] in May 2014, Wikimedia representatives made a technical announcement concerning the number of mobile access systems in the market seeking access to Wikipedia. Directly after the posted web interview, the representatives stated that Wikimedia would be applying an all-inclusive approach to accommodate as many mobile access systems as possible in its efforts for expanding general mobile access, including BlackBerry and the Windows Phone system, making market share a secondary issue.<ref name="nytimes.com" /> The latest version of the Android app for Wikipedia was released on July 23, 2014, to generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.wikipedia&hl=en |title = Wikipedia – Android Apps on Google Play |website = Play.Google.com |access-date = August 21, 2014}}</ref> The latest version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/wikipedia-mobile/id324715238?mt=8 |title = Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes |website = iTunes.Apple.com |date = August 4, 2014 |access-date = August 21, 2014}}</ref> Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the [[Wireless Application Protocol]] (WAP), via the [[Wapedia]] service. In June 2007 Wikipedia launched [https://web.archive.org/web/20090112031222/http://en.mobile.wikipedia.org/ en.mobile.wikipedia.org], an official website for wireless devices. In 2009 a newer mobile service was officially released,<ref name="WM mobile added 1">{{cite web |title = Wikimedia Mobile is Officially Launched |website = Wikimedia Technical Blog |url = http://techblog.wikimedia.org/2009/06/wikimedia-mobile-launch |date = June 30, 2009 |access-date = July 22, 2009}}</ref> located at [https://en.m.wikipedia.org/ en.m.wikipedia.org], which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the [[iPhone]], [[Android (operating system)|Android]]-based devices or [[WebOS]]-based devices. Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia [[metadata]] (see {{srlink|Wikipedia:Metadata}}), such as [[geographic data and information|geoinformation]].<ref name="androgeoid.com LPOI WP 1">{{cite web |url = http://androgeoid.com/2011/04/local-points-of-interest-in-wikipedia |title = Local Points Of Interest In Wikipedia |date = May 15, 2011 |access-date = May 15, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ilounge iphone gems WP">{{cite web |url = http://www.ilounge.com/index.php/articles/comments/15802 |title = iPhone Gems: Wikipedia Apps |date = November 30, 2008 |access-date = July 22, 2008}}</ref> [[Wikipedia Zero]] was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries.<ref>{{cite web |last = Ellis |first = Justin |url = http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/01/wikipedia-plans-to-expand-mobile-access-around-the-globe-with-new-funding |title = Wikipedia plans to expand mobile access around the globe with new funding |publisher = Nieman Journalism Lab |website = NiemanLab |date = January 17, 2013 |access-date = April 22, 2013}}</ref> It was discontinued in February 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://diff.wikimedia.org/2018/02/16/partnerships-new-approach/|title=Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships&nbsp;– Wikimedia Diff|website=[[Wikimedia Foundation]]|access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> [[Andrew Lih]] and [[Andrew Brown (writer)|Andrew Brown]] both maintain editing Wikipedia with [[smartphone]]s is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. The number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years and Tom Simonite of ''[[MIT Technology Review]]'' claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some [[Wikipedian]]s use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the [[status quo]].<ref name="Simonite-2013" /> Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/21/opinion/can-wikipedia-survive.html |title = Can Wikipedia Survive? |first = Andrew |last = Lih |date = June 20, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jun/25/wikipedia-editors-dying-breed-mobile-smartphone-technology-online-encyclopedia |title = Wikipedia editors are a dying breed. The reason? Mobile |first = Andrew |last = Brown |journal = The Guardian |date = June 25, 2015}}</ref> == Cultural impact{{anchor|Impact}} == === Trusted source to combat fake news === In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [[Noam Cohen]], writing in ''The Washington Post'' states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out 'fake news'."<ref name="auto"/> As of November 2020, Alexa records the daily pageviews per visitor as 3.03 and the average daily time on site as 3:46 minutes.<ref name="Alexa siteinfo" /> === Readership === In February 2014, ''The New York Times'' reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month [...] Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors."<ref name="small screen" /> However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites |title=The top 500 sites on the web |website=Alexa |access-date=June 13, 2020}}</ref> In addition to [[logistic function|logistic growth]] in the number of its articles,<ref name="modelling" /> Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001.<ref name="comscore" /> About 50 percent of search engine traffic to Wikipedia comes from Google,<ref name="hitwisegoogle" /> a good portion of which is related to academic research.<ref name="hitwiseAcademic" /> The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365&nbsp;million at the end of 2009.<ref name="365M">{{cite web |url = http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/meta/3/3a/TED2010%2C_Stuart_West_full_presentation_updated_with_January_data.pdf |title = Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010 |first = Stuart |last = West |access-date = October 23, 2015}}</ref> The [[Pew Research Center|Pew]] Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia.<ref name="Wikipedia users" /> In 2011 ''Business Insider'' gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4&nbsp;billion if it ran advertisements.<ref>{{cite web |author = SAI |url = http://www.businessinsider.com/2011-digital-100#7-wikimedia-foundation-wikipedia-7 |title = The World's Most Valuable Startups |website = Business Insider |date = October 7, 2011 |access-date = June 14, 2014}}</ref> According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Research:Wikipedia_Readership_Survey_2011/Results |title = Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta |publisher = Wikimedia |date = February 6, 2012 |access-date = April 16, 2014}}</ref> ==== COVID-19 pandemic ==== {{main|Wikipedia's response to the COVID-19 pandemic}} During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wikipedia breaks five-year record with high traffic in pandemic|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1551521|last=Jahangir|first=Ramsha|date=April 23, 2020|website=DAWN.COM|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2020}}</ref> === Cultural significance === {{redirect|Wikipedia in webcomics|the list of Wikipedia's appearances in webcomics|Wikipedia:Wikipedia in webcomics}} {{main|Wikipedia in culture}} <!-- Every single cultural, media, or Internet reference to Wikipedia does not need to be mentioned here and differentiation between what constitutes a matter of significance and what is run-of-the-mill is important when adding content here. --> [[File:Wikipedia Monument in Słubice - detail.JPG|thumb|''[[Wikipedia Monument]]'' in [[Słubice]], Poland (2014, by [[Mihran Hakobyan]])]] Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases.<ref name="Wikipedia in media" /><ref name="Bourgeois" /><ref name="ssrn.com Wikipedian Justice 1">{{cite document|ssrn = 1346311 |title = Wikipedian Justice |date = February 19, 2009 |last1 = Sharma |first1 = Raghav}}</ref> The [[Parliament of Canada]]'s website refers to Wikipedia's article on [[same-sex marriage]] in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the ''[[Civil Marriage Act]]''.<ref name="parl.gc.ca same-sex marriage">{{cite web |url = http://www.parl.gc.ca/LegisInfo/BillDetails.aspx?billId=1585203&View=10 |publisher = LEGISinfo|title=House Government Bill C-38 (38–1) |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]]<ref name="WP_court_source" />—though mainly for ''supporting information'' rather than information decisive to a case.<ref name="Courts turn to Wikipedia" /> Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some [[United States Intelligence Community|US intelligence agency]] reports.<ref name="US Intelligence" /> In December 2008, the scientific journal ''[[RNA Biology]]'' launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the [[Rfam|RNA family]] for publication in Wikipedia.<ref name="Declan" /> Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism,<ref name="ajr.org WP in the newsroom">{{cite news |title = Wikipedia in the Newsroom |url = http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=4461 |date = February–March 2008 |work = American Journalism Review |first = Donna |last = Shaw |access-date = February 11, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120805155909/http://www.ajr.org/Article.asp?id=4461 |archive-date = August 5, 2012 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="twsY23" /> often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for [[plagiarism from Wikipedia|plagiarizing from Wikipedia]].<ref name="shizuoka plagiarized WP 1">{{cite news |title = Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article |work = Japan News Review |date = July 5, 2007 |url = http://www.japannewsreview.com/society/chubu/20070705page_id=364 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140312013353/http://www.japannewsreview.com/society/chubu/20070705page_id%3D364 |archive-date = March 12, 2014 |df = mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="WA Express-News staffer resigns">{{cite web |url = http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/metro/stories/MYSA010307.02A.richter.132c153.html |title = Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered |access-date = January 31, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071015045010/http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/metro/stories/MYSA010307.02A.richter.132c153.html |archive-date = October 15, 2007}}, ''[[San Antonio Express-News]]'', January 9, 2007.</ref><ref name="starbulletin.com Inquiry prompts dismissal">{{cite web |url = http://archives.starbulletin.com/2006/01/13/news/story03.html |title = Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal |website = Honolulu Star-Bulletin |first = Frank |last = Bridgewater |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> In 2006, [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with [[YouTube]], [[Reddit]], [[MySpace]], and [[Facebook]])<ref name="Time2006" /> in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. In July 2007, Wikipedia was the focus of a 30-minute documentary on [[BBC Radio 4]]<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007tc6x |title = Radio 4 documentary, BBC |access-date = April 24, 2016 |date = 2007 |archive-date = September 4, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170904080952/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007tc6x |url-status = dead }}</ref> which argued that, with increased usage and awareness, the number of references to Wikipedia in popular culture is such that the word is one of a select group of 21st-century nouns that are so familiar ([[Google]], [[Facebook]], [[YouTube]]) that they no longer need explanation. On September 28, 2007, [[Italy|Italian]] politician [[Franco Grillini]] raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of [[freedom of panorama]]. He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.grillini.it/show.php?4885 |title = Comunicato Stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright |date = October 12, 2007 |language = it |trans-title = Press release. Honorable Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interview with Rutelli about the "right to view" promoting contemporary art and architecture of Italy. Review with urgency copyright law |access-date = December 26, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090330141810/http://www.grillini.it/show.php?4885 |archive-date = March 30, 2009}}</ref> [[File:Wikipedia, an introduction - Erasmus Prize 2015.webm|thumb|upright=1|thumbtime=00:36.00|Wikipedia, an introduction – [[Erasmus Prize]] 2015]] [[File:Quadriga-verleihung-rr-02.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Jimmy Wales]] accepts the 2008 [[Quadriga (award)|Quadriga]] ''A Mission of Enlightenment'' award on behalf of Wikipedia]] On September 16, 2007, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the [[2008 United States presidential election|2008 US election campaign]], saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day."<ref name="WP.com WP election usage">{{cite news |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/16/AR2007091601699_pf.html |title = On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet |author = Jose Antonio Vargas |work = The Washington Post |date = September 17, 2007 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> An October 2007 [[Reuters]] article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN2232893820071022?sp=true |title = Wikipedia page the latest status symbol |first = Jennifer |last = Ablan |work = Reuters |date = October 22, 2007 |access-date = October 24, 2007}}</ref> Active participation also has an impact. Law students have been assigned to write Wikipedia articles as an exercise in clear and succinct writing for an uninitiated audience.<ref name="LER students write for WP 1">{{cite journal |title = Engaging with the World: Students of Comparative Law Write for Wikipedia |journal = Legal Education Review |volume = 19 |issue = 1 and 2 |year = 2009 |pages = 83–98 |author = Witzleb, Normann}}</ref> A working group led by [[Peter Stone (professor)|Peter Stone]] (formed as a part of the [[Stanford]]-based project [[One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence]]) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing{{nbsp}}... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth."<ref>{{cite web |url = https://ai100.stanford.edu/2016-report/section-i-what-artificial-intelligence/ai-research-trends |title = AI Research Trends |author = <!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. --> |website = One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence (AI100) |publisher = Stanford University |access-date = September 3, 2016 }}</ref> In a 2017 opinion piece for ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'', [[Hossein Derakhshan]] describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the [[openness|open]] and [[decentralization#Centralization and redecentralization of the Internet|decentralized web]]" and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with [[social media]] and [[social networking service]]s, the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the [[Age of Enlightenment]] tradition of [[rationality]] triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a [[typography|typographic]] culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than "{{lang|la|[[sapere aude]]}}" ({{literal translation|'dare to know'|lk=on}}), social networks have led to a culture of "[d]are not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know."<ref>{{cite news|last=Derakhshan|first=Hossein|author-link=Hossein Derakhshan|date=October 19, 2017|title=How Social Media Endangers Knowledge|url=https://www.wired.com/story/wikipedias-fate-shows-how-the-web-endangers-knowledge/|url-status=live|department=Business|work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|publisher=[[Condé Nast]]|eissn=1078-3148|issn=1059-1028|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022190537/https://www.wired.com/story/wikipedias-fate-shows-how-the-web-endangers-knowledge/|archive-date=October 22, 2018|access-date=October 22, 2018}}</ref> ==== Awards ==== [[File:Wikipedia team visiting to Parliament of Oviedo Spain 2015.JPG|thumb|upright=1|Wikipedia team visiting the Parliament of Asturias]] [[File:Spanish Wikipedians meetup.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Wikipedians meeting after the 2015 Asturias awards ceremony]] Wikipedia won two major awards in May 2004.<ref name="WP awards for WP 1">[[m:Trophy box|"Trophy box"]], {{srlink|Wikipedia:Meta|Meta-Wiki}} (March 28, 2005).</ref> The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual [[Prix Ars Electronica]] contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in [[Austria]] later that year. The second was a Judges' [[Webby Award]] for the "community" category.<ref name="webbyawards WP awards 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.webbyawards.com/webbys/winners-2004.php |title = Webby Awards 2004 |publisher = The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences |year = 2004 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110722174246/http://www.webbyawards.com/webbys/winners-2004.php |archive-date = July 22, 2011}}</ref> Wikipedia was also nominated for a "Best Practices" Webby award. In 2007, readers of brandchannel.com voted Wikipedia as the fourth-highest brand ranking, receiving 15 percent of the votes in answer to the question "Which brand had the most impact on our lives in 2006?"<ref name="brandchannel.com awards 1">{{cite news |first = Anthony |last = Zumpano |title = Similar Search Results: Google Wins |url = http://www.brandchannel.com/features_effect.asp?pf_id=352 |publisher = Interbrand |date = January 29, 2007 |access-date = January 28, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070220095907/http://brandchannel.com/features_effect.asp?pf_id=352 |archive-date = February 20, 2007}}</ref> In September 2008, Wikipedia received [[Quadriga (award)|Quadriga]] ''A Mission of Enlightenment'' award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with [[Boris Tadić]], [[Eckart Höfling]], and [[Peter Gabriel]]. The award was presented to Wales by [[David Weinberger]].<ref name="loomarea.com WP award 1">{{cite web |url = http://loomarea.com/die_quadriga/e/index.php?title=Award_2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080915140714/http://loomarea.com/die_quadriga/e/index.php?title=Award_2008 |url-status=dead |archive-date = September 15, 2008 |title = Die Quadriga – Award 2008 |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual [[Erasmus Prize]], which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences,<ref name="EP2015">{{cite web |url = http://www.erasmusprijs.org/?lang=en&page=Erasmusprijs |title = Erasmus Prize – Praemium Erasmianum |publisher = Praemium Erasmianum Foundation |access-date = January 15, 2015}}</ref> and the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Princess of Asturias Award]] on International Cooperation.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.fpa.es/es/premios-princesa-de-asturias/premiados/2015-wikipedia.html?especifica=0&idCategoria=0&anio=2015&especifica=0 |title = Premio Princesa de Asturias de Cooperación Internacional 2015 |publisher = Fundación Princesa de Asturias |access-date = June 17, 2015}}</ref> Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, [[Jimmy Wales]] praised the work of the [[Asturian language]] Wikipedia users.<ref>{{cite news |title = Los fundadores de Wikipedia destacan la versión en asturiano |url = http://www.lne.es/sociedad-cultura/2015/10/22/fundadores-wikipedia-destacan-version-asturiano/1830529.html |newspaper = La Nueva España |language = es |trans-title = The founders of Wikipedia highlight the Asturian version |access-date = October 20, 2015}}</ref> The night of the ceremony, members of the Wikimedia Foundation held a meeting with Wikipedians from all parts of Spain, including the local [[Asturian Wikipedia|Asturian community]]. ==== Satire ==== {{category see also|Parodies of Wikipedia}} Many parodies target Wikipedia's openness and susceptibility to inserted inaccuracies, with characters vandalizing or modifying the online encyclopedia project's articles. Comedian [[Stephen Colbert]] has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show ''[[The Colbert Report]]'' and coined the related term ''[[wikiality]]'', meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on".<ref name="wikiality" /> Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in ''[[The Onion]]'',<ref name="onion WP 750 years 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.theonion.com/articles/wikipedia-celebrates-750-years-of-american-indepen,2007/ |title = Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence |access-date = October 15, 2006 |date = July 26, 2006 |website = [[The Onion]]}}</ref> as well as the 2010 ''The Onion'' article "'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.theonion.com/articles/la-law-wikipedia-page-viewed-874-times-today,18521/ |title = 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today |date = November 24, 2010 |website = [[The Onion]]}}</ref> In an episode of the television comedy [[The Office (American TV series)|''The Office'' U.S.]], which aired in April 2007, an incompetent office manager ([[Michael Scott (The Office)|Michael Scott]]) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on [[negotiation]] tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.officetally.com/the-office-the-negotiation |title = The Office: The Negotiation, 3.19 |date = April 5, 2007 |access-date = December 27, 2014}}</ref> Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/webguide/internetlife/2007-04-12-office-wikipedia_N.htm |title = 'Office' fans, inspired by Michael Scott, flock to edit Wikipedia |newspaper = USA Today |date = April 12, 2007 |access-date = December 12, 2014}}</ref> "[[My Number One Doctor]]", a 2007 episode of the television show ''[[Scrubs (TV series)|Scrubs]]'', played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which [[Perry Cox]] reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the [[raw food diet]] reverses the effects of [[bone cancer]] by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the [[list of Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series) episodes|''Battlestar Galactica'' episode guide]].<ref name="Bakken one doctor 1">Bakken, Janae. "[[My Number One Doctor]]"; ''[[Scrubs (TV series)|Scrubs]]''; [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]; December 6, 2007.</ref> In 2008, the comedic website ''[[CollegeHumor]]'' produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements.<ref name="collegehumor.com WP funny 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.collegehumor.com/video/3581424/professor-wikipedia |title = Professor Wikipedia |publisher = CollegeHumor |date = November 17, 2009 |access-date = April 19, 2011|format=Video}}</ref> The ''[[Dilbert]]'' comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia."<ref name="dilbert WP funny 1">{{cite web |url = http://dilbert.com/strips/comic/2009-05-08 |title = Dilbert comic strip for 05/08/2009 from the official Dilbert comic strips archive |publisher = Universal Uclick |date = May 8, 2009 |access-date = March 10, 2013}}</ref> In July 2009, [[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast a comedy series called ''[[Bigipedia]]'', which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles.<ref name="comedy.org.uk WP funny 1">{{cite web |url = http://www.comedy.org.uk/guide/radio/bigipedia/interview/ |title = Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen |website = [[British Comedy Guide]] |access-date = July 31, 2009}}</ref> On August 23, 2013, the ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, [[Chelsea Manning|Manning]], have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?"<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.condenaststore.com/-sp/Dammit-Manning-have-you-considered-the-pronoun-war-that-this-is-going-t-Cartoon-Prints_i9813981_.htm |title = Manning/Wikipedia cartoon |access-date = August 26, 2013 |first = Emily |last = Flake |author-link = Emily Flake |date = August 23, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141012052730/http://www.condenaststore.com/-sp/Dammit-Manning-have-you-considered-the-pronoun-war-that-this-is-going-t-Cartoon-Prints_i9813981_.htm |archive-date = October 12, 2014 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier and a [[trans woman]]. In December 2015, [[John Julius Norwich]] stated, in a letter published in ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had never yet caught it out. He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/opinion/letters/article4639755.ece |title = The obstacles to reforming our prisons |date = December 14, 2015|journal = The Times |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/public/sitesearch.do?querystring=john%20julius%20norwich&p=tto&pf=all&bl=on |title = John Julius Norwich – Search – The Times |website = thetimes.co.uk |access-date = June 5, 2016}}</ref> === Sister projects{{snd}}Wikimedia === {{main|Wikimedia project}} Wikipedia has also spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. These other [[Wikimedia projects]] include [[Wiktionary]], a dictionary project launched in December 2002,<ref name="WM dictionary 1" /> [[Wikiquote]], a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [[Wikibooks]], a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [[Wikimedia Commons]], a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [[Wikinews]], for citizen journalism, and [[Wikiversity]], a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities.<ref name="OurProjects" /> Another sister project of Wikipedia, [[Wikispecies]], is a catalogue of species. In 2012 [[Wikivoyage]], an editable travel guide, and [[Wikidata]], an editable knowledge base, launched. === Publishing === [[File:WikiMedia DC 2013 Annual Meeting 08.JPG|right|thumb|A group of Wikimedians of the [http://wikimediadc.org/wiki/Home Wikimedia DC chapter] at the 2013 DC Wikimedia annual meeting standing in front of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' ''(back left)'' at the US National Archives]] The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially the printed versions, e.g. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', which were unable to compete with a product that is essentially free.<ref>{{cite web |last1 = Bosman |first1 = Julie |title = After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses |url = http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com//2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/ |website = The New York Times |access-date = January 26, 2015 |date = March 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.gizmocrazed.com/2012/03/encyclopedia-britannica-dies-at-the-hands-of-wikipedia-infographic/ |title = ''Encyclopedia Britannica Dies At The Hands Of Wikipedia'', Gizmocrazed.com (with ''statista'' infographic from NYTimes.com) |publisher = Gizmocrazed.com |date = March 20, 2012 |access-date = June 14, 2014}}</ref><ref name="FT impact on traditional media">{{cite news |author = Christopher Caldwell (journalist) |author-link = Christopher Caldwell (journalist) |date = June 14, 2013 |title = A chapter in the Enlightenment closes |url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ae22314a-d383-11e2-b3ff-00144feab7de.html |newspaper = [[Financial Times|ft.com]] |access-date = June 15, 2013 |quote = Bertelsmann did not resort to euphemism this week when it announced the end of the Brockhaus encyclopedia brand. Brockhaus had been publishing reference books for two centuries when the media group bought it in 2008. [...] The internet has finished off Brockhaus altogether. [...] What Germans like is Wikipedia.}}</ref> [[Nicholas G. Carr|Nicholas Carr]] wrote a 2005 essay, "The amorality of [[Web 2.0]]", that criticized websites with [[user-generated content]], like Wikipedia, for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote: "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening."<ref name="RType WP traditional media impact 1">{{cite web |title = The amorality of Web 2.0 |url = http://www.roughtype.com/archives/2005/10/the_amorality_o.php |date = October 3, 2005 |website = Rough Type |access-date = July 15, 2006}}</ref> Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. For instance, [[Chris Anderson (writer)|Chris Anderson]], the editor-in-chief of ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired Magazine]]'', wrote in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' that the "[[wisdom of the crowd|wisdom of crowds]]" approach of Wikipedia will not displace top [[scientific journal]]s, with their rigorous [[peer review]] process.<ref name="nature.com crowds wisdom" /> There is also an ongoing debate about the influence of Wikipedia on the biography publishing business. "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" said [[Kathryn Hughes]], professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of ''The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton'' and ''George Eliot: the Last Victorian''.<ref>{{cite news |first = Alison |last = Flood |url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2013/feb/07/traditional-biography-shakespeare-breakfast |title = Alison Flood: ''Should traditional biography be buried alongside Shakespeare's breakfast?'' |journal = The Guardian |date = February 7, 2013|access-date = June 14, 2014}}</ref> === Research use === Wikipedia has been widely used as a [[text corpus|corpus]] for linguistic research in [[computational linguistics]], [[information retrieval]] and [[natural language processing]]. In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the [[entity linking]] problem, which is then called "wikification",<ref name="wikify">Rada Mihalcea and Andras Csomai (2007). [http://www.cse.unt.edu/~tarau/teaching/NLP/papers/Mihalcea-2007-Wikify-Linking_Documents_to_Encyclopedic.pdf Wikify! Linking Documents to Encyclopedic Knowledge] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218062051/http://www.cse.unt.edu/~tarau/teaching/NLP/papers/Mihalcea-2007-Wikify-Linking_Documents_to_Encyclopedic.pdf |date=February 18, 2016}} Proc. CIKM.</ref> and to the related problem of [[word-sense disambiguation]].<ref name="milne witten WP usage 1">David Milne and Ian H. Witten (2008). Learning to link with Wikipedia. Proc. CIKM.</ref> Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia.<ref name="discovering missing WP links 1">Sisay Fissaha Adafre and [Maarten de Rijke] (2005). [http://staff.science.uva.nl/~mdr/Publications/Files/linkkdd2005.pdf Discovering missing links in Wikipedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054413/http://staff.science.uva.nl/~mdr/Publications/Files/linkkdd2005.pdf |date=July 17, 2012}} Proc. LinkKDD.</ref> In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the [[University of Franche-Comté]] in [[Besançon]] and Dima Shepelyansky of [[Paul Sabatier University]] in [[Toulouse]] published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations.<ref name=mitmining>{{cite news |title = Wikipedia-Mining Algorithm Reveals World's Most Influential Universities: An algorithm's list of the most influential universities contains some surprising entries|url = http://www.technologyreview.com/view/544266/wikipedia-mining-algorithm-reveals-worlds-most-influential-universities/ |access-date = December 27, 2015 |work = [[MIT Technology Review]] |date = December 7, 2015}}</ref><ref name=harvardisonlymarmow>{{cite news |last1 = Marmow Shaw |first1 = Jessica |title = Harvard is only the 3rd most influential university in the world, according to this list |url = http://www.marketwatch.com/story/two-universities-beat-harvard-in-this-surprising-school-ranking-2015-12-09 |access-date = December 27, 2015 |work = [[MarketWatch]] |date = December 10, 2015}}</ref><ref name=wikipediarankingtimesworldunifranche>{{cite news |last1 = Bothwell |first1 = Ellie |title = Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities: the top 100. List ranks institutions by search engine results and Wikipedia appearances |url = https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/wikipedia-ranking-world-universities-top-100 |access-date = December 27, 2015 |work = [[Times Higher Education]] |date = December 15, 2015}}</ref> They used [[PageRank]] "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)".<ref name=wikipediarankingtimesworldunifranche /> A 2017 [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] study suggests that words used on Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications.<ref>[https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/scicurious/wikipedia-science-reference-citations Wikipedia has become a science reference source even though scientists don't cite it] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210120955/https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/scicurious/wikipedia-science-reference-citations |date=February 10, 2018}} Science News, 2018</ref><ref>[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505 Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221090715/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505 |date=December 21, 2017}} SSRN, 2017</ref> Studies related to Wikipedia have been using [[machine learning]] and [[artificial intelligence]] to support various operations. One of the most important areas—automatic detection of vandalism<ref>Sarabadani, A., Halfaker, A., & Taraborelli, D. (2017). [https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.03861 Building automated vandalism detection tools for Wikidata]. In Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion (pp. 1647–1654). International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee.</ref><ref>Potthast, M., Stein, B., & Gerling, R. (2008). [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8805/b4d923bee9c9534373425de81a1ba296d461.pdf Automatic vandalism detection in Wikipedia]. In European conference on information retrieval (pp. 663–668). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.</ref> and [[data quality]] assessment in Wikipedia.<ref>Asthana, S., & Halfaker, A. (2018). [https://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=3274290&type=pdf With Few Eyes, All Hoaxes are Deep]. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 2(CSCW), 21.</ref> == Related projects == Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 [[BBC Domesday Project]], which included text (entered on [[BBC Micro]] computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008.<ref name="Domesday Project" /> Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. [[Everything2]]),<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/11/21/net.gen.encyclopedias.idg/index.html |title = The next generation of online encyclopedias |last = Frauenfelder |first = Mark |website = CNN.com |date = November 21, 2000 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040814034109/http://www.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/11/21/net.gen.encyclopedias.idg/index.html |archive-date = August 14, 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref> with many later being merged into the project (e.g. [[GNE (encyclopedia)|GNE]]).<ref name="gnu.org">[https://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html The Free Encyclopedia Project] gnu.org ( {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/64QXgZhy2?url=http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html |date=January 3, 2012}})</ref> One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was [[h2g2]], which was created by [[Douglas Adams]] in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. Subsequent collaborative [[knowledge base|knowledge]] websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Some, such as [[Susning.nu]], [[Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español|Enciclopedia Libre]], [[Hudong]], and [[Baidu Baike]] likewise employ no formal review process, although some like [[Conservapedia]] are not as open. Others use more traditional [[peer review]], such as ''[[Encyclopedia of Life]]'' and the online wiki encyclopedias ''[[Scholarpedia]]'' and [[Citizendium]]. The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia.<ref name="Orlowski18"/><ref name="JayLyman">{{cite news |first = Jay |last = Lyman |url = http://www.crmbuyer.com/story/53137.html |title = Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site |publisher = LinuxInsider |date = September 20, 2006 |access-date = June 27, 2007}}</ref> == See also == {{main category|Wikipedia}} {{portal|Internet|Wikipedia}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} *[[Democratization of knowledge]] *[[Interpedia]], an early proposal for a collaborative [[Internet]] encyclopedia *[[List of online encyclopedias]] *[[List of Wikipedia controversies]] *[[Network effect]] *[[Outline of Wikipedia]]{{snd}}guide to the subject of ''Wikipedia'' presented as a [[tree structure]]d list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see [[Portal:Contents/Outlines]] *[[QRpedia]]{{snd}}multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia *[[Wikipedia Review]] *[[Recursion]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{reflist|group=note}} == References == {{reflist|refs= <ref name="nature.com crowds wisdom">{{cite web |title = Technical solutions: Wisdom of the crowds |url = http://www.nature.com/nature/peerreview/debate/nature04992.html |website = Nature |access-date = October 10, 2006}}</ref> <ref name=modelling>{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Modelling_Wikipedia%27s_growth |title = Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia's growth |access-date = December 22, 2007 |date = July 31, 2018}}</ref> <ref name="Alexa siteinfo">{{cite web |title=Wikipedia.org Traffic, Demographics and Competitors |url=https://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/wikipedia.org |website=www.alexa.com |access-date=October 1, 2019}}</ref> <ref name=comscore>{{cite web |url = http://www.comscore.com/press/release.asp?press=849 |title = 694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks |date = May 4, 2006 |publisher = comScore |access-date = December 16, 2007 |quote = Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the US |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080730011713/http://www.comscore.com/press/release.asp?press=849 |archive-date = July 30, 2008}}</ref> <ref name=hitwisegoogle>{{cite web |url = http://weblogs.hitwise.com/leeann-prescott/2007/02/wikipedia_traffic_sources.html |title = Google Traffic To Wikipedia up 166% Year over Year |publisher = Hitwise |date = February 16, 2007 |access-date = December 22, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071214072031/http://weblogs.hitwise.com/leeann-prescott/2007/02/wikipedia_traffic_sources.html |archive-date = December 14, 2007 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <ref name=hitwiseAcademic>{{cite web |url = http://weblogs.hitwise.com/leeann-prescott/2006/10/wikipedia_and_academic_researc.html |title = Wikipedia and Academic Research |publisher = Hitwise |date = October 17, 2006 |access-date = February 6, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061029213453/http://weblogs.hitwise.com/leeann-prescott/2006/10/wikipedia_and_academic_researc.html |archive-date = October 29, 2006 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <ref name="Wikipedia users">{{cite web |first = Lee |last = Rainie |first2 = Bill |last2 = Tancer |title = Wikipedia users |publisher = Pew Research Center |website = Pew Internet & American Life Project |date = December 15, 2007 |quote = 36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students. |url = http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Wikipedia07.pdf |access-date = December 15, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080306031354/http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Wikipedia07.pdf |archive-date = March 6, 2008}}</ref> <ref name="Wikipedia in media">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_in_the_media |title = Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media |website = Wikipedia |access-date = December 26, 2008 |date = July 4, 2018}}</ref> <ref name="Bourgeois">{{cite web |url = http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/ops/200216886.pdf |title = Bourgeois et al. v. Peters et al. |access-date = February 6, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070203021430/http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov/opinions/ops/200216886.pdf |archive-date = February 3, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="Courts turn to Wikipedia">{{cite news |last = Cohen |first = Noam |date = January 29, 2007 |title = Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively |work = The New York Times |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/29/technology/29wikipedia.html |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> <ref name="US Intelligence">{{cite web |url = https://fas.org/blog/secrecy/2007/03/the_wikipedia_factor_in_us_int.html |title = The Wikipedia Factor in US Intelligence |first = Steven |last = Aftergood |publisher = Federation of American Scientists Project on Government Secrecy |date = March 21, 2007 |access-date = April 14, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="Declan">{{cite journal |last = Butler |first = Declan |date = December 16, 2008 |title = Publish in Wikipedia or perish |journal = Nature News |doi = 10.1038/news.2008.1312}}</ref> <ref name="Sidener">{{cite news |url = http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html |title = Everyone's Encyclopedia |last = Sidener |first = Jonathan |work = [[U-T San Diego]] |date = December 6, 2004 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160114101809/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html |archive-date = January 14, 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date = October 15, 2006}}</ref> <ref name=MiliardWho>{{cite news |url = http://www.cityweekly.net/utah/article-5129-feature-wikipediots-who-are-these-devoted-even-obsessive-contributors-to-wikipedia.html |first = Mike |last = Miliard |title = Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia? |work = [[Salt Lake City Weekly]] |date = March 1, 2008 |access-date = December 18, 2008}}</ref> <ref name=Time2006>{{cite news |date = December 13, 2006 |url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1570810,00.html |title = Time's Person of the Year: You |work = Time |access-date = December 26, 2008 |first = Lev |last = Grossman}}</ref> <ref name="AcademiaAndWikipedia">{{cite web |first = Danah |last = Boyd |url = http://many.corante.com/archives/2005/01/04/academia_and_wikipedia.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060316184224/http://many.corante.com/archives/2005/01/04/academia_and_wikipedia.php |url-status=dead |archive-date = March 16, 2006 |title = Academia and Wikipedia |website = Many 2 Many: A Group [[Blog|Weblog]] on Social Software |publisher = Corante |date = January 4, 2005 |access-date = December 18, 2008 |quote = [The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an expert on social media[,] [...] a doctoral student in the School of Information at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] [,] and a fellow at the [[Harvard University]] [[Berkman Center for Internet & Society]] [at [[Harvard Law School]].]}}</ref> <ref name="MIT_IBM_study">{{cite book|first = Fernanda B. |last = Viégas |first2 = Martin |last2 = Wattenberg |first3 = Kushal |last3 = Dave |url = http://alumni.media.mit.edu/~fviegas/papers/history_flow.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060125025047/http://alumni.media.mit.edu/~fviegas/papers/history_flow.pdf |archive-date = January 25, 2006 |title = Studying Cooperation and Conflict between Authors with History Flow Visualizations |journal = Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) |pages = 575–582 |year = 2004 |doi = 10.1145/985921.985953 |isbn = 978-1-58113-702-6 |s2cid = 10351688 |access-date = January 24, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="CreatingDestroyingAndRestoringValue">{{cite journal |first = Reid |last = Priedhorsky |first2 = Jilin |last2 = Chen |author3 = Shyong (Tony) K. Lam |first4 = Katherine |last4 = Panciera |first5 = Loren |last5 = Terveen |first6 = John |last6 = Riedl |title = Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia |journal = Association for Computing Machinery GROUP '07 Conference Proceedings; GroupLens Research, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota |date = November 4, 2007 |url = http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~reid/papers/group282-priedhorsky.pdf |access-date = October 13, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071025080718/http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~reid/papers/group282-priedhorsky.pdf |archive-date = October 25, 2007 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <ref name="stallman1999">{{cite web |url = https://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html |title = The Free Encyclopedia Project |first = Richard M. |last = Stallman |author-link = Richard Stallman |date = June 20, 2007 |publisher = Free Software Foundation |access-date = January 4, 2008}}</ref> <ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news |url = http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html |first = Jonathan |last = Sidener |title = Everyone's Encyclopedia |date = December 6, 2004 |work = [[U-T San Diego]] |access-date = October 15, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011150228/http://signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20041206/news_mz1b6encyclo.html |archive-date = October 11, 2007}}</ref> <ref name=Meyers>{{cite news |first = Peter |last = Meyers |title = Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/20/technology/fact-driven-collegial-this-site-wants-you.html?n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes+Topics%2FSubjects%2FC%2FComputer+Software|work = The New York Times |date = September 20, 2001 |quote = 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. |access-date = November 22, 2007}}</ref> <ref name=SangerMemoir>{{cite news |first = Larry |last = Sanger |title = The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir |date = April 18, 2005 |work = Slashdot |url = http://features.slashdot.org/features/05/04/18/164213.shtml |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> <ref name=Sanger>{{cite news |first = Larry |last = Sanger |title = Wikipedia Is Up! |date = January 17, 2001 |url = http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000684.html |access-date = December 26, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010506042824/http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/nupedia-l/2001-January/000684.html |archive-date = May 6, 2001}}</ref> <ref name=WikipediaHome>{{cite web |url = http://www.wikipedia.com/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010331173908/http://www.wikipedia.com/ |archive-date = March 31, 2001 |title = Wikipedia: HomePage |access-date = March 31, 2001}}</ref> <ref name="NPOV">"[[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view]], Wikipedia (January 21, 2007).</ref> <ref name="EB_encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |title = Encyclopedias and Dictionaries |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |edition = 15th |year = 2007 |volume = 18 |pages = 257–286 |author1 = <!-- Please add first missing authors to populate metadata. -->}}</ref> <ref name=Shirky>{{cite book |first = Clay |last = Shirky |author-link = Clay Shirky |title = Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations |date = February 28, 2008 |publisher = The Penguin Press via Amazon Online Reader |url = https://archive.org/details/herecomeseverybo0000shir/page/273 |isbn = 978-1-59420-153-0 |page = [https://archive.org/details/herecomeseverybo0000shir/page/273 273] |access-date = December 26, 2008 }}</ref> <ref name=NOR>{{srlink|Wikipedia:No original research|No original research}}. February 13, 2008. "Wikipedia does not publish original thought."</ref> <ref name=autogenerated2>{{srlink|Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|Neutral point of view}}. February 13, 2008. "All Wikipedia articles and other encyclopedic content must be written from a neutral point of view, representing significant views fairly, proportionately and without bias."</ref> <ref name="voteresult">[[meta:Licensing update/Result|Wikimedia]]</ref> <ref name=FAZ>{{cite web |last = Thiel |first = Thomas |title = Wikipedia und Amazon: Der Marketplace soll es richten |website = Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung |publisher = [[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] |language = de |date = September 27, 2010 |url = https://www.faz.net/s/RubCF3AEB154CE64960822FA5429A182360/Doc~E7A20980B9C0D46E99A9F60BC09506343~ATpl~Ecommon~Scontent.html |access-date = December 6, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101126184904/https://www.faz.net/s/RubCF3AEB154CE64960822FA5429A182360/Doc~E7A20980B9C0D46E99A9F60BC09506343~ATpl~Ecommon~Scontent.html |archive-date = November 26, 2010}}</ref> <ref name="Seigenthaler">{{cite news |url = https://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2005-11-29-wikipedia-edit_x.htm |last = Seigenthaler |first = John |title = A False Wikipedia 'biography' |date = November 29, 2005 |work = USA Today |access-date = December 26, 2008}}</ref> <ref name="Torsten_Kleinz">{{cite news |first = Torsten |last = Kleinz |title = World of Knowledge |work = Linux Magazine |quote = The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw attention to themselves. |date = February 2005 |url = http://w3.linux-magazine.com/issue/51/Wikipedia_Encyclopedia.pdf |access-date = July 13, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070925220722/http://w3.linux-magazine.com/issue/51/Wikipedia_Encyclopedia.pdf |archive-date = September 25, 2007 |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <ref name="DeathByWikipedia">{{cite news |title = Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/08/AR2006070800135.html |first = Frank |last = Ahrens |work = The Washington Post |date = July 9, 2006 |access-date = November 1, 2006}}</ref> <ref name="wikiality">{{cite news |title = Wikiality |url = http://www.cc.com/video-clips/z1aahs/the-colbert-report-the-word---wikiality |first = Stephen |last = Colbert |date = July 30, 2006 |access-date = October 8, 2015}}</ref> <ref name="Seeing Corporate Fingerprints">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/19/technology/19wikipedia.html |title = Lifting Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia |first = Katie |last = Hafner |work = The New York Times |date = August 19, 2007 |access-date = December 26, 2008 |page = 1}}</ref> <ref name=Taylor>{{cite news |url = http://in.reuters.com/article/technologyNews/idINIndia-32865420080405 |title = China allows access to English Wikipedia |work = Reuters |first = Sophie |last = Taylor |date = April 5, 2008 |access-date = July 29, 2008}}</ref> <ref name=Kittur2009>Kittur, A., Chi, E. H., and Suh, B. 2009. [http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~echi/papers/2009-CHI2009/p1509.pdf What's in Wikipedia? Mapping Topics and Conflict Using Socially Annotated Category Structure] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413130503/http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~echi/papers/2009-CHI2009/p1509.pdf |date=April 13, 2016}} In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Boston, Massachusetts, April 4–9, 2009). CHI '09. ACM, New York, 1509–1512.</ref> <ref name=Rosenzweig>{{cite journal |first = Roy |last = Rosenzweig |title = Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past |journal = The Journal of American History |volume = 93 |issue = 1 |date = June 2006 |pages = 117–146 |url = http://chnm.gmu.edu/essays-on-history-new-media/essays/?essayid=42 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100425130754/http://chnm.gmu.edu/essays-on-history-new-media/essays/?essayid=42 |url-status=dead |archive-date = April 25, 2010 |access-date = August 11, 2006 |doi = 10.2307/4486062 |jstor = 4486062}} (Center for History and New Media.)</ref> <ref name="WikipediaWatch">Public Information Research, Wikipedia Watch</ref> <ref name="McHenry_2004">[[Robert McHenry]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060107210301/http://www.techcentralstation.com/111504A.html "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116022451/http://www.techcentralstation.com/111504A.html |date=January 16, 2006}}, [[TCS Daily|Tech Central Station]], November 15, 2004.</ref> <ref name="WideWorldOfWikipedia">{{cite news |title = Wide World of Wikipedia |newspaper = The Emory Wheel |url = http://www.emorywheel.com/detail.php?n=17902 |date = April 21, 2006 |access-date = October 17, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071107052908/http://www.emorywheel.com/detail.php?n=17902 |archive-date = November 7, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="AWorkInProgress">{{cite news |first = Burt |last = Helm |title = Wikipedia: 'A Work in Progress' |url = http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/dec2005/tc20051214_441708.htm |work = Bloomberg BusinessWeek |date = December 14, 2005 |access-date = January 29, 2007 |archive-date = April 21, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120421000522/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/dec2005/tc20051214_441708.htm}}</ref> <ref name="GilesJ2005Internet">{{cite journal |first = Jim |last = Giles |title = Internet encyclopedias go head to head |journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume = 438 |issue = 7070 |pages = 900–901 |date = December 2005 |pmid = 16355180 |doi = 10.1038/438900a |author-link = Jim Giles (reporter) |bibcode = 2005Natur.438..900G|doi-access = free }} {{subscription required}} Note: The study was cited in several news articles; e.g.: *{{cite news |title = Wikipedia survives research test |work = BBC News |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4530930.stm |date = December 15, 2005 }}</ref> <ref name="corporate.britannica.com">[http://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709053629/http://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf |date=July 9, 2016}}, Encyclopædia Britannica, March 2006</ref> <ref name="stothart">Chloe Stothart. [http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=209408 "Web threatens learning ethos"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221140310/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=209408 |date=December 21, 2012}} ''The Times Higher Education Supplement'', 2007, 1799 (June 22), p. 2.</ref> <ref name="wwplagiarism">{{cite web |title = Plagiarism by Wikipedia editors |url = http://www.wikipedia-watch.org/psamples.html |publisher = Wikipedia Watch |date = October 27, 2006 |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/5lXiLbptk?url=http://www.wikipedia-watch.org/psamples.html |archive-date = November 25, 2009 |url-status=dead |df = mdy-all}}</ref> <ref name="The Register-April">{{cite news |url = https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/04/09/sanger_reports_wikimedia_to_the_fbi/ |work = The Register |date = April 9, 2010 |first = Cade |last = Metz |title = Wikifounder reports Wikiparent to FBI over 'child porn' |access-date = April 19, 2010}}</ref> <ref name=AFP>{{cite news |last1 = Agence France-Presse |title = Wikipedia rejects child porn accusation |url = https://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/wikipedia-rejects-child-porn-accusation-20100428-tsvh.html |work = The Sydney Morning Herald |date = April 29, 2010}}</ref> <ref name="David_Mehegan">{{cite news |first = David |last = Mehegan |title = Many contributors, common cause |url = https://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2006/02/13/many_contributors_common_cause |work = Boston Globe |date = February 13, 2006 |access-date = March 25, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="user identification">{{cite web |title = The Authority of Wikipedia |url = http://www.public.iastate.edu/~goodwin/pubs/goodwinwikipedia.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091122202231/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~goodwin/pubs/goodwinwikipedia.pdf |archive-date = November 22, 2009 |first = Jean |last = Goodwin |year = 2009 |quote = Wikipedia's commitment to anonymity/pseudonymity thus imposes a sort of epistemic agnosticism on its readers |access-date = January 31, 2011}}</ref> <ref name="ListOfWikipedias">{{cite web |url = https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Statistics |title = Statistics |publisher = [[English Wikipedia]] |access-date = June 21, 2008 |date = October 4, 2018}}</ref> <ref name="servers">{{cite web |url = http://wikitech.wikimedia.org/view/Server_roles |title = Server roles at wikitech.wikimedia.org |access-date = December 8, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116155841/http://wikitech.wikimedia.org/view/Server_roles |archive-date = January 16, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref name="WP_court_source">{{cite journal |last = Arias |first = Martha L. |date = January 29, 2007 |url = http://www.ibls.com/internet_law_news_portal_view.aspx?s=latestnews&id=1668 |title = Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source |journal = Internet Business Law Services |access-date = December 26, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120520054827/http://www.ibls.com/internet_law_news_portal_view.aspx?s=latestnews&id=1668 |archive-date = May 20, 2012 |url-status=dead |df = mdy-all}} (The name "''World Intellectual Property Office''" should however read "''World Intellectual Property Organization''" in this source.)</ref> <ref name=twsY23>{{cite news |author = Lexington |title = Classlessness in America: The uses and abuses of an enduring myth |work = The Economist |quote = Socialist Labour Party of America [...] though it can trace its history as far back as 1876, when it was known as the Workingmen's Party, no less an authority than Wikipedia pronounces it "moribund". |date = September 24, 2011 |url = https://www.economist.com/node/21530100 |access-date = September 27, 2011}}</ref> <ref name="Domesday Project">{{cite web |url = http://www.domesday1986.com/ |title = Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface |author = Heart Internet |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> <ref name="OurProjects">[[:foundation:Our projects|"Our projects"]], [[Wikimedia Foundation]]. Retrieved January 24, 2007.</ref> <ref name="Orlowski18">{{cite news |first = Andrew |last = Orlowski |author-link = Andrew Orlowski |url = https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/09/18/sanger_forks_wikipedia |title = Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling? |work = The Register |date = September 18, 2006 |quote = Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits. |access-date = June 27, 2007}}</ref> <ref name="bing WP research and referencing">{{cite web |url = https://www.bing.com/community/site_blogs/b/search/archive/2009/07/27/researching-with-bing-reference.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101023202054/https://www.bing.com/community/site_blogs/b/search/archive/2009/07/27/researching-with-bing-reference.aspx |archive-date=23 October 2010 |title = Researching With Bing Reference |access-date = September 9, 2014}}</ref> <ref name="WP vandalism manipulation 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Vandalism|Vandalism}}. ''Wikipedia''. Retrieved November 6, 2012.</ref> <ref name="WP CD selection 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Wikipedia CD Selection|Wikipedia CD Selection}}. Retrieved September 8, 2009.</ref> <ref name="WP DB usage policy 1">{{srlink|Wikipedia:Database download|Wikipedia policies}} on data download</ref> <ref name="J Sidener">{{cite news |url = http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/tech/personaltech/20061009-9999-mz1b9wikiped.html |title = Wikipedia family feud rooted in San Diego |last = Sidener |first = Jonathan |date = October 9, 2006 |work = [[The San Diego Union-Tribune]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161111074945/http://legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/tech/personaltech/20061009-9999-mz1b9wikiped.html |archive-date = November 11, 2016 |access-date = May 5, 2009}}</ref> <ref name="WM dictionary 1">{{cite web |url = http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikimedia_News&diff=prev&oldid=4133 |title = Announcement of Wiktionary's creation |publisher = meta.wikimedia.org |access-date = July 14, 2012}}</ref> <ref name="emory disputes handled 1">{{cite journal |title = Wikitruth through Wikiorder |ssrn = 1354424 |journal = Emory Law Journal |volume = 59 |issue = 1 |year = 2009 |page = 181 |first = David A. |last = Hoffman |first2 = Salil K.|last2 = Mehra}}</ref> }} == Further reading == === Academic studies === {{main|Academic studies about Wikipedia}} {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|isbn =978-1-4214-1535-2|last=Leitch|first= Thomas|title=Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age|year=2014}} *{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first= Richard|title=Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812|journal=The Journal of Military History|volume=76|issue=4 |date=October 2012|pages= 523–556|url=http://www.americanhistoryprojects.com/downloads/JMH1812.PDF}} *{{cite journal |title = Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis |first = Taha |last = Yasseri |year = 2012 |journal = PLOS ONE |volume = 7 |first2 = Robert |last2 = Sumi |first3 = János |last3 = Kertész |issue = 1 |doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 |editor1-last = Szolnoki |editor1-first = Attila |page = e30091 |pmid = 22272279 |pmc = 3260192 |arxiv = 1109.1746 |bibcode = 2012PLoSO...730091Y}} *{{cite journal |ssrn = 1458162 |title = Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences |first = Eric |last = Goldman |year = 2010 |journal = Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law |volume = 8}} ([http://blog.ericgoldman.org/archives/2010/02/catching_up_wit.htm A blog post by the author.]) *{{cite journal |first = Finn |last = Nielsen |url = http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue12_8/nielsen/index.html |title = Scientific Citations in Wikipedia |journal = [[First Monday (journal)|First Monday]] |volume = 12 |issue = 8 |date = August 2007 |access-date = February 22, 2008 |doi = 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 |arxiv = 0805.1154 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.246.4536|s2cid = 58893 }} *{{cite journal |last = Pfeil |first = Ulrike |first2 = Panayiotis |last2 = Zaphiris |author3 = Chee Siang Ang |title = Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia |journal = Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication |year = 2006 |volume = 12 |issue = 1 |page = 88 |url = http://jcmc.indiana.edu./vol12/issue1/pfeil.html |doi = 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x |access-date = December 26, 2008|doi-access = free }} *{{cite book|author1=Priedhorsky|author2=Reid|first3=Jilin|last3=Chen|author4=Shyong (Tony) K. Lam|first5=Katherine|last5=Panciera|author6-link=Loren Terveen|first6=Loren|last6=Terveen|author7-link=John Riedl|first7=John|last7=Riedl|title=Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 |doi=10.1145/1316624.1316663|chapter=Creating, destroying, and restoring value in wikipedia |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59593-845-9 |citeseerx=10.1.1.123.7456|pages=259–268|s2cid=15350808}} *{{cite conference |first = Joseph |last = Reagle |title = Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia |work = WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis |publisher = ACM |location = Montreal, Canada |year = 2007 |url = http://reagle.org/joseph/2007/10/Wikipedia-Authorial-Leadership.pdf |hdl=2047/d20002876 |access-date = December 26, 2008}} *{{cite book | first = Emiel | last = Rijshouwer | date = 2019 | title = Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) | oclc = 1081174169 | hdl = 1765/113937 | isbn = 978-9402813715}} (Open access) *[[Roy Rosenzweig|Rosenzweig, Roy]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430201444/http://chnm.gmu.edu/resources/essays/d/42 Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past]. (Originally published in ''[[The Journal of American History]]'' 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) *{{cite journal |url = http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue12_4/wilkinson/index.html |title = Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia |first = Dennis M. |last = Wilkinson |first2 = Bernardo A. |last2 = Huberman |journal = First Monday |volume = 12 |issue = 4 |date = April 2007 |access-date = February 22, 2008 |doi = 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 |arxiv = cs/0702140 |citeseerx = 10.1.1.342.6933 |bibcode = 2007cs........2140W|hdl = 2027.42/136037 |s2cid = 10484077 }} *{{cite journal |title = The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community |journal = American Behavioral Scientist |first = Aaron |last = Halfaker |author2 = R. Stuart Geiger |first3 = Jonathan T. |last3 = Morgan |first4 = John |last4 = Riedl |doi = 10.1177/0002764212469365 |year = 2012 |volume = 57 |issue = 5 |page = 664|s2cid = 144208941 }} *Maggio Lauren, Willinsky John, Steinberg Ryan, Mietchan Daniel, Wass Joseph, Dong Ting. "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" (2017). {{refend}} === Books === {{main|List of books about Wikipedia}} {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|last=Keen|first=Andrew|title=The Cult of the Amateur|publisher=Doubleday/Currency|year=2007|isbn=978-0-385-52080-5|author-link=Andrew Keen|title-link=The Cult of the Amateur}} (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) **Listen to: ***{{cite web|last=Keen|first=Andrew|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11131872|title=Does the Internet Undermine Culture?|publisher=National Public Radio, US|date=June 16, 2007}} The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. *{{cite book|first1=Phoebe|last1=Ayers|first2=Charles|last2=Matthews|first3=Ben|last3=Yates|title=How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It|publisher=No Starch Press|location=San Francisco|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59327-176-3|url=https://archive.org/details/howwikipediawork00ayer_0}} *{{cite book|last=Broughton|first=John|title=Wikipedia – The Missing Manual|publisher=O'Reilly Media|year=2008|isbn=978-0-596-51516-4|title-link=Wikipedia – The Missing Manual}} (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) *{{cite book|last=Broughton|first=John|title=Wikipedia Reader's Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780596521745|url-access=registration|publisher=Pogue Press|location=Sebastopol|year=2008|isbn=978-0-596-52174-5}} *{{cite book|first1=Sheizaf|last1=Rafaeli|first2=Yaron|last2=Ariel|year=2008|chapter=Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia|editor=Barak, A.|title=Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologicalasp00bara|url-access=limited|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychologicalasp00bara/page/n261 243]–267|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author1-link=Sheizaf Rafaeli}} *{{cite book|last=Dalby|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Dalby|title=The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality|publisher=Siduri|year=2009|isbn=978-0-9562052-0-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/worldwikipediaho0000dalb}} *{{cite book|last=Lih|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Lih|title=The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia|publisher=Hyperion|location=New York|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4013-0371-6|title-link=The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia}} *{{cite book|last=O'Sullivan|first=Dan|title=Wikipedia: a new community of practice?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htu8A-m_Y4EC|year=2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-7433-7}} *{{cite book|last=Reagle|first=Joseph Michael Jr.|title=Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia|publisher=the [[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2010|isbn=978-0-262-01447-2|url=http://reagle.org/joseph/2010/gfc|access-date=October 25, 2015}} *{{cite book|first1=Dariusz|last1=Jemielniak|title=Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|location=Stanford, California|year=2014|isbn=978-0-8047-8944-8|title-link=Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Reagle |editor1-first=Joseph |editor2-last=Koerner |editor2-first=Jackie |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/wikipedia-20 |title=Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |year=2020 |access-date=October 13, 2020 |isbn=9780262538176}} {{refend}} === Book review-related articles === {{refbegin}} *[[Nicholson Baker|Baker, Nicholson]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080303001807/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/21131 "The Charms of Wikipedia"]. ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of ''The Missing Manual'', by John Broughton, as listed previously.) *[[L. Gordon Crovitz|Crovitz, L. Gordon]]. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123897399273491031 "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best."] (Originally published in [[The Wall Street Journal|''Wall Street Journal'']] online{{snd}}April 6, 2009.) *[[Virginia Postrel|Postrel, Virginia]], [https://psmag.com/social-justice/killed-wikipedia-93777 "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it"], ''[[Pacific Standard]]'' magazine, November/December 2014 issue. {{refend}} === Learning resources === {{refbegin}} *[[v:wikipedia#Learning resources|Wikiversity list of learning resources]]. (Includes related courses, [[Web conferencing|Web-based seminars]], slides, lecture notes, textbooks, quizzes, glossaries, etc.) *[http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/episodes/2014/01/15/the-great-book-of-knowledge-part-1/ The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus], ''[[Ideas (radio show)|Ideas, with Paul Kennedy]]'', [[CBC Radio One]], originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also [http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/popupaudio.html?clipIds=2430203709 found here]). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including [[Kat Walsh]] and [[Sue Gardner]] (audio, 53:58, Flash required). {{refend}} === Other media coverage === ==== General articles ==== {{see also|List of films about Wikipedia}} {{refbegin}} *{{cite news |last = Balke |first = Jeff |url = http://blogs.chron.com/brokenrecord/2008/03/for_music_fans_wikipedia_myspa.html |title = For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace |work = [[Houston Chronicle]] |agency = Broken Record (blog) |date = March 2008 |access-date = December 17, 2008 }} *{{cite news |last=Borland |first=John |date=August 14, 2007 |title=See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign |url=https://www.wired.com/2007/08/wiki-tracker/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151116134820/https://www.wired.com/2007/08/wiki-tracker/ |archive-date=November 16, 2015 |url-status=live |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=October 23, 2018 }} *{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/magazine/01WIKIPEDIA-t.html |title = All the News That's Fit to Print Out |first = Jonathan |last = Dee |work = The New York Times Magazine |date = July 1, 2007 |access-date = February 22, 2008 }} *{{cite news |first = Jim |last = Giles |title = Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust |url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526226.200 |date = September 20, 2007 |work = [[New Scientist]] |access-date = January 14, 2008 }} *{{cite news |first = Mike |last = Miliard |title = Wikipedia Rules |url = http://thephoenix.com/Boston/Life/52864-Wikipedia-rules |work = [[The Phoenix (newspaper)|The Phoenix]] |date = December 2, 2007 |access-date = February 22, 2008 }} *{{cite news |first = Marshall |last = Poe |author-link = Marshall Poe |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200609/wikipedia |title = The Hive |work = [[The Atlantic]] Monthly |date = September 1, 2006 |access-date = March 22, 2008 }} *{{cite news |first = Michael S. |last = Rosenwald |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/22/AR2009102204715.html?hpid=topnews |title = Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom |date = October 23, 2009 |work = The Washington Post |access-date = October 22, 2009 }} *{{cite news |first = David |last = Runciman |url = http://www.lrb.co.uk/v31/n10/runc01_.html |title = Like Boiling a Frog |date = May 28, 2009 |work = London Review of Books |access-date = June 3, 2009 }} *{{cite news |first = Chris |last = Taylor |url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1066904-1,00.html |title = It's a Wiki, Wiki World |date = May 29, 2005 |work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date = February 22, 2008 }} *{{cite news |url = https://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11484062 |title = Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist |work = [[The Economist]] |date = June 5, 2008 |access-date = June 5, 2008 |quote = Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? }} *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-24613608 "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries"], BBC News, October 21, 2013. *[http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/520446/the-decline-of-wikipedia/ "The Decline of Wikipedia"], ''MIT Technology Review'', October 22, 2013 *[http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/city-hall/2015/03/8563947/edits-wikipedia-pages-bell-garner-diallo-traced-1-police-plaza "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1{{nbsp}}Police Plaza"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313150951/http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/city-hall/2015/03/8563947/edits-wikipedia-pages-bell-garner-diallo-traced-1-police-plaza |date=March 13, 2015 }} (March 2015), ''[[Media in New York's Capital District|Capital]]'' *[https://motherboard.vice.com/read/wikipedia-zero-facebook-free-basics-angola-pirates-zero-rating Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems] (March 2016), ''[[Vice (magazine)|Motherboard]]'' *{{cite web |url=http://fullmeasure.news/news/politics/dark-side-of-wikipedia |title=Dark Side of Wikipedia |access-date=April 17, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804110601/http://fullmeasure.news/news/politics/dark-side-of-wikipedia |archive-date=August 4, 2016 |url-status=dead }} ''[[Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson]]'', April 17, 2016. <small>(Includes video.)</small> *{{cite web |last1 = Wales |first1 = Jimmy |title = How Wikipedia Works |url = https://www.cato.org/multimedia/cato-daily-podcast/how-wikipedia-works |website = cato.org |publisher = [[Cato Institute]] |date = December 9, 2016 |quote = Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. }} {{refend}} ==== Articles re Wikipedia usage patterns ==== *[https://gizmodo.com/wikipedias-yearend-list-shows-what-the-internet-needed-1840690794 Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019]. Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. *[https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/is-wikipedia-cracking-up-1543527.html "Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?"] ''The Independent'', February 3, 2009. == External links == {{sister project links|collapsible=true|Wikipedia|voy=Wikivoyage:Cooperating with Wikipedia|d=Q52|s=Category:Wikipedia|n=Category:Wikipedia|m=Wikipedia|mw=Wikipedia|species=no}} *{{official website|https://www.wikipedia.org|mobile=https://en.m.wikipedia.org}} – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) (wikipedia.com still redirects here) *{{Curlie|Computers/Open_Source/Open_Content/Encyclopedias/Wikipedia}} *{{Guardian topic}} *[http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/business/companies/wikipedia/index.html Wikipedia] topic page at ''[[The New York Times]]'' *[http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/jimmy_wales_on_the_birth_of_wikipedia.html Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia] {{Wikipedia|state=expanded}} {{Wikis}} {{Wikimedia Foundation}} {{Wikipedias}} {{Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation}} {{Authority control}} 9v2ghx9ysav4arw2umzak3tx0jmy31a User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases 2 120029 519315 518049 2022-07-30T20:20:01Z Markjgraham hmb 50568 wikitext text/x-wiki *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The origins of U.S. nuclear strategy, 1945-1953|The origins of U.S. nuclear strategy, 1945-1953]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The origins of U.S. nuclear strategy, 1945-1953/grobid|grobid]] [68 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The origins of U.S. nuclear strategy, 1945-1953/anystyle|anystyle]] [67 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The origins of U.S. nuclear strategy, 1945-1953/awk|awk]] [63 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Oxford Illustrated History Of The Book|The Oxford Illustrated History Of The Book]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Oxford Illustrated History Of The Book/grobid|grobid]] [33 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Oxford Illustrated History Of The Book/anystyle|anystyle]] [36 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Animal Languages|Animal Languages]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Animal Languages/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Data Detective|The Data Detective]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Data Detective/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Chasing Doctor Dolittle|Chasing Doctor Dolittle]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Chasing Doctor Dolittle/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Matter of Facts|A Matter of Facts]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Matter of Facts/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Selective Bibliography Nuclear War December 1982|A Selective Bibliography Nuclear War December 1982]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Selective Bibliography Nuclear War December 1982/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Disarmament Supplement No. 1 1975 1981|Disarmament Supplement No. 1 1975 1981]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Disarmament Supplement No. 1 1975 1981/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Most Remarkable Creature|A Most Remarkable Creature]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/A Most Remarkable Creature/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Burning The Books|Burning The Books]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Burning The Books/grobid|grobid]] [18 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Burning The Books/anystyle|anystyle]] [28 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Empire of Pain|Empire of Pain]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Empire of Pain/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Bats Sing, Mice Giggle|Bats Sing, Mice Giggle]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Bats Sing, Mice Giggle/grobid|grobid]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Mauritanian|The Mauritanian]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Mauritanian/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Mauritanian/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Restricted Data|Restricted Data]] ** [[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Restricted Data/grobid|grobid]] [75 links] ** [[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Restricted Data/anystyle|anystyle]] [80 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Intertwingled : The Work and Influence of Ted Nelson|Intertwingled : The Work and Influence of Ted Nelson]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Intertwingled : The Work and Influence of Ted Nelson/grobid|grobid]] [1 link] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Intertwingled : The Work and Influence of Ted Nelson/anystyle|anystyle]] [3 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Promise of Access|The Promise of Access]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Promise of Access/grobid|grobid]] [12 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Promise of Access/anystyle|anystyle]] [21 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/How Stella Learned To Talk|How Stella Learned To Talk]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/How Stella Learned To Talk/grobid|grobid]] [0 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/How Stella Learned To Talk/anystyle|anystyle]] [0 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Nuclear Folly|Nuclear Folly]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Nuclear Folly/grobid|grobid]] [12 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Nuclear Folly/anystyle|anystyle]] [43 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Tyranny Of Big Tech|The Tyranny Of Big Tech]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Tyranny Of Big Tech/grobid|grobid]] [10 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Tyranny Of Big Tech/anystyle|anystyle]] [31 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Madam Speaker, Nancy Pelosi and the Lessons of Power|Madam Speaker, Nancy Pelosi and the Lessons of Power]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Madam Speaker, Nancy Pelosi and the Lessons of Power/grobid|grobid]] [15 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Madam Speaker, Nancy Pelosi and the Lessons of Power/anystyle|anystyle]] [14 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Music, Math and Mind|Music, Math and Mind]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Music, Math and Mind/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Music, Math and Mind/anystyle|anystyle]] [10 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Sea People|Sea People]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Sea People/grobid|grobid]] [7 links] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Sea People/anystyle|anystyle]] [4 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cold War Radio|Cold War Radio]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cold War Radio/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cold War Radio/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New Climate War|The New Climate War]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New Climate War/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New Climate War/anystyle|anystyle]] [23 links] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Noise|Noise]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Noise/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Noise/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Ground Breaking|The Ground Breaking]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Ground Breaking/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Ground Breaking/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/War Made Easy|War Made Easy]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/War Made Easy/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/War Made Easy/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Hoax|Hoax]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Hoax/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Hoax/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Covid Airborn Paper|Covid Airborn Paper]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Covid Airborn Paper/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Covid Airborn Paper/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cadillac Desert|Cadillac Desert]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cadillac Desert/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Cadillac Desert/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Rise and Fall of Osama Bin Laden|The Rise and Fall of Osama Bin Laden]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Rise and Fall of Osama Bin Laden/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Rise and Fall of Osama Bin Laden/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Until Proven Safe|Until Proven Safe]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Until Proven Safe/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Until Proven Safe/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Animals Best Friend|Animals Best Friend]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Animals Best Friend/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Animals Best Friend/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Reign of Terror|Reign of Terror]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Reign of Terror/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Reign of Terror/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Life-Changing Science of Detecting Bullshit|The Life-Changing Science of Detecting Bullshit]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Life-Changing Science of Detecting Bullshit/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Life-Changing Science of Detecting Bullshit/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Spike|Spike]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Spike/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Spike/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/COVID-19|COVID-19]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/COVID-19/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/COVID-19/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Pandemic Century|The Pandemic Century]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Pandemic Century/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Pandemic Century/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dead Epidemiologists|Dead Epidemiologists]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dead Epidemiologists/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dead Epidemiologists/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases//The Origins of COVID-19|The Origins of COVID-19]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Origins of COVID-19/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Origins of COVID-19/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Dawn of Everything|The Dawn of Everything]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Dawn of Everything/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Dawn of Everything/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dangerious Ideas|Dangerious Ideas]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dangerious Ideas/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Dangerious Ideas/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Putin's Playbook|Putin's Playbook]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Putin's Playbook/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Putin's Playbook/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Real Anthony Fauci|The Real Anthony Fauci]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Real Anthony Fauci/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Real Anthony Fauci/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Library|The Library]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Library/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Library/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Bibliography of The Holocaust|Bibliography of The Holocaust]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Bibliography of The Holocaust/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Bibliography of The Holocaust/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Step into the Metaverse|Step into the Metaverse]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Step into the Metaverse/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Step into the Metaverse/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/History in the Age of Abundance|History in the Age of Abundance]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/History in the Age of Abundance/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/History in the Age of Abundance/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Internet Is Not What You Think It Is|The Internet Is Not What You Think It Is]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Internet Is Not What You Think It Is/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Internet Is Not What You Think It Is/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy|The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (3rd Edition) - OCR|The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (3rd Edition) - OCR]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (3rd Edition) - OCR/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (3rd Edition) - OCR/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New World Information and Communication Order|The New World Information and Communication Order]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New World Information and Communication Order/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/The New World Information and Communication Order/anystyle|anystyle]] *[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters|Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters/grobid|grobid]] **[[User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters/anystyle|anystyle]] o8wqe0sr61ekz7qqimcuyu98xppqcdj User:GreenC/bookrun 2 120627 519330 518648 2022-07-30T23:57:36Z Markjgraham hmb 50568 wikitext text/x-wiki BOT={page=User:Markjgraham_hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters/grobid |parsengine=grobid |linkengine=lamp} {{Doc}} t1u9f8u18gy7af1np06ypbhatugutw1 519332 519330 2022-07-31T00:03:20Z GreenC bot 50988 BOT=STOP (Run request by Markjgraham hmb completed) wikitext text/x-wiki BOT=STOP {{Doc}} a2gdae6psor4pzt08guv4my8pp0vylx Mwbot-rs/Save 0 122864 519311 519264 2022-07-30T18:12:37Z Mwbot-rs test 52001 Test suite edit wikitext text/x-wiki It has been 1659204757 seconds since the epoch. eppzcmwu29gf30n9hmqscthe1f8ourk 519312 519311 2022-07-30T18:13:43Z Mwbot-rs test 52001 Test suite edit wikitext text/x-wiki It has been 1659204823 seconds since the epoch. 0p1yjghwvn5tutfuhizmbuw60sp5b6a 519313 519312 2022-07-30T18:15:21Z Mwbot-rs test 52001 Test suite edit wikitext text/x-wiki It has been 1659204921 seconds since the epoch. lpcp48qomzqe2p5lrvc4iey6kt7je1z 519314 519313 2022-07-30T18:15:44Z Mwbot-rs test 52001 Test suite edit wikitext text/x-wiki It has been 1659204944 seconds since the epoch. i77ixz2b8icnzxw8n6ke3lfxzvg3fdx User:Yahya/common.js 2 123139 519329 515876 2022-07-30T21:03:16Z Yahya 44996 Replaced content with "mw.loader.load('//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Alexis_Jazz/EditNoticesOnMobile.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript');" javascript text/javascript mw.loader.load('//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Alexis_Jazz/EditNoticesOnMobile.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); tanszl1i9pl8lfutphtc3afhcdffy5j User:SongVĩ.Bot II 2 124239 519307 519260 2022-07-30T17:00:08Z SongVĩ.Bot II 52414 [[User:SongVĩ.Bot II|Task 0]]: Đã 215 ngày... wikitext text/x-wiki Cập nhật lần cuối: 30-07-2022 Đã 215 ngày... 326barb5v1bmo1f0cyuoxv1aac9a02k User:PhantomTech/sandbox 2 127427 519333 519280 2022-07-31T04:17:53Z PhantomTech 27808 test wikitext text/x-wiki test test test this is a test c3d0p6uo1hfbnnbuxu2xru4t239e3gz 519341 519333 2022-07-31T05:22:14Z PhantomTech 27808 test wikitext text/x-wiki test test is a test added test ncthtwy6g3k7o3m5zj3v95j0gmok90e User:Xaosflux/common.js 2 127544 519283 2022-07-30T14:32:40Z Xaosflux 101 test javascript text/javascript mw.loader.load('//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ankit18gupta/Editwizard.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); 89fjvjfgv82oymkawpssdvppus19g6w 519284 519283 2022-07-30T14:34:38Z Xaosflux 101 clear javascript text/javascript /*cleared*/ ngvw6lx6xjwane5q7wex075dsashgnc 519285 519284 2022-07-30T14:35:12Z Xaosflux 101 test javascript text/javascript mw.loader.load('//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ankit18gupta/Editwizard.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); 89fjvjfgv82oymkawpssdvppus19g6w 519298 519285 2022-07-30T14:47:31Z Xaosflux 101 off javascript text/javascript /*cleared*/ ngvw6lx6xjwane5q7wex075dsashgnc User:John Vandenberg/createonly/1659191888.6746702 2 127545 519290 2022-07-30T14:38:18Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot 7.6.0.dev2 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 Topic:X0ac8sq12vzacfja 2600 127546 519291 2022-07-30T14:38:29Z Flow talk page manager 26836 /* This page has been converted into a Structured Discussions board */ flow-board application/json {"flow-workflow":"x0ac8sq12vzacfja"} taxzrzw7lulcdz0k3u1qnijwv10h17e User:John Vandenberg/createonly/1659192089.7635863 2 127547 519296 2022-07-30T14:41:39Z Pywikibot-test 23124 Pywikibot 7.6.0.dev2 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 Topic:X0acfiibivovk1ji 2600 127548 519297 2022-07-30T14:41:50Z Flow talk page manager 26836 /* This page has been converted into a Structured Discussions board */ flow-board application/json {"flow-workflow":"x0acfiibivovk1ji"} 9o8dh3amdlecrc6b9slyguyakxv6gaa User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters 2 127549 519316 2022-07-30T20:20:18Z Markjgraham hmb 50568 Created page with "Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States..." wikitext text/x-wiki Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 192; “Remarks prepared by Lewis L. Strauss,” United States Atomic Energy Commission, September 16, 1954, 9, https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1613/ML16131A120.pdf; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 88–90. 3. “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Marton Dunai and Geert De Clercq, “Nuclear Energy Too Slow, Too Expensive to Save Climate: Report,” Reuters, September 23, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-nuclearpower/nuclear-energy-too-slow-too-expensive-to-save-climate-report-idUSKBN1W909J; Amory B. Lovins, “Why Nuclear Power’s Failure in the Marketplace is Irreversible (Fortunately for Nonproliferation and Climate Protection),” in Nuclear Power and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, ed. Paul L. Levinthal, Sharon Tanzer, and Steven Dolley (Washington, DC, 2002), 69–84. 4. George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA, 1999); “Iran and the NPT,” Iran Primer, United States Institute of Peace, https://iranprimer.usip.org/index.php/blog/2020/jan/22/iran-and-npt. 5. World Energy Model. Scenario Analysis of Future Energy Trends, International Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-model/sustainable-development-scenario; “Where Does Our Electricity Come From?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/where-does-our-electricity-come-from.aspx; “European Commission declares nuclear and gas to be green,” Deutche Welle, February 2, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/european-commission-declares-nuclear-and-gas-to-be-green/a-60614990. 6. “Electricity Explained,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php; “How Can Nuclear Combat Climate Change?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/how-can-nuclear-combat-climate-change.aspx. 7. “Nuclear Energy in the U.S.: Expensive Source Competing with Cheap Gas and Renewables,” Climate Nexus, https://climatenexus.org/climate-news-archive/nuclear-energy-us-expensive-source-competing-cheap-gas-renewables/; Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 247–55; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 2–5. 8. “General Overview Worldwide, “The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2019, https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-HTML.html. 9. Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 117–18. 10 “INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf; “Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15. Chapter I. WHITE ASHES: BIKINI ATOLL 1. Steve Weintz, “Think Your Job Is Rough? Try Disabling a Nuclear Bomb,” The National Interest, January 7, 2020; John C. Clark as told to Robert Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” Saturday Evening Post (July 20, 1957), 17–19, 64–66, here 17. 2. Major General P. W. Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army, 1954), 121. 3. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 18–19. 4. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 64. 5. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 65–66. 6. Bill Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” Saturday Evening Post (April 19, 1952), 32–33, 185–88, here 33, 186; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 8–32. 7. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1986), 428–42; “Alvin Graves,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/alvin-graves; Michael Drapa, “A witness to atomic history: Ted Petry recounts the world’s first nuclear reaction at UChicago, 75 years later,” University of Chicago, November 13, 2017, https://www.uchicago.edu/features/a_witness_to_atomic_history/. 8. DeGroot, The Bomb, 37–65, 82–105. 9. Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33; Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” Saturday Review of Literature, August 18, 1945, reprinted in Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York, 1967), 120–30; DeGroot, The Bomb, 74–75. 10 Philip L. Fradkin, Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (Tucson, AZ, 1989), 89–91, 256; Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33, 186; “Floy Agnes Lee’s Interview,” Voices of the Manhattan Project, 11–12, https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/floy-agnes-lees-interview. 11 Fradkin, Fallout, 106–11; Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (The Woodlands, TX, 1986), 363; Operation Upshot-Knothole Fact Sheet (Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, July 2007). 12 De Groot, The Bomb, 162–84. 13 “Percy Clarkson, General, 68, Dies,” New York Times, September 15, 1962, 25. 14 Richard Rh odes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 1995), 482–512. 15 “Interview with Edward Teller,” National Security Archive, Episode 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/coldwar/interviews/episode-8/teller1.html; Rhodes, Dark Sun, 541–42; DeGroot, The Bomb, 177–79. 16 Alex Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953),” Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog, February 8, 2012; We llerstein, Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States (Chicago, 2021), 241–44, 248; Thomas Kunkle and Byron Ristvet, Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore. A Guide to Off-Site Radiation Exposures (Kirtland AFB, NM: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, January 2013), 49, 51. 17 Laura A. Bruno, “The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 33, no. 2 (2003): 237–60, here 246; W. G. Van Dorn, Ivy-Mike: The First Hydrogen Bomb (Bloomington, IN, 2008), 13, 36, 43–44, 170–71; Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953).” 18 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 10, 54. 19 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 4–8. 20 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 6; Ma rtha Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War (Honolulu, 2016), 44–50; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 17. 21 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 30–31. 22 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 220–29. 23 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 88; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 79–80, 81, 135. 24 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 44–47, 108. 25 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 31; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 119. 26 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 181; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 2, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a995409.pdf; Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 27 Walmer E. Strope quoted in “Castle-Bravo Nuclear Test Fallout Cover-Up,” https://glasstone.blogspot.com/2010/09/castle-bravo-nuclear-test-fallout-cover.html. 28 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3: Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 118. 29 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 51–52. 30 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 1–2. 31 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout”; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 32 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 33 Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3, 4. 34 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy (Cambridge, 2017), 56–57; “Race for the Superbomb,” transcript, American Experience, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/bomb/#transcript; “World’s Biggest Bomb,” transcript, Secrets of the Dead, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-worlds-biggest-bomb-watch-the-full-episode/863/; Bill Bryson, The Life and Times of Thunderbolt Kid: A Memoir (New York, 2006), 123–24. 35 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121–23. 36 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 37 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121; Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 4. 38 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 39 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 107, 109. 40 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 41 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 111–12; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 6. 42 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 43 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 8–9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 126; Operation CASTLE Commander’s Report, https://archive.org/details/CastleCommandersReport1954. 44 Jack Niedenthal, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands (Boulder, CO: Bravo Publishers, 2001). 45 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 74; Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders (New York, 1998), 25. 46 Stewart Firth, Nuclear Playground (Sydney, 1987), 16. 47 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 73–74; Dibblin, Day of Two Suns, 24–25. 48 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115. 49 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127. 50 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 122–24; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 51 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 52 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130. 53 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 54, 137. 54 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 55 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 110; Beverly Deepe Keever, “The Largest Nuclear Bomb in U.S. History Still Shakes Rongelap Atoll and Its Displaced People 50 Years Later,” The Other News: Voices Against the Tide, February 4, 2005, https://www.other-news.info/2005/02/the-largest-nuclear-bomb-in-us-history-still-shakes-rongelap-atoll-and-its-displaced-people-50-years-later-beverly-deepe-keever/. 56 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 57 Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York, 1958), 6–26; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012. 58 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 59 Matashichi Ōishi, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I (Honolulu, HI, 2011), 18–19. 60 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 136. 61 Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 27–54; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 27; James R. Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 9 (1954): 347–48. 62 Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” 347–48; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 67–68. 63 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 64 Lora Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb (London, 2001), 19–20. 65 “Statement of Lewis Strauss,” March 22, 1955, AEC-FCDA Relationship: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1955), 6–9; Wellerstein, Restricted Data, 247–48. 66 Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb, 20; “H-Bomb Can Wipe Out Any City, Strauss Reports after Tests,” New York Times, April 1, 1954, 1. 67 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 71–72. 68 Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953)”; “Operation Castle, 1954,” film produced by Joint Task Force 7, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfbHwj71k48. 69 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 132, 135–37. 70 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 140; “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground,” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html. 71 “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground”; Timothy J. Jorgensen, Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation (Princeton, NJ, 2016), 170–73; Rhodes, , 541–43. 72 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 130, 190–91. 73 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 80–82. 74 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 143; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 82–83. 75 Clark son, History of Operation Castle, 143; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 76 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 83. 77 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 131–32; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 86–90; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 119–20; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership: The History of the RMI’s Bilateral Relationship with the United States,” https://web.archive.org/web/20160424042410/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm. 78 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 18; Calin Georgescu, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,” Mission to the Marshall Islands (March 27–30, 2012) and the United States of America (April 24–27, 2012), 5, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-48-Add1_en.pdf; “Zhertvy amerikanskikh ispytanii atomnogo i vodorodnogo oruzhiia,” Pravda, July 8, 1954, 3. 79 “Atomnoe oruzhie dolzhno byt’ zapreshcheno,” Pravda, February 8, 1955. 80 Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, 1957–1985 (New York, 1986), 14–15; Ralph E. Lapp, “Civil Defense Faces New Peril,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9 (November 1954): 349–51; Ralph Lapp, “Radioactive Fallout,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1 (February 1955): 45–51. 81 “The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, London, 9 July 1955,” Student Pugwash, Michigan, http://umich.edu/~pugwash/Manifesto.html. 82 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 50–613; Fradkin, Fallout, 91; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 42; Louis Henry Hempelman, Clarence C. Lushbaugh, and George L. Voelz, “What Has Happened to the Survivors of the Early Los Alamos Nuclear Accidents?” Conference for Radiation Accident Preparedness, Oak Ridge, TN, October 19, 1979 (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, October 2, 1979), https://www.orau.org/ptp/pdf/accidentsurvivorslanl.pdf; https://web.archive.org/web/20130218012525/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/factsheets/Upshot_Knothole.pdf. 83 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch”; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 129. 84 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 75–77, 86–92. 85 James N. Yamazaki with Louise B. Fleming, Children of the Atomic Bomb: An American Physician’s Memoir of Nagasaki, Hiroshima and the Marshall Islands (Durham, NC, 1995), 109–12; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 41; Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: A Chernobyl Guide to the Future (New York, 2019), 244–45. 86 Robert A. Conard, “Fallout: The Experiences of a Medical Team in the Care of Marshallese Population Accidentally Exposed to Fallout Radiation,” iii, https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/23/053/23053209.pdf?r=1&r=1; Steven L. Simon, André Bouville, and Charles E. Land, “Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 Years Ago Still Have Health Implications Today That Will Continue into the Future,” American Scientist 94, no. 1 (January 2006): 48–57; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 79–82. 87 Fi rth, Nuclear Playground, 19–20; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 61–74. 88 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 46–48, 67–69; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 92–95; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership.” Chapter II. NORTHERN LIGHTS: KYSHTYM 1. Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 167–68, 193–94; Alex Wellerstein, “A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name,” New Yorker, January 8, 2016; “Soviet Hydrogen Bomb Program,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-hydrogen-bomb-program. 2. “Resumption of Nuclear Tests by Soviet Union,” Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 422–28, here Appendix, 425–27. 3. Iu. V. Gaponov, “Igor’ Vasil’evich Kurchatov: The Scientist and Doer (January 12, 1903–February 7, 1960),” Physics of Atomic Nuclei 66, no. 1 (2003): 3–7. 4. DeGroot, The Bomb, 125–30; Vladimir Gobarev, Sekretnyi atom (Moscow, 2006), 75; “Institut Kurchatova poluchil dokumenty iz arkhiva SVR po atomnomu proektu SSSR,” RIA Novosti, July 17, 2019, https://ria.ru/20190917/1558762897.html. 5. E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28, here 916–17. 6. “Kyshtym,” Moi gorod, Narodnaia ėntsiklopediia gorodov i regionov Rosiii, http://www.mojgorod.ru/cheljab_obl/kyshtym/index.html; “Gorod s osoboi sud’boi,” Ozerskii gorodskoi okrug, http://www.ozerskadm.ru/city/history/index.php. 7. Kate Brown, Pl utopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 87–123; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 8. “Dokladnaia zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, B. G. Muzurukova, E. P. Slavskogo na imia L. P. Berii ob osushchestvlenii reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817 pri nalichii vody v tekhologicheskikh kanalakh,” June 11, 1948; Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev, vol. 2, Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954, bk. 1 (Moscow, 1999), 635–36; Mikhail Grabovskii, Plutonieva zona (Moscow, 2002), 20. 9. V. I. Shevchenko, “Kak prostoi rabochii,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 84–86; B. V. Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia sosluzhivtsa (Ozersk/Cheliabinsk 65, 1995), 18; Zhores Medvedev and Roi Medvedev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 2005), 336. 10 Kurchatovskii Institut: Istoriia iadernogo proekta (Moscow, 1998), 65; E. P. Slavskii, “Nashei moshchi, nashei sily boiatsia,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, April 4, 1998, 16. 11 Gennady Gorelik, “The Riddle of the Third Idea: How Did the Soviets Build a Thermonuclear Bomb So Suspiciously Fast?” Scientific American, August 21, 2011; Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 428; A. V. Artizov, “Poslednee interv’iu E. P. Slavskogo,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 381–82. 12 Richard Lourie, Sakharov: A Biography (Lexington, MA, 2018). 13 Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York, 1990), 98–100, 190–92. 14 Brown, Plutopia, 115–23, 214; Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 2008 Report to the General Assembly, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2011, Annex C: Radiation exposures in accidents, 3, https://web.archive.org/web/20130531015743/http:/www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_C.pdf. 15 Brown, Plutopia, 189–96; Vladislav Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” problema na veka (Moscow, 2001), 34–42; Vitalii Tolstikov and Irina Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale po vospominaniiam ikh uchastnikov,” Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 405 (2016): 137–41, here 137; V. I. Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala (Ekaterinburg, 2000), 66–71. 16 Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44; Thomas B. Cochran, Robert Standish Norris, and Kristen L. Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 18, 1 (November 2003): 507–28, here, 511–15. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 282–83; Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44. 18 Valerii Ivanovich Komarov in Sled 57-go goda: Sbornik vospominanii likvidatorov avarii 1957 goda na PO “Maiak” (Ozersk, 2007), 30–37. 19 Valentina Dmitrievna Malaia (Cherevkova) in Sled 57-go goda, 42–43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 20 Igor Fedorovich Serov in Sled 57-go goda, 44–47; Semen Fedorovich Osotin and Lidiia Pavlovna Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14; M. Filippova, “Ozerskoi divizii–55, [v/ch 3273],” Pro Maiak, August 25, 2006, 3, http://www.lib.csu.ru/vch/1/1999_01/009.pdf; http://libozersk.ru/pbd/ozerskproekt/politics/filippova.html; Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale: Istoricheskie otsenki i dokumenty (Ekaterinburg, 2017), 132. 21 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20–21. 22 Valery Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered,” Moscow News, September 19, 2007, 12. 23 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 132; Osotin and Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14. 24 Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” 25 Vladimir Alekseevich Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 144–45; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 57–60. 26 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 133. 27 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 134. 28 Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, “Iadernaia katastrofa 1957 goda na Urale,” Magistra Vitae: ėlektronnyi zhurnal po istoricheskim naukam i arkheologii 1, no. 9 (1999): 84–95, here 86, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/yadernaya-katastrofa-1957-goda-na-urale; Nikolai Stepanovich Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 74–75. 29 Valentina Dmitrieva Malaia (Cherevkova), 43; Dim Iliasov in Sled 57-go goda, 64–65. 30 Il’ia Mitrofanovich Moshin, 70; Gurii Vasil’evich Baimon in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 31 Anatolii Vasil’evich Dubrovskii in Sled 57-go goda, 195–200. 32 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 36; “Semenov Nikolai Anatolievich,” Geroi atomnogo proekta (Sarov, 2005), 334–35. 33 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 27; “N. S. Khrushchev. Khronologiia 1953–1964. Sostavlena po ofitsial’nym publikatsiiam. 1957 god,” in Nikita Khrushchev, Vospominaniia: vremia, liudi, vlast’ (Moscow, 2016), vol. 2. 34 Anatolii D’iachenko, Opalennye pri sozdanii iadernogo shchita Rodiny (Moscow, 2009), 227. 35 Sakharov, Memoirs, 213. 36 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 20–21; P. A. Zhuravlev, “Moi Atomnyi vek,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka, Slavskii, 91. 37 Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 78. 38 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 38; Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 77. 39 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 40 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 52; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 139–40. 41 Evgenii Ivanovich Andreev in Sled 57-go goda, 87–88. 42 Iurii Aleksandrovich Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180. 43 Dim Fatkulbaianovich Il’iasov, 65; Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 44 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 39; Vasilii Ivanovich Moiseev in Sled 57-go goda, 68. 45 Sokhina in S led 57-go goda, 12–13. 46 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148; Brown, Plutopia, 234; “Shtefan Petr Tikhonovich,” Geroi strany, http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero_id=13972. 47 Mikhail Gladyshev, Plutonii dlia atomnoi bomby, 43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 48 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 167, 171, 193; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 59; Mikhail Kel’manovich Sandratskii, in Sled 57-go goda, 93. 49 Vasilii Ivanovich Shevchenko in Sled 57-go goda, 29. 50 Boris Mitrofanovich Semov in Sled 57-go goda, 107–8. 51 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 154–59; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 137. 52 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 53 R. R. Aspand’iarova, “Avtomobilisty—likvidatory,” in Sled 57-go goda, 51–52; Iurii Andreevich Shestakov in Sled 57-go goda, 98; Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 145. 54 Sokhhina in Sled 57-go goda, 16; Konstantin Ivanovich Tikhonov in Sled 57-go goda, 103; Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 193; Brown, Plutopia, 236; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 55 Brown, Plutopia, 235–36. 56 Brown, Plutopia, 236–37; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 195. 57 “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019. 58 Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 59 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 196–97. 60 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 218. 61 Brown, Plutopia, 240; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 45, 149–51, 220. 62 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 28. 63 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 220, 224–25. 64 Gennadiii Vasil’evich Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 122–24; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 176, 271. 65 Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 125–26; Leonid Ivanovich Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127–28; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 173. 66 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 216, 222–25; Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127. 67 Brown, Plutopia, 241–46; Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala, 68; Regina Khissamova and Sergei Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone. 60 let posle Kyshtymskoi katastrofy,” Nastoiashchee vremia, https://www.currenttime.tv/a/28769685.html. 68 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 213, 214. 69 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 274–81. 70 Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 18; Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 135–37. 71 “Akt komissii po rassledovaniiu prichin vzryva v khranilishche radioaktivnykh otkhodov kombinata 817,” in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138–46; Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 17–18. 72 “Prikaz dire ktora gosudarstvennogo ordena Lenina khimicheskogo za­­v­oda imeni Mendeleeva,” November 15, 1957, in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138; Nikolai Alekseevich Sekretov in Sled 57-go goda, 185; “Dem’ianovich Mikhail Antonovich,” Ėntsiklopadiia Cheliabinskoi oblasti, http://chel-portal.ru/?site=encyclopedia&t=Demyanovich&id=2632. 73 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 37. 74 Brown, Plutopia, 244; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285. 75 Utkin et al., Ra dioaktivnye bedy Urala, 66–71; Cheliabinskaia oblast: Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii, ed. A. V. Akleev (Cheliabinsk, 2006), 49–51; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 231; Brown, Plutopia, 239–46; Khissamova and Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone.” 76 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 201–2. 77 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285–98; “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019; Pavel Raspopov, “Vostochno-ural’skii radiatsionnyi zapovednik,” Uraloved, April 22, 2011. 78 Daria Litvinova, “Human rights activist forced to flee Russia following TV ‘witch-hunt’,” The Guardian, October 20, 2015; Izol’da Drobina, “Iadovitoe oblako prishlo s Maiaka,” Novaia gazeta, September 29, 2020. 79 Cochran, Norris, and Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” 522. Chapter III. A VERY ENGLISH FIRE: WINDSCALE 1. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1955–1957, Western Europe and Canada, vol. 27, no. 304. 2. Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Shock of the Century (New York, 2001), 108–90. 3. Paul H. Septimus, Nuclea r Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 (Columbus, OH, 2000), 9–93. 4. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 72–198; John Baylis, Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945–1964 (New York, 1995), 67–240; Margaret Gowing, assisted by Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, vol. 1, Policy Making (London, 1974). 5. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957; Nigel J. Ashton, “Harold Macmillan and the ‘Golden Days’ of Anglo-American Relations Revisited, 1957–63,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 4 (September 2005): 691–723, here 699–702. 6. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 87–159, 168. 7. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 16–193. 8. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No. 10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Peter Hennessy, Cabinets and the Bomb (London, 2007), 45–46; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2015), 32. 9. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 55–71. 10 Margaret Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 36 (December 1990): 218–39. 11 Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident, 3d ed. (New York, 2007), 8–11. 12 John Harris inte rviewed in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster,” 2007 BBC Documentary, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5cDiqVHW7Y; G. A. Polukhin, Atomnyi pervenets Rossii: PO “Maiak,” Istoricheskie ocherki (Ozersk, 1998), 1: 83–137; Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 121–22. 13 Jean McSorley, Living in the Shadow: The Story of the People of Sellafield (London, 1990), 13, 23. 14 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 15 Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 497–500, 547–48, 557–60. 16 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 190–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 9–11. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents . A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 160–63; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15–16. 18 Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 439–42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 164–65, 169; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 12–13. 19 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 13–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 165–66. 20 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 17–18. 21 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 449–50; Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 188–98; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath (New York, 2006), 29–48. 22 “Queen Visits Calder Hall” (1956) Newsreel, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey9envpF_TE; Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” 230–32. 23 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 193, 446; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 41. 24 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7–18, 32, 34–35; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 167–68. 25 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 35. 26 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 36–37. 27 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 30–31. 28 William Penney et al., “Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957,” Journal of Radiological Protection 37, no. 3 (2017): 780–96, here 780; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 33–34, 42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 172. 29 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 44–46. 30 Kara Rogers, “1957 Flu Pandemic,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Asian-flu-of-1957. 31 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 783; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173. 32 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 784; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 47–48; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173–75; Roy Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” New Scientist (October 14, 1982): 84–86, here 85. 33 Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1–2. 34 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 2. 35 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents,175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1. 36 Tom Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4, 12; David Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy: Windscale Manager Who Doused the Flames of the 1957 Fire,” Independent, March 26, 2008. 37 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 17; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; Tuohy in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 38 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5, 10; Tuohy interviewed in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” two-part documentary, ITV production, pt. 1 (2007). 39 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5. 40 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 41 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6. 42 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7. 43 Neville Ramsden in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 1 (2007). 44 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Tuohy in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 45 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 46 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50–51. 47 Jack Coyle in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 11. 48 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 8–9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 49 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Alan Daugherty in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 50 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 52. 51 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 58–59. 52 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Emergency Site Procedure at Windscale, Appendix VII, Windscale 1957, 176–77; Hartley Howe, “Accident at Windscale: The World’s First Atomic Alarm,” Popular Science (October 1958): 92–95. 53 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 790; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53–54. 54 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13–14. 55 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43. 56 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; “Persians Cannot Run Refinery,” Canberra Times, October 6, 1951; Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York, 2008), 62–82. 57 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “Uranium Rods Overheated in Pile,” Whitehaven News, October 11, 1957; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 58 “No Public Danger Announcement,” West Cumberland News, October 12, 1957. 59 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 93–94. 60 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 84. 61 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43–44. 62 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 69. 63 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86. 64 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 70. 65 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 791; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 55–58; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 94–95. 66 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 87; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 67 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 60. 68 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 63–66; Lord Sherfield, “William George Penney, O. M., K. B. E. Baron Penney of East Hendred, 24 June 1909–3 March 1991,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 39 (1994): 282–302. 69 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 67, 77. 70 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 71 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 173; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 787. 72 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 785, 792–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 84–85: “Prime Minister’s to Washington,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates, October 29, 1957, vol. 205, cc 545–46. 73 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 62, 82–83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 74 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 80–81; Steve Lohr, “Britain Suppressed Details of ’57 Atomic Disaster,” New York Times, January 2, 1988; Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 82. 75 “Windscale Atomic Plant Accident,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates November 21, 1957, vol. 206, cc 448–57. 76 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 77 Wilfrid E. Oulton, Christmas Island Cracker: An Account of the Planning and Execution of the British Thermonuclear Bomb Tests, 1957 (London, 1987). 78 Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 79 A. C. Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957,” Science of the Total Environment 63 (May 1987): 139–60; M. J. Crick and G. S. Linsley, “An assessment of the radiological impact of the Windscale reactor fire October 1957,” International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies 46 (November 1984): 479–506. For a comparison of Windscale radiation release with the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima fallouts, see Daniel Kunkel and Mark G. Lawrence, “Global risk of radioactive fallout after major nuclear reactor accidents,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12(9) (May 20212): 4245–4258, here 4247. 80 Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957”; A. Preston, J. W. R. Dutton, and B. R. Harvey, “Detection, Estimation and Radiological Significance of Silver-110m in Oysters in the Irish Sea and the Blackwater Estuary,” Nature 218 (1968): 689–90. 81 “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 82 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 789–90. 83 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 3. 84 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9–10; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 85 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; D. McGeoghegan, S. Whaley, K. Binks, M. Gillies, K. Thompson, D. M. McElvenny, “Mortality and cancer registration experience of the Sellafield workers known to have been involved in the 1957 Windscale accident: 50 year follow-up,” Journal of Radiological Protection 30, no. 3 (2010): 407–31. 86 “The incidence of childhood cancer around nuclear installations in Great Britain,” 10th Report, Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (2005), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/304596/COMARE10thReport.pdf. 87 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 159–60, 163; Robin McKie, “Sellafield: the most hazardous place in Europe,” The Guardian, April 18, 2009. 88 “Demolition starts on Windscale chimney,” Sellafield Ltd, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, February 28, 2019, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/demolition-starts-on-windscale-chimney; Paul Brown, “Windscale’s terrible legacy,” The Guardian, August 25, 1999. 89 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; “UK decommissioning agency lays out plans to 2019,” World Nuclear News, January 6, 2016, https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-UK-decommissioning-agency-lays-out-plans-to-2019-06011501.html; Sue Reid, “Britain’s nuclear inferno: How our own Government covered up Windscale reactor blaze that’s caused dozens of deaths and hundreds of cancer cases,” The Mail on Sunday, March 19, 2011. Chapter IV. ATOMS FOR PEACE: THREE MILE ISLAND 1. William G. Weart, “Eisenhower Hails Atoms for Peace. He Dedicates Shippingport Unit, First for Commercial Use, by Remote Control,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16. 2. “British Claim First,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16; V. Emelianov, “Atomnuiu energiiu na sluzhbu miru i progressu,” Pravda, August 31, 1956, 3. 3. Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 54–55; Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 46, 102; “UK Marks 60th Anniversary of Calder Hall,” World Nuclear News, October 18, 2016, https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/UK-marks-60th-anniversary-of-Calder-Hall. 4. Historic Achievement Recognized: Shippingport Atomic Power Station, A National Engineering Historical Landmark (Pittsburgh, PA, 1980); “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30; Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Ira Chernus, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station, TX, 2002), xi–xix, 79–118. 5. Hon. Chet Holifield, “Extension of Remarks, Dedication of Atomic Nuclear Power Plant,” Congressional Record, Appendix, May 29, 1958, A4977. 6. “The Price-Anderson Act,” Center for Nuclear Science and Technology Information, https://cdn.ans.org/policy/statements/docs/ps54-bi.pdf; David M. Rocchio, “The Price-Anderson Act: Allocation of the Extraordinary Risk of Nuclear Generated Electricity: A Model Punitive Damage Provision,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 14, no. 3 (1987): 521–60; “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30. 7. Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen, Rickover: Father of the Nuclear Navy (Washington, DC, 2007); Theodore Rockwell, The Rickover Effect: How One Man Made A Difference (Bloomington, IN, 2002), 115–98. 8. Harold Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, PBS, 1999, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s; cf. Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 9. The History of Nuclear Energy, Department of Energy (Washington, DC, n.d.), 14–17; “Nuclear Power in the USA,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/usa-nuclear-power.aspx; J. Samuel Walker, Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 2004), 3–7. 10 Luke Phillips, “Nixon’s Nuclear Energy Vision,” October 20, 2016, Richard Nixon Foundation, https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/10/26948/; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s. 11 Walker, Three Mile Island, 7–9; Steven L. Del Sesto, “The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power in the United States and the Limits of Regulation,” Technology in Society 4, no. 4 (1982): 295–314; James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York, 2010), notes 222, 223; “Nuclear Energy in France,” France Embassy in Washington, DC, https://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article637. 12 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films, https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/56125. 13 Sue Reilly, “A Disaster Movie Comes True,” People (April 16, 1979). 14 John G. Fuller, We Almost Lost Detroit (New York, 1976); Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (Princeton, NJ, 1999), 50–54; Marsha Freeman, “Who Killed U.S. Nuclear Power?” 21st Century Science and Technology Magazine (Spring 2001), https://21sci-tech.com/articles/spring01/nuclear_power.html; Walker, Three Mile Island, 4, 20–28. 15 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films; David Burnham, “Nuclear Experts Debate ‘The China Syndrome,’ ” New York Times, March 18, 1979, D1; Natasha Zaretsky, Radiation Nation: Three Mile Island and the Political Transformation of the 1970s (New York, 2018), 69–70 [notes 43–44]. 16 “The Babcock & Wilcox Company,” Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/babcock-wilcox-company; “A Corporate History of Three Mile Island,” Three Mile Island Alert, http://www.tmia.com/corp.historyTMI; Walker, Three Mile Island, 43–50. 17 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings before the Task Force of the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session. Hearings Held in Washington, DC, May 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1979, 119–20, 149, 159. 18 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant, 122–25, 160. 19 “Three Mile Island Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/three-mile-island-accident.aspx; James J. Duderstadt and Louis J. Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis (New York, 1976), 91–92; Walker, Three Mile Island, 71–72. 20 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 343–45. 21 Report of the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (Washington, DC, 1979), 27–28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 134; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents. A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 344; Walker, Three Mile Island, 74. 22 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 131–32; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330. 23 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346; Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76–77. 24 Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Report of the President’s Commission, 26–28. 25 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144. 26 Report of the President’s Commission, 28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 175; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346–47. 27 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 137; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330–32, 348; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76. 28 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 172–73; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78. 29 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 347; Walker, Three Mile Island, 77. 30 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 169, 172. 31 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176–79, 182–83; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 348–49; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78–79. 32 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 186–87; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 33 Bob Lang in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 34 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 183–84. 35 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144, 188. 36 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 350–51; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 190, 202, 204; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 37 Walker, Three Mile Island, 81–82. 38 Walker, Three Mile Island, 80–82; Dick Thornburgh, Where the Evidence Leads: An Autobiography (Pittsburgh, PA, 2003); “Dick Thornburgh,” Dick Thornburgh Papers, University of Pennsylvania, http://thornburgh.library.pitt.edu/biography.html. 39 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82; Mike Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 40 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of the US House of Representatives, Ninety-Seventh Congress, First Session, March 1981 (Washington, DC, 1981), 105–6, 123, 127. 41 Report of the President’s Commission, 126. 42 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82–83; William Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 43 Walker, Three Mile Island, 86–87; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 110, 115; Report of the President’s Commission, 129. 44 Report of the President’s Commission, 131; Walker, Three Mile Island, 97–99; Donald Janson, “Radiation Released at the Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania,” New York Times, March 29, 1979, A1, D22. 45 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 115–17; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Walker, Three Mile Island, 108; Report of the President’s Commission, 135. 46 Walker, Three Mile Island, 109–13; Report of the President’s Commission, 134. 47 Report of the President’s Commission, 139; Ben A. Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, A1 and A8; Walker, Three Mile Island, 127–29. 48 Dick Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 49 Report of the President’s Commission, 140; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 77–81. 50 Walker, Three Mile Island, 115–18, 130; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 51 Report of the President’s Commission, 138; Walker, Three Mile Island, 123–24. 52 Walker, Three Mile Island, 130–36; Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension”; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 53 Walker, Three Mile Island, 137. 54 Richard D. Lyons, “Children Evacuated,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, 1; “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 55 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 68–70. 56 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 70–72. 57 Report of the President’s Commission, 29; Walker, Three Mile Island, 140–45; Lyons, “Children Evacuated.” 58 Walker, Three Mile Island, 151–55. 59 Lyons, “Children Evacuated”; Bob Dvorchak and Harry Rosenthal, “AP Was There: Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Accident,” AP News, May 30, 2017, https://apnews.com/ca23009ea5b54f21a3fed04065cacc7e/AP-WAS-THERE:-Three-Mile-Island-nuclear-power-plant-accident; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39. 60 Marsha McHenry in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 61 Dvorchak and Rosenthal, “AP Was There”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39; Ken Myers in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 62 Report of the President’s Commission, 143. 63 Walker, Three Mile Island, 155–70; Richard Thornburgh press conference in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 64 Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? The First Fifty Years (Fayetteville, AR, 1996), 53–57. 65 Gordon Edwards, “Reactor Accidents at Chalk River: The Human Fallout,” Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, http://www.ccnr.org/paulson_legacy.html. 66 Carter, Why Not the Best?, 54; Carter, A Full Life: Reflections at Ninety (New York, 2015), 64–65. 67 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 94–102. 68 Carter, A Full Life, 64–65; Jimmy Carter, “Nuclear Energy and World Order,” Address at the United Nations, May 13, 1976, http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00150-7.pdf; Walker, Three Mile Island, 132–33. 69 Walker, Three Mile Island, 119–21, 145–48; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 70 Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 71 Walker, Three Mile Island, 147–50, 153–55, 167–69. 72 Walker, Three Mile Island, 170. 73 Mike Gray in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 74 Richard D. Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant; Urges Cooperation in Crisis; Some Experts Voice Optimism,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1, A14. 75 Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 76 Watson, Three Mile Island, 183–86. 77 Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, A1. 78 Steven Rattner, “Carter to Ask Tax on Oil and Release of Price Restraints,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, 1; Walker, Three Mile Island, 210. 79 Terence Smith, “President Names Panel to Assess Nuclear Mishap,” New York Times, April 12, 1979, A1; “The Kemeny Commission’s Duty,” New York Times, April 15, 1979; Seth Faison, “John Kemeny, 66, Computer Pioneer and Educator,” New York Times, December 27, 1992. 80 Ronald M. Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission,” Nuclear News, March 2004, 61–62; David Laprad, “From a Potato Farm, to the White House, to Signal Mountain,” Hamilton County Herald, March 26, 2010. 81 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission.” 82 Report of the President’s Commission, 11. 83 Report of the President’s Commission, 8, 17. 84 Report of the President’s Commission, 98. 85 Report of the President’s Commission, 14; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 92–94. 86 Report of the President’s Commission, 12; Walker, Three Mile Island, 231, 234–37; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 89. 87 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 209–25. 88 Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Peter T. Kilborn, “Babcock and Wilcox Worried,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1. 89 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone.” 90 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 355–56; Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Roger Mattson in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; “Three Mile Island – Unit 2,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/decommissioning/power-reactor/three-mile-island-unit-2.html. 91 “Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 1,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission; “Three Mile Island Unit 1 to Shut Down by September 30, 2019,” Exelon Newsroom, May 8, 2019, https://www.exeloncorp.com/newsroom/three-mile-island-unit-1-to-shut-down-by-september-30-2019; Taylor Romine, “The Famous Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Is Closing,” CNN, September 19, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/19/us/nuclear-three-mile-island-closing/index.html; Diane Cardwell and Jonathan Soble, “Westinghouse Files for Bankruptcy, in Blow to Nuclear Power,” New York Times, March 29, 2017. Chapter V. THE STAR OF APOCALYPSE: CHERNOBYL 1. Iu. S. Osipov, “A. P. Aleksandrov i Akademiia nauk,” in A. P. Aleksandrov, Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow, 2003), 111–17. 2. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Perspektivy ėnergetiki,” Izvestiia, April 10, 1979, 2–3. 3. Gennadii Gerasimov, “Uroki Garrisburge,” Sovetskaia kultura, April 17, 1979. Cf. “K avarii v Garrisburge,” Pravda, April 2, 1954, 5; “V pogone za pribyliami,” Pravda Ukrainy, April 3, 1979; “Skonchalsia diplomat i zhurnalist-mezhdunarodnik Gennadii Gerasimov,” RIA Novosti July 17, 2010, https://ria.ru/20100917/276562069.html. 4. “Vystuplenie tov. L. I. Brezhneva na Plenume TsK KPSS,” Pravda, November 28, 1979, 1–2; Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 46. 5. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Nauchno-tekhnicheskii progress i atomnaia ėnergetika,” Problemy mira i sotsializma, 1979, no. 6: 15–20; E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28; Josephson, Red Atom, 22–25. 6. N. Dollezha l and Iu. Koriakin, “Iadernaia ėnergetika: dostizheniia, problemy,” Kommunist, 1979, no. 14: 69; cf. N. Dollezhal and Iu. Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” Problems in Economics 23 (June 1980): 3–20; Josephson, Red Atom, 43–44. 7. Dollezhal and Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” 6; Joan T. Debardeleben, “Esoteric Policy Debate: Nuclear Safety Issues in the Soviet Union and German Democratic Republic,” British Journal of Political Science 15, no. 2 (April 1985): 227–53; Nikolai Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira (zapiski konstruktora) (Moscow, 2010), 194–96. 8. Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 916–17; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 9. Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 97, 99, 102–3; Josephson, Red Atom, 26–28; “ Pervaia v mire AĖS,” Fiziko-ėnergeticheskii institut im. A. I. Leipunskogo, https://www.ippe.ru/history/1ae; Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 917–18. 10 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 155–57, 221–22; Alvin M. Weinberg and Eugene P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors (Chicago, 1958). 11 Schmid, Producing Power, 100; A Companion to Global Environmental History, ed. J. R. McNeill and Erin Stewart Mauldin (New York, 2012), 308. 12 Schmid, Producing Power, 103–8; Josephson, Red Atom, 28–32, 37–43. 13 Schmid, Producing Power, 127; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 160–61, 225–26. 14 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161–62; Thomas Filburn and Stephan Bullard, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima: Curse of the Nuclear Genie (Cham, 2016), 46–48. 15 Schmid, Producing Power, 110–11; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 224–25. 16 Schmid, Producing Power, 114, 120; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161. 17 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 357–58. 18 Sonja D. Schmid, “From “Inherently Safe” to “Proliferation Resistant”: New Perspectives on Reactor Designs, Nuclear Technology 207, no. 9 (2021): 1312–28. 19 Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2020), 27, 31–33. 20 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 32–34; Schmid, Producing Power, 116. 21 Schmid, Producing Power, 114–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358. 22 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358–461. 23 Lina Zernova, “Leningradskii Chernobyl’,” Bellona, April 4, 2016, https://bellona.ru/2016/04/04/laes75/; Vitalii Borets, “Kak gotovilsia vzryv Chernobylia,” Pripiat.com Sait goroda Pripiat, http://pripyat.com/articles/kak-gotovilsya-vzryv-chernobylya-vospominaniya-vibortsa.html; “Avariia na bloke no. 1 Leningradskoi AĖS (SSSR), sviazannaia s razrusheniem tekhnologicheskogo kanala,” Radiatsionnaia bezopasnost’ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Federatsii, MChS Rossii, http://rb.mchs.gov.ru/mchs/radiation_accidents/m_other_accidents/1975_god/Avarija_na_bloke_1_Leningradskoj_AJES_SS. 24 M. Borisov, “Chto meshaet professionalizmu,” Isvestiia, February 27, 1984, 2. 25 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 24–26; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 7–24. 26 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 76–78. 27 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 76–77; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 77–78; Yurii Trehub in Yurii Shcherbak, Chernobyl’: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie (Moscow, 1991). 28 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 362; Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York and London, 1990), 14–19. 29 Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 13; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 75. 30 Igor Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 366; Nikolai Kapran, Chernobyl’: mest’ mirnogo atoma (Kyiv, 2005), 312–13. 31 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 64, 69–70; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 69–70; Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 34. 32 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363–64. 33 Razim Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” in Chernobyl’ desiat’ let spustia: neizbezhnost’ ili sluchainost’ (Moscow, 1995), 381–82. 34 Anatolii Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo (Moscow, 2003), 31. 35 Kazachkov and Trehub in Shcherbak, Chernoby l’, 367, 370; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363. 36 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 78–81. 37 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 30. 38 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 31; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 82–84; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 364–65. 39 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 40 Borys Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS—o rokovom ėksperimente i doprosakh KGB,” KishkiNA, July 14, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPRyciXh07k. 41 “Sequence of Events—Chernobyl Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/appendices/chernobyl-accident-appendix-1-sequence-of-events.aspx; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 366–67. 42 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 8, 49. 43 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 44 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 50–54; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 105–9. 45 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 46 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 53. 47 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 48 Svetlana Alexievich, Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclea r Disaster (New York, 2005), 5–8; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 87–110, 144–49. 49 Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia, 53. 50 Valerii Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS i atomnaia ėnergetika SSSR,” Skepsis: Nauchno-prosvetitel’skii zhurnal, https://scepsis.net/library/id_3203.html. 51 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; A. N. Makukhin, “Srochnoe donesenie,” April 26, 1986; Chernobyl’: Dokumenty. The National Security Archive, The George Washington University, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-26.pdf. 52 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 128–32. 53 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 132–42, 150–55. 54 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 153–63. 55 William Taubman, Gorbachev: His Life and Times (New York, 2017), 169–70, 238. 56 Minutes of the Politburo Meeting of July 3, 1986, in V Politbiuro TsK KPSS: Po zapisiam Anatoliia Cherniaeva, Vadima Medvedeva, Georgiia Shakhnazarova, 1985–1991 (Moscow, 2006), 61–66; Iu. A. Izraėl’, “O posledstviiakh avarii na Chernobyl’skoi AĖS,” April 27, 1986, National Security Archive, https://constitutions.ru/?p=23420; https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-27.Report.pdf. 57 Vypiska iz protokola no. 7 zasedaniia Politbiuro, April 28, 1986, Informatsiia ob avarii na Chernobyl’skoi atomnoi ėlektrostantsii 26 aprelia 1986 g., Gorbachev Foundation Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-28.Politburo.pdf; Text of the official announcement in “Avarii na Chenobyl’skoi AĖS ispolniaetsia 30 let,” Mezhdunarodnaia panorama, April 25, 2016; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 172–74. 58 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 1–3; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 170–72. 59 Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: An Environmental History of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York, 2019), 33–37. 60 Luther Whitington, “Chernobyl Reactor Still Burning,” UPI Archives, April 29, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/29/Chernobyl-reactor-still-burning/9981572611428/. 61 Kost’ Bondarenko, “Shcherbitsky Live. Chto nuzhno znat’ o znamenitom lidere sovetskoi Ukrainy,” Strana.UA, February 17, 2018, https://strana.ua/articles/istorii/124635-shcherbitskij-live-chto-nuzhno-znat-o-znamenitom-lidere-sovetskoj-ukrainy-kotoromu-sehodnja-by-ispolnilos-100-let.html; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 182–84; Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB. Suspil’ni nastroï. ChAES u postavariinyi period. Zbirnyk dokumentiv pro katastrofu na Chornobyl’s’kii AES, comp. Oleh Bazhan, Volodymyr Birchak, and Hennadii Boriak (Kyiv, 2019), 47. 62 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 165; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 185–86; Igor’ Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon.’ 20 let nazad Moskvu moglo nakryt’ radioaktivnoe oblako,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 21, 2006. 63 Katie Canales, “Photos show what daily life is really like inside Cherno­byl’s exclusion zone, one of the most polluted areas in the world,” Business Insider, April 20, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/what-daily-life-inside-chernobyls-exclusion-zone-is-really-like-2019-4#the-chernobyl-exclusion-zone-is-now-the-officially-designated-exclusion-zone-in-ukraine-5. 64 “Protokol no. 3 zasedaniia operativnoi gruppy Politbiuro,” May 1, 1986, Chernobyl: Dokumenty. National Security Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-01.Minutes.pdf; V. I. Andriianov and V. G. Chirskov, Boris Shcherbina (Moscow, 2009). 65 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 197, 201, 204–7. 66 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 215; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 208–10. 67 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 196–97, 210–12. 68 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 208; Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon’ ”; Vasilii Semashko, “Osazhdalis’ li ‘chernobyl’skie oblaka’ na Belarus’?” Belorusskie novosti, April 23, 2007, https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2007/04/23/ic_articles_116_150633. 69 Iulii Andreev, “Neschast’ia akademika Legasova,” Lebed: Nezavisimyi bostonskii al’manakh, October 2, 2005, http://lebed.com/2005/art4331.htm. 70 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; “Ot Fantomasa do Makkeny: kinokritik Denis Gorelov—o liubimykh zarubezhnykh fil’makh sovetskikh kinozritelei,” Seldon News, July 29, 2019; Rafael’ Arutiunian, “Kitaiskii sindrom,” Skepsis, https://scepsis.net/library/id_710.html. 71 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/news/newsid_4936000/4936186.stm; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 191–95. 72 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 239–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 249–66; Iu. M. Krupka and S. H. Plankova, “Zakon Ukraïny ‘Pro status i sotsial’nyi zakhyst hromadian, iaki postrazhdaly vnaslidok Chornobyl’s’koï katastrofy, 1991,’ ” Iurydychna entsyklopediia, ed. Iu. S. Shemchuchenko (Kyiv, 1998), 2; Adriana Petryna, Life Exposed: Biological Citizens and Chernobyl (Princeton, 2003), 107–14, 130–48. 73 “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 74 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 196–97; 228–29; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 236–38; Nikolai Ryzhkov to the Central Committee, May 14, 1986, National Security Archive, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/r09c6d-gecie/1986.05.14%20Ryzhkov%20Memorandum%20on%20Chernobyl.pdf. “Chernobyl’skaia katastrofa v dokumentakh Politbiuro TsK KPSS,” Rodina, 1992, no. 1: 84–85; Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo Operational Group, May 10, 1986, National Security Archive, 2, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-10.Politburo.pdf; Brown, Manual for Survival, 102–10. 75 Alla Iaroshinskaia, Chernobyl’ 20 let spustia: prestuplenie bez nakazaniia (Moscow, 2006), 448; Higginbotham, Midnight in C hernobyl, 270–74; Taubman, Gorbachev, 241–42. 76 Anatolii Aleksandrov, Autobiography, in Fiziki o sebe, ed. V. Ia. Frenkel’ (Leningrad, 1990), 277–83, here 282. 77 V Politbiuro TsK KPSS, 62. 78 Svetlana Samodelova, “Kak ubivali akademika Legasova, kotoryi provel sobstvennoe rassledovanie Chernobyl’skoi katastrofy,” Moskovskii komsomolets, April 25, 2017; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 275–77, 321–26. 79 Oleksii Breus in “Rozsekrechena istoriia. Choornobyl: shcho vstanovylo rozsliduvannia katastrofy?” Suspilne movlennia, April 28, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2qulMBzjmI&fbclid=IwAR2Qqd7E9a7J66NqsIVUoQwUK0r0wJtseHOmmxkl1xu368wLYBKKYk8o8kY; Igor Gegel, “Sudebnoe ėkho tekhnogennykh katastrof v pechati,” Mediaskop 2011, no. 2, http://www.mediascope.ru/en/node/834. 80 Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB, 216–17, 237; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 314–20. 81 Chernobylskaia avariia: Doklad Mezhdunarodnoi konsul’tativnoi gruppy po iadernoi bezopasnosti, INSAG-7, dopolnenie k INSAG-1 (Vienna, 1993), 29–31; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 346–49. 82 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006; Taubman, Gorbachev, 242. 83 Jane I. Dawson, Econationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania and Ukraine (Durham, NC, 1996), 59–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 285–330. 84 Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014), 295–387. 85 “Nuclear Power in Ukraine,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/ukraine.aspx; “World Nuclear Industry Status Report,” https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/; “RBMK Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx; Aria Bendix, “Russia still has 10 Chernobyl-style reactors that scientists say aren’t necessarily safe,” Business Insider, June 4, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/could-chernobyl-happen-again-russia-reactors-2019-6. 86 Kim Hjelmgaard, “Chernobyl Impact Is Breathtakingly Grim,” USA Today, April 17, 2016; Paulina Dedaj, “Chernobyl’s $1.7B Nuclear Confinement Shelter Revealed after Taking 9 Years to Complete,” Fox News, July 3, 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/world/chernobyl-nuclear-confinement-shelter-revealed. 87 Mary Mycio, Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl (Washington, DC, 2005), 217–42; David R. Marples, “The Decade of Despair,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 52, no. 3 (May–June 1996): 20–31; Judith Miller, “Chernobyl—Here’s What I Saw, Heard and Felt When I Visited the Site Last Year,” Fox News, May 2, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/chernobyl-site-judith-miller.amp?cmpid=prn_newsstand. 88 Brown, Manual for Survival, 240–48; Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, and Thomas E. Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–817, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html. 89 Keiji Suzuki, Norisato Mitsutake, Vladimir Saenko, and Shunichi Yamashita, “Radiation signatures in childhood thyroid cancers after the Chernobyl accident: Possible roles of radiation in carcinogenesis,” Cancer Science 106, no. 2 (February 2015): 127–33. 90 Brown, Manual for Survival, 227–76. 91 Brown, Manual for Survival, 249–64; Germán Orizaola, “Chernobyl Has Become a Refuge for Wildlife 33 Years After the Nuclear Accident,” The World, May 13, 2019, https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-05-13/chernobyl-has-become-refuge-wildlife-33-years-after-nuclear-accident; “Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/; Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents,” 808; “Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis,” Union of Concerned Scientists, April 22, 2011; “The Chernobyl Catastrophe: Consequences on Human Health,” Greenpeace 2006; Charles Hawley and Stefan Schmitt, “Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy, “ Spiegel International, April 18, 2006. Chapter VI. NUCLEAR TSUNAMI: FUKUSHIMA 1. Gerald M. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1. 2. Clyde Haberman, “5 Missiles, Discharged Shortly Before Reagan Visit, Miss the Target,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1; Susan Chira, “Tokyo Subway Traffic Disrupted by a Series of Small Explosions,” New York Times, May 6, 1986, A1. 3. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety.” 4. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake, Documents Show,” Japan Times, December 20, 2017. 5. U.S. Department of State Bull etin, no. 2112 (July 1986): 4–5; Economic Summits, 1975–1986: Declarations (Rome, 1987): 145–46; “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 6. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake”; “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; “IAEA Warned Japan Over Nuclear Quake Risk: WikiLeaks,” Indian Express, March 17, 2011. 7. Mayako Shimamoto, “Abolition of Ja pan’s Nuclear Power Plants?: Analysis from a Historical Perspective on Early Cold War, 1944–1955,” in Japan Viewed from Interdisciplinary Perspectives: History and Prospects, ed. Yoneyuki Sugita (Lanham, MD, 2015), 264–66; John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA, 2005), 150–86. 8. Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies, 182–83; “Atomic Energy Basic Act,” Act No. 186 of December 19, 1955, Japanese Law Translation, http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=1&re=01&dn=1&x=0&y=0&co=01&ia=03&ja=04&ky=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95&page=3; Mari Yamaguchi, “Yasuhiro Nakasone: Japanese Prime Minister at Height of Country’s Economic Growth,” Independent, December 21, 2019. 9. Kennedy Maize, “A Short History of Nuclear Power in Japan,” Power, March 14, 2011, https://www.powermag.com/blog/a-short-history-of-nuclear-power-in-japan/. 10 Nobumasa Akiyama, “America’s Nuclear Nonproliferation Order and Japan-US Relations,” Japan and the World, Japan Digital Library (March 2017), 3–5, http://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/digital_library/world.php; “Tokai no. 2 Power Station,” The Japan Atomic Power Company, http://www.japc.co.jp/english/power_stations/tokai2.html. 11 “The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html. 12 Kiyonobu Yamashita, “History of Nuclear Technology Development in Japan,” AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 020003 (2015): 6–7, https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916842; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York and London, 2014), 380–83. 13 The Fukushima Daiichi Accident: Description and Context of the Accident, Technical Volume 1/5 (Vienna, 2015), 59–64; TEPCO, Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, History, https://www7.tepco.co.jp/about/corporate/history-e.html; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York and London, 2014), 40–41. 14 Takafumi Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University, August 7, 2013, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1698290. 15 Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima”; “Action Alert: Japanese Activists Ask for Support,” November 23, 1990, World International Service on Energy, https://web.archive.org/web/20120326134237/http://www.klimaatkeuze.nl/wise/monitor/342/3418. 16 “TEPCO Chairman, President Announce Resignations Over Nuclear Coverups,” Japan Times, September 2, 2002; Masanori Makita, Naotaka Ito, and Mirai Nagira, “Ex-TEPCO Chairman Sorry for Nuke Accident but Says He Was Not in Control of Utility in 2011,” The Mainichi, October 30, 2018; Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 388. 17 “Operator of Fukushima Nuke Plant Admitted to Faking Repair Records,” Herald Sun, March 20, 2011. 18 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 378–79. 19 Lochbaum et al, Fukushima, 52–54; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, May 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516986; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 387–91; “Putting Tsunami Countermeasures on Hold at Fukushima Nuke Plant ‘Natural’: ex-TEPCO VP,” The Mainichi, October 20, 2018. 20 M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan, Earthquake Hazards Program, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30/executive#executive. 21 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 1–3; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 377, 390; “Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation Associated with 2011 Tohoku District,” National Police Agency of Japan Emergency Disaster ­Countermeasures Headquarters, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earth­-quake2011/pdf/higaijokyo_e.pdf. 22 Ryusho Kadota, On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi (Kumamoto: Kurodahan Press, 2014), 7–16. 23 Kadota, On the Brink, 7–16; Mahaff ey, Atomic Accidents, 388–90; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3–5. 24 The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission Report (Tokyo, 2012), chap. 2, 1–2; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 391–92. 25 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3, 10–12; Airi Ryu and Najmedin Meshkati, “Onagawa: The Japanese Nuclear Power Plant That Didn’t Melt Down on 3/11,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 10, 2014. 26 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33. 27 Kadota, On the Brink, 33–48; Tatsuyuki Kobori, “Report: Fukushi ma Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disaster Digital Archive, December 28, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1532037. 28 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–17, 22; Kadota, On the Brink, 43. 29 “Tokyo: Earthquake During Parliament Session,” March 11, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGrddjwY8zM; “What Went Wrong: Fukushima Flashback a Month after Crisis Started,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 4, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516215; Naoto Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare: Leading Japan through the Fukushima Disaster to a Nuclear-Free Future (Ithaca, NY, 2017), 28–29. 30 “Kan: Activist, Politico, Mah-jongg Lover,” Yomiuri Shimbun, June 5, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215002/http:/news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Asia/Story/A1Story20100605-220351.html. 31 Hideaki Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap: 5 da ys in the Prime Minister’s Office,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516701; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 2, 30–31. 32 “Statement by Prime Minister Naoto Kan on Tohoku district—off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake,” Friday, March 11 at 4:55 p.m., 2011 [Provisional Translation], Speeches and Statements by the Prime Minister, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, https://japan.kantei.go.jp/kan/statement/201103/11kishahappyo_e.html. 33 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–18. 34 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 35 “What Went Wrong.” 36 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 37 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24; “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 38 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 41–42; “What Went Wrong.” 39 “What Went Wrong.” 40 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori, “Report: Fukushima Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis”; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 43–45; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24. 41 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 25. 42 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “What Went Wrong.” 43 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 44 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 48; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die,’ ” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 13, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1531834. 45 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, February 29, 2012, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516636. 46 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response.” 47 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 52; “What Went Wrong”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 48 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 31–33, 57, 60; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 395–96. 49 “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12 2011—Japanese nuclear plant blast),” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psAuFr8Xeqs. 50 “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12, 2011). 51 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 59. 52 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 55–57; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396; “Fukushima Daiichi Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident.aspx. 53 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 380–84. 54 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 55 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60–61; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Nuke Plant Manager Ignores Bosses, Pumps in Seawater after Order to Halt,” Asahi Shimbun, May 27, 2011, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516396. 56 Toshihiro Okuyama, Hideaki Kimura, and Takashi Sugimoto, “Inside Fukushima: How Workers Tried but Failed to Avert a Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, October 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517417. 57 Okuyama et al., “Inside Fukushima”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 58 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396–97; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 59 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 7, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517276. 60 “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident.” 61 “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 10, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Hideaki Kimura, Takaaki Yorimitsu, and Tomomi Miyazaki, “Plaintiffs Seek Preservation of TEPCO Teleconference Videos,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 28, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517135. 62 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 80–84; Yoichi Funabashi, Meltdown: Inside the Fukushima Nuclear Crisis (Washington, DC, 2021), 136–40; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Ex-Fukushima Nuclear Plant Chief Denies ‘Pullout’ in Video,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 12, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517286; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response.” 63 Funabashi, Meltdown, 140–43; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 64 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap;” Funabashi, Meltdown, 145. 65 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3, 14. 66 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 67 Funabashi, Meltdown, 145–46. 68 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397. 69 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 75–76; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Japan Earthquake: Explosion at Fukushima Nuclear Plant,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OO_w8tCn9gU; Tatsuyuki Kobori, Jin Nishikawa, and Naoya Kon, “Remembering 3/11: Fukushima Plant’s ‘Fateful Day’ Was March 15,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 8, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516688. 70 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori et al., “Remembering 3/11.” 71 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 95–99; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98; “What Went Wrong.” 72 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98. 73 “Fukushima Plant Chief Defied TEPCO Headquarters to Protect Workers,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517505. 74 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html. 75 Takashi Sugimoto and Hideaki Kimura, “TEPCO Failed to Respond to Dire Warning of Radioactive Water Leaks at Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517504; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 76 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 77 “Fukushima Nuclear Chief Masao Yoshida Dies,” BBC News, July 10, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102; https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102. 78 Geoff Brumfiel, “Fukushima Reaches Cold Shutdown, but Milestone is More Symbolic than Real,” Nature, December 16, 2011; “Mid-and-Long-Term Roadmap towards the Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Units 1-4,” TEPCO, December 21, 2011 [Provisional Translation], http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/111221e10.pdf; https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 79 “2.4 trillion Yen in Fukushima Crisis Compensation Costs to be Tacked Onto Power Bills,” The Mainichi, December 10, 2016. 80 Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, Alexander and Thomas Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents: A Review of the Environmental Impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–17, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html; A. Hasegawa et al., “Health Effects of Radiation and Other Health Problems in the Aftermath of Nuclear Accidents, with an Emphasis on Fukushima,” The Lancet 386, no. 9992 (August 2015): 479–88; Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu, Nikolaos Evangeliou, Timothy Alexander Mousseau, Junwen Wu, and Ahmad Termizi Ramli, “An Overview of Current Knowledge Concerning the Health and Environmental Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) Accident,” Environment International 85 (December 2015): 213–28, https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/10140/1/(ITEM_10140)_steve_thomas_2013.pdf. 81 Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents”; Fuminori Tamba, “The Evacuation of Residents after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” in Fukushima: A Political and Economic Analysis of a Nuclear Disaster, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida (Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press, 2013), 89–108. 82 Jane Braxton Little, “Fukushima Residents Return Despite Radiation,” Scientific American, January 16, 2019; Michael Penn, “‘We don’t know when it will end’: 10 years after Fukushima,” Al Jazeera, March 9, 2021. 83 Jennifer Jett and Ben Dooley, “Fukushima Wastewater Will Be Released Into the Ocean, Japan Says,” New York Times, April 12, 2021; Dennis Normile, “Japan Plans to Release Fukushima’s Wastewater into the Ocean,” Science, April 13, 2021. 84 “ENSI Report on Fukushima III: Lessons Learned,” Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate, https://www.ensi.ch/en/ensi-report-on-fukushima-iii-lessons-learned/; “Organizational Issues of the Parties Involved in the Accident,” The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission, https://warp.da.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/3856371/naiic.go.jp/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/NAIIC_Eng_Chapter5_web.pdf. 85 Magdalena Osumi, “Former TEPCO Executives Found Not Guilty of Criminal Negligence in Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,” Japan Times, September 19, 2019; “High Court Orders TEPCO to Pay More in Damages to Fukushima Evacuees,” The Mainichi, March 13, 2020; “TEPCO ordered to pay minimal damages to Fukushima evacuees; Japan gov’t liability denied,” The Mainichi, December 18, 2019; Motoko Rich, “Japan and Utility Are Found Negligent Again in Fukushima Meltdowns,” New York Times, October 10, 2017. 86 “Liability for Nuclear Damage,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/liability-for-nuclear-damage.aspx. 87 Miranda A. Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Implications for Japan,” in Fukushima, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida, 1–20, here 16–20; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 16–30. 88 “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; Steve Kidd, “Japan—is there a future in nuclear?” Nuclear Engineering International, July 4, 2018, https://www.neimagazine.com/opinion/opinionjapan-is-there-a-future-in-nuclear-6231610/; Ken Silverstein, “Japan Circling Back To Nuclear Power After Fukushima Disaster,” Forbes, September 8, 2017; Florentine Koppenborg, “Nuclear Restart Politics: How the ‘Nuclear Village’ Lost Policy Implementation Power,” Social Science Japan Journal 24, no. 1 (Winter 2021): 115–35. 89 Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” 7–10; Fumikazu Yoshida, “Future Perspectives,” in Fukushima, ed. Schreus and Yoshida, 113–16; Elliott, Fukushima, 32–37. 90 Abby Rogers, “The 20 Countries with The Most Nuclear Reactors,” Business Insider, October 11, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/the-countries-with-the-most-nuclear-reactors-2011-10#11-china-10; James Griffiths, “China’s gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose?” CNN Business, September 13, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/13/business/china-nuclear-climate-intl-hnk/index.html; “Nuclear Power in China,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx. 91 Mycle Schneider, Antony Froggatt et al., The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013 (Paris and London, July 2013), 6; Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Sean McDonagh, Fukushima: The Death Knell for Nuclear Energy? (Dublin, 2012). Afterword: WHAT COMES NEXT? 1. Ayesha Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation,” Reuters, February 9, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-nrc/u-s-approves-first-new-nuclear-plant-in-a-generation-idUSTRE8182J720120209; Meghan Anzelc, “Gregory Jaczko, Ph.D. Physics, Commissioner, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,” American Physical Society, https://www.aps.org/units/fgsa/careers/non-traditional/jaczko.cfm; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2014), 89–96, 172–77. 2. Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation”; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 3 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog3.html; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 4 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog4.html; Abbie Bennett, “Southern CEO maintains Vogtle Unit 3 will start up in 2022, despite latest delay,” S&P Global Market Intelligence, November 4, 2021. 3. “Our Mission,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/our-association/who-we-are/mission.aspx; “The Harmony Programme,” World Nuclear Association, https://world-nuclear.org/harmony; “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 4. Gregory Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator (New York, 2019), 163, 165. 5. “Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Thomas Rose and Trevor Sweeting, “Severe Nuclear Accidents and Learning Effects,” IntechOpen, November 5, 2018, https://www.intechopen.com/books/statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics/severe-nuclear-accidents-and-learning-effects. 6. James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014). 7. “International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES),” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/international-nuclear-and-radiological-event-scale; Nuclear accidents—INES scale 1957–2011, Statista Research Department, May 12, 2011, https://www.statista.com/statistics/273002/the-biggest-nuclear-accidents-worldwide-rated-by-ines-scale/. 8. International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period: A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 2006). 9. J. Schofield, “Nuclear Sharing and Pakistan, North Korea and Iran,” in Strategic Nuclear Sharing, Global Issues Series (London, 2014). 10 Jeffrey Cassandra and , “Big Money, Nuclear Subsidies, and Systemic Corruption,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, February 12, 2021. 11 Dan Yurman and David Dalton, “China Keen to Match Pace Set by Russia in Overseas Construction,” NucNET, The Independent Nuclear News Agency, January 23, 2020, https://www.nucnet.org/news/china-keen-to-match-pace-set-by-russia-in-overseas-construction-1-4-2020. 12 “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Ivan Nechepurenko and Andrew Higgins, “Coming to a Country Near You: A Russian Nuclear Power Plant,” New York Times, March 21, 2020; Matthew Sparks, “Chernobyl radiation spike probably from Russian tanks disturbing dust,” New Scientist, February 25, 2022. 13 Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 118–19; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 409. 14 Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator, 167. kgmrcjfre8oqvttn686acfh5u5pigqq User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters/grobid 2 127550 519317 2022-07-30T20:20:31Z Markjgraham hmb 50568 Created page with "Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States..." wikitext text/x-wiki Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 192; “Remarks prepared by Lewis L. Strauss,” United States Atomic Energy Commission, September 16, 1954, 9, https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1613/ML16131A120.pdf; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 88–90. 3. “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Marton Dunai and Geert De Clercq, “Nuclear Energy Too Slow, Too Expensive to Save Climate: Report,” Reuters, September 23, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-nuclearpower/nuclear-energy-too-slow-too-expensive-to-save-climate-report-idUSKBN1W909J; Amory B. Lovins, “Why Nuclear Power’s Failure in the Marketplace is Irreversible (Fortunately for Nonproliferation and Climate Protection),” in Nuclear Power and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, ed. Paul L. Levinthal, Sharon Tanzer, and Steven Dolley (Washington, DC, 2002), 69–84. 4. George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA, 1999); “Iran and the NPT,” Iran Primer, United States Institute of Peace, https://iranprimer.usip.org/index.php/blog/2020/jan/22/iran-and-npt. 5. World Energy Model. Scenario Analysis of Future Energy Trends, International Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-model/sustainable-development-scenario; “Where Does Our Electricity Come From?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/where-does-our-electricity-come-from.aspx; “European Commission declares nuclear and gas to be green,” Deutche Welle, February 2, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/european-commission-declares-nuclear-and-gas-to-be-green/a-60614990. 6. “Electricity Explained,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php; “How Can Nuclear Combat Climate Change?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/how-can-nuclear-combat-climate-change.aspx. 7. “Nuclear Energy in the U.S.: Expensive Source Competing with Cheap Gas and Renewables,” Climate Nexus, https://climatenexus.org/climate-news-archive/nuclear-energy-us-expensive-source-competing-cheap-gas-renewables/; Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 247–55; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 2–5. 8. “General Overview Worldwide, “The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2019, https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-HTML.html. 9. Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 117–18. 10 “INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf; “Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15. Chapter I. WHITE ASHES: BIKINI ATOLL 1. Steve Weintz, “Think Your Job Is Rough? Try Disabling a Nuclear Bomb,” The National Interest, January 7, 2020; John C. Clark as told to Robert Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” Saturday Evening Post (July 20, 1957), 17–19, 64–66, here 17. 2. Major General P. W. Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army, 1954), 121. 3. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 18–19. 4. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 64. 5. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 65–66. 6. Bill Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” Saturday Evening Post (April 19, 1952), 32–33, 185–88, here 33, 186; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 8–32. 7. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1986), 428–42; “Alvin Graves,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/alvin-graves; Michael Drapa, “A witness to atomic history: Ted Petry recounts the world’s first nuclear reaction at UChicago, 75 years later,” University of Chicago, November 13, 2017, https://www.uchicago.edu/features/a_witness_to_atomic_history/. 8. DeGroot, The Bomb, 37–65, 82–105. 9. Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33; Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” Saturday Review of Literature, August 18, 1945, reprinted in Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York, 1967), 120–30; DeGroot, The Bomb, 74–75. 10 Philip L. Fradkin, Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (Tucson, AZ, 1989), 89–91, 256; Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33, 186; “Floy Agnes Lee’s Interview,” Voices of the Manhattan Project, 11–12, https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/floy-agnes-lees-interview. 11 Fradkin, Fallout, 106–11; Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (The Woodlands, TX, 1986), 363; Operation Upshot-Knothole Fact Sheet (Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, July 2007). 12 De Groot, The Bomb, 162–84. 13 “Percy Clarkson, General, 68, Dies,” New York Times, September 15, 1962, 25. 14 Richard Rh odes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 1995), 482–512. 15 “Interview with Edward Teller,” National Security Archive, Episode 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/coldwar/interviews/episode-8/teller1.html; Rhodes, Dark Sun, 541–42; DeGroot, The Bomb, 177–79. 16 Alex Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953),” Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog, February 8, 2012; We llerstein, Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States (Chicago, 2021), 241–44, 248; Thomas Kunkle and Byron Ristvet, Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore. A Guide to Off-Site Radiation Exposures (Kirtland AFB, NM: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, January 2013), 49, 51. 17 Laura A. Bruno, “The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 33, no. 2 (2003): 237–60, here 246; W. G. Van Dorn, Ivy-Mike: The First Hydrogen Bomb (Bloomington, IN, 2008), 13, 36, 43–44, 170–71; Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953).” 18 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 10, 54. 19 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 4–8. 20 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 6; Ma rtha Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War (Honolulu, 2016), 44–50; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 17. 21 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 30–31. 22 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 220–29. 23 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 88; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 79–80, 81, 135. 24 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 44–47, 108. 25 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 31; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 119. 26 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 181; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 2, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a995409.pdf; Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 27 Walmer E. Strope quoted in “Castle-Bravo Nuclear Test Fallout Cover-Up,” https://glasstone.blogspot.com/2010/09/castle-bravo-nuclear-test-fallout-cover.html. 28 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3: Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 118. 29 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 51–52. 30 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 1–2. 31 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout”; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 32 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 33 Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3, 4. 34 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy (Cambridge, 2017), 56–57; “Race for the Superbomb,” transcript, American Experience, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/bomb/#transcript; “World’s Biggest Bomb,” transcript, Secrets of the Dead, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-worlds-biggest-bomb-watch-the-full-episode/863/; Bill Bryson, The Life and Times of Thunderbolt Kid: A Memoir (New York, 2006), 123–24. 35 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121–23. 36 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 37 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121; Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 4. 38 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 39 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 107, 109. 40 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 41 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 111–12; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 6. 42 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 43 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 8–9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 126; Operation CASTLE Commander’s Report, https://archive.org/details/CastleCommandersReport1954. 44 Jack Niedenthal, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands (Boulder, CO: Bravo Publishers, 2001). 45 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 74; Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders (New York, 1998), 25. 46 Stewart Firth, Nuclear Playground (Sydney, 1987), 16. 47 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 73–74; Dibblin, Day of Two Suns, 24–25. 48 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115. 49 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127. 50 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 122–24; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 51 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 52 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130. 53 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 54, 137. 54 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 55 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 110; Beverly Deepe Keever, “The Largest Nuclear Bomb in U.S. History Still Shakes Rongelap Atoll and Its Displaced People 50 Years Later,” The Other News: Voices Against the Tide, February 4, 2005, https://www.other-news.info/2005/02/the-largest-nuclear-bomb-in-us-history-still-shakes-rongelap-atoll-and-its-displaced-people-50-years-later-beverly-deepe-keever/. 56 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 57 Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York, 1958), 6–26; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012. 58 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 59 Matashichi Ōishi, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I (Honolulu, HI, 2011), 18–19. 60 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 136. 61 Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 27–54; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 27; James R. Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 9 (1954): 347–48. 62 Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” 347–48; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 67–68. 63 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 64 Lora Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb (London, 2001), 19–20. 65 “Statement of Lewis Strauss,” March 22, 1955, AEC-FCDA Relationship: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1955), 6–9; Wellerstein, Restricted Data, 247–48. 66 Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb, 20; “H-Bomb Can Wipe Out Any City, Strauss Reports after Tests,” New York Times, April 1, 1954, 1. 67 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 71–72. 68 Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953)”; “Operation Castle, 1954,” film produced by Joint Task Force 7, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfbHwj71k48. 69 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 132, 135–37. 70 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 140; “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground,” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html. 71 “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground”; Timothy J. Jorgensen, Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation (Princeton, NJ, 2016), 170–73; Rhodes, , 541–43. 72 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 130, 190–91. 73 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 80–82. 74 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 143; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 82–83. 75 Clark son, History of Operation Castle, 143; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 76 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 83. 77 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 131–32; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 86–90; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 119–20; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership: The History of the RMI’s Bilateral Relationship with the United States,” https://web.archive.org/web/20160424042410/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm. 78 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 18; Calin Georgescu, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,” Mission to the Marshall Islands (March 27–30, 2012) and the United States of America (April 24–27, 2012), 5, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-48-Add1_en.pdf; “Zhertvy amerikanskikh ispytanii atomnogo i vodorodnogo oruzhiia,” Pravda, July 8, 1954, 3. 79 “Atomnoe oruzhie dolzhno byt’ zapreshcheno,” Pravda, February 8, 1955. 80 Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, 1957–1985 (New York, 1986), 14–15; Ralph E. Lapp, “Civil Defense Faces New Peril,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9 (November 1954): 349–51; Ralph Lapp, “Radioactive Fallout,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1 (February 1955): 45–51. 81 “The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, London, 9 July 1955,” Student Pugwash, Michigan, http://umich.edu/~pugwash/Manifesto.html. 82 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 50–613; Fradkin, Fallout, 91; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 42; Louis Henry Hempelman, Clarence C. Lushbaugh, and George L. Voelz, “What Has Happened to the Survivors of the Early Los Alamos Nuclear Accidents?” Conference for Radiation Accident Preparedness, Oak Ridge, TN, October 19, 1979 (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, October 2, 1979), https://www.orau.org/ptp/pdf/accidentsurvivorslanl.pdf; https://web.archive.org/web/20130218012525/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/factsheets/Upshot_Knothole.pdf. 83 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch”; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 129. 84 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 75–77, 86–92. 85 James N. Yamazaki with Louise B. Fleming, Children of the Atomic Bomb: An American Physician’s Memoir of Nagasaki, Hiroshima and the Marshall Islands (Durham, NC, 1995), 109–12; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 41; Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: A Chernobyl Guide to the Future (New York, 2019), 244–45. 86 Robert A. Conard, “Fallout: The Experiences of a Medical Team in the Care of Marshallese Population Accidentally Exposed to Fallout Radiation,” iii, https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/23/053/23053209.pdf?r=1&r=1; Steven L. Simon, André Bouville, and Charles E. Land, “Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 Years Ago Still Have Health Implications Today That Will Continue into the Future,” American Scientist 94, no. 1 (January 2006): 48–57; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 79–82. 87 Fi rth, Nuclear Playground, 19–20; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 61–74. 88 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 46–48, 67–69; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 92–95; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership.” Chapter II. NORTHERN LIGHTS: KYSHTYM 1. Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 167–68, 193–94; Alex Wellerstein, “A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name,” New Yorker, January 8, 2016; “Soviet Hydrogen Bomb Program,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-hydrogen-bomb-program. 2. “Resumption of Nuclear Tests by Soviet Union,” Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 422–28, here Appendix, 425–27. 3. Iu. V. Gaponov, “Igor’ Vasil’evich Kurchatov: The Scientist and Doer (January 12, 1903–February 7, 1960),” Physics of Atomic Nuclei 66, no. 1 (2003): 3–7. 4. DeGroot, The Bomb, 125–30; Vladimir Gobarev, Sekretnyi atom (Moscow, 2006), 75; “Institut Kurchatova poluchil dokumenty iz arkhiva SVR po atomnomu proektu SSSR,” RIA Novosti, July 17, 2019, https://ria.ru/20190917/1558762897.html. 5. E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28, here 916–17. 6. “Kyshtym,” Moi gorod, Narodnaia ėntsiklopediia gorodov i regionov Rosiii, http://www.mojgorod.ru/cheljab_obl/kyshtym/index.html; “Gorod s osoboi sud’boi,” Ozerskii gorodskoi okrug, http://www.ozerskadm.ru/city/history/index.php. 7. Kate Brown, Pl utopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 87–123; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 8. “Dokladnaia zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, B. G. Muzurukova, E. P. Slavskogo na imia L. P. Berii ob osushchestvlenii reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817 pri nalichii vody v tekhologicheskikh kanalakh,” June 11, 1948; Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev, vol. 2, Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954, bk. 1 (Moscow, 1999), 635–36; Mikhail Grabovskii, Plutonieva zona (Moscow, 2002), 20. 9. V. I. Shevchenko, “Kak prostoi rabochii,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 84–86; B. V. Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia sosluzhivtsa (Ozersk/Cheliabinsk 65, 1995), 18; Zhores Medvedev and Roi Medvedev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 2005), 336. 10 Kurchatovskii Institut: Istoriia iadernogo proekta (Moscow, 1998), 65; E. P. Slavskii, “Nashei moshchi, nashei sily boiatsia,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, April 4, 1998, 16. 11 Gennady Gorelik, “The Riddle of the Third Idea: How Did the Soviets Build a Thermonuclear Bomb So Suspiciously Fast?” Scientific American, August 21, 2011; Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 428; A. V. Artizov, “Poslednee interv’iu E. P. Slavskogo,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 381–82. 12 Richard Lourie, Sakharov: A Biography (Lexington, MA, 2018). 13 Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York, 1990), 98–100, 190–92. 14 Brown, Plutopia, 115–23, 214; Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 2008 Report to the General Assembly, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2011, Annex C: Radiation exposures in accidents, 3, https://web.archive.org/web/20130531015743/http:/www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_C.pdf. 15 Brown, Plutopia, 189–96; Vladislav Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” problema na veka (Moscow, 2001), 34–42; Vitalii Tolstikov and Irina Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale po vospominaniiam ikh uchastnikov,” Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 405 (2016): 137–41, here 137; V. I. Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala (Ekaterinburg, 2000), 66–71. 16 Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44; Thomas B. Cochran, Robert Standish Norris, and Kristen L. Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 18, 1 (November 2003): 507–28, here, 511–15. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 282–83; Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44. 18 Valerii Ivanovich Komarov in Sled 57-go goda: Sbornik vospominanii likvidatorov avarii 1957 goda na PO “Maiak” (Ozersk, 2007), 30–37. 19 Valentina Dmitrievna Malaia (Cherevkova) in Sled 57-go goda, 42–43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 20 Igor Fedorovich Serov in Sled 57-go goda, 44–47; Semen Fedorovich Osotin and Lidiia Pavlovna Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14; M. Filippova, “Ozerskoi divizii–55, [v/ch 3273],” Pro Maiak, August 25, 2006, 3, http://www.lib.csu.ru/vch/1/1999_01/009.pdf; http://libozersk.ru/pbd/ozerskproekt/politics/filippova.html; Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale: Istoricheskie otsenki i dokumenty (Ekaterinburg, 2017), 132. 21 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20–21. 22 Valery Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered,” Moscow News, September 19, 2007, 12. 23 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 132; Osotin and Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14. 24 Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” 25 Vladimir Alekseevich Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 144–45; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 57–60. 26 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 133. 27 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 134. 28 Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, “Iadernaia katastrofa 1957 goda na Urale,” Magistra Vitae: ėlektronnyi zhurnal po istoricheskim naukam i arkheologii 1, no. 9 (1999): 84–95, here 86, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/yadernaya-katastrofa-1957-goda-na-urale; Nikolai Stepanovich Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 74–75. 29 Valentina Dmitrieva Malaia (Cherevkova), 43; Dim Iliasov in Sled 57-go goda, 64–65. 30 Il’ia Mitrofanovich Moshin, 70; Gurii Vasil’evich Baimon in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 31 Anatolii Vasil’evich Dubrovskii in Sled 57-go goda, 195–200. 32 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 36; “Semenov Nikolai Anatolievich,” Geroi atomnogo proekta (Sarov, 2005), 334–35. 33 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 27; “N. S. Khrushchev. Khronologiia 1953–1964. Sostavlena po ofitsial’nym publikatsiiam. 1957 god,” in Nikita Khrushchev, Vospominaniia: vremia, liudi, vlast’ (Moscow, 2016), vol. 2. 34 Anatolii D’iachenko, Opalennye pri sozdanii iadernogo shchita Rodiny (Moscow, 2009), 227. 35 Sakharov, Memoirs, 213. 36 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 20–21; P. A. Zhuravlev, “Moi Atomnyi vek,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka, Slavskii, 91. 37 Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 78. 38 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 38; Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 77. 39 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 40 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 52; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 139–40. 41 Evgenii Ivanovich Andreev in Sled 57-go goda, 87–88. 42 Iurii Aleksandrovich Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180. 43 Dim Fatkulbaianovich Il’iasov, 65; Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 44 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 39; Vasilii Ivanovich Moiseev in Sled 57-go goda, 68. 45 Sokhina in S led 57-go goda, 12–13. 46 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148; Brown, Plutopia, 234; “Shtefan Petr Tikhonovich,” Geroi strany, http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero_id=13972. 47 Mikhail Gladyshev, Plutonii dlia atomnoi bomby, 43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 48 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 167, 171, 193; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 59; Mikhail Kel’manovich Sandratskii, in Sled 57-go goda, 93. 49 Vasilii Ivanovich Shevchenko in Sled 57-go goda, 29. 50 Boris Mitrofanovich Semov in Sled 57-go goda, 107–8. 51 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 154–59; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 137. 52 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 53 R. R. Aspand’iarova, “Avtomobilisty—likvidatory,” in Sled 57-go goda, 51–52; Iurii Andreevich Shestakov in Sled 57-go goda, 98; Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 145. 54 Sokhhina in Sled 57-go goda, 16; Konstantin Ivanovich Tikhonov in Sled 57-go goda, 103; Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 193; Brown, Plutopia, 236; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 55 Brown, Plutopia, 235–36. 56 Brown, Plutopia, 236–37; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 195. 57 “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019. 58 Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 59 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 196–97. 60 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 218. 61 Brown, Plutopia, 240; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 45, 149–51, 220. 62 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 28. 63 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 220, 224–25. 64 Gennadiii Vasil’evich Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 122–24; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 176, 271. 65 Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 125–26; Leonid Ivanovich Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127–28; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 173. 66 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 216, 222–25; Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127. 67 Brown, Plutopia, 241–46; Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala, 68; Regina Khissamova and Sergei Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone. 60 let posle Kyshtymskoi katastrofy,” Nastoiashchee vremia, https://www.currenttime.tv/a/28769685.html. 68 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 213, 214. 69 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 274–81. 70 Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 18; Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 135–37. 71 “Akt komissii po rassledovaniiu prichin vzryva v khranilishche radioaktivnykh otkhodov kombinata 817,” in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138–46; Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 17–18. 72 “Prikaz dire ktora gosudarstvennogo ordena Lenina khimicheskogo za­­v­oda imeni Mendeleeva,” November 15, 1957, in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138; Nikolai Alekseevich Sekretov in Sled 57-go goda, 185; “Dem’ianovich Mikhail Antonovich,” Ėntsiklopadiia Cheliabinskoi oblasti, http://chel-portal.ru/?site=encyclopedia&t=Demyanovich&id=2632. 73 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 37. 74 Brown, Plutopia, 244; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285. 75 Utkin et al., Ra dioaktivnye bedy Urala, 66–71; Cheliabinskaia oblast: Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii, ed. A. V. Akleev (Cheliabinsk, 2006), 49–51; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 231; Brown, Plutopia, 239–46; Khissamova and Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone.” 76 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 201–2. 77 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285–98; “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019; Pavel Raspopov, “Vostochno-ural’skii radiatsionnyi zapovednik,” Uraloved, April 22, 2011. 78 Daria Litvinova, “Human rights activist forced to flee Russia following TV ‘witch-hunt’,” The Guardian, October 20, 2015; Izol’da Drobina, “Iadovitoe oblako prishlo s Maiaka,” Novaia gazeta, September 29, 2020. 79 Cochran, Norris, and Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” 522. Chapter III. A VERY ENGLISH FIRE: WINDSCALE 1. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1955–1957, Western Europe and Canada, vol. 27, no. 304. 2. Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Shock of the Century (New York, 2001), 108–90. 3. Paul H. Septimus, Nuclea r Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 (Columbus, OH, 2000), 9–93. 4. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 72–198; John Baylis, Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945–1964 (New York, 1995), 67–240; Margaret Gowing, assisted by Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, vol. 1, Policy Making (London, 1974). 5. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957; Nigel J. Ashton, “Harold Macmillan and the ‘Golden Days’ of Anglo-American Relations Revisited, 1957–63,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 4 (September 2005): 691–723, here 699–702. 6. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 87–159, 168. 7. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 16–193. 8. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No. 10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Peter Hennessy, Cabinets and the Bomb (London, 2007), 45–46; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2015), 32. 9. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 55–71. 10 Margaret Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 36 (December 1990): 218–39. 11 Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident, 3d ed. (New York, 2007), 8–11. 12 John Harris inte rviewed in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster,” 2007 BBC Documentary, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5cDiqVHW7Y; G. A. Polukhin, Atomnyi pervenets Rossii: PO “Maiak,” Istoricheskie ocherki (Ozersk, 1998), 1: 83–137; Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 121–22. 13 Jean McSorley, Living in the Shadow: The Story of the People of Sellafield (London, 1990), 13, 23. 14 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 15 Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 497–500, 547–48, 557–60. 16 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 190–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 9–11. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents . A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 160–63; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15–16. 18 Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 439–42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 164–65, 169; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 12–13. 19 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 13–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 165–66. 20 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 17–18. 21 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 449–50; Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 188–98; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath (New York, 2006), 29–48. 22 “Queen Visits Calder Hall” (1956) Newsreel, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey9envpF_TE; Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” 230–32. 23 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 193, 446; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 41. 24 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7–18, 32, 34–35; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 167–68. 25 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 35. 26 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 36–37. 27 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 30–31. 28 William Penney et al., “Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957,” Journal of Radiological Protection 37, no. 3 (2017): 780–96, here 780; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 33–34, 42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 172. 29 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 44–46. 30 Kara Rogers, “1957 Flu Pandemic,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Asian-flu-of-1957. 31 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 783; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173. 32 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 784; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 47–48; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173–75; Roy Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” New Scientist (October 14, 1982): 84–86, here 85. 33 Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1–2. 34 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 2. 35 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents,175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1. 36 Tom Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4, 12; David Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy: Windscale Manager Who Doused the Flames of the 1957 Fire,” Independent, March 26, 2008. 37 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 17; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; Tuohy in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 38 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5, 10; Tuohy interviewed in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” two-part documentary, ITV production, pt. 1 (2007). 39 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5. 40 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 41 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6. 42 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7. 43 Neville Ramsden in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 1 (2007). 44 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Tuohy in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 45 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 46 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50–51. 47 Jack Coyle in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 11. 48 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 8–9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 49 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Alan Daugherty in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 50 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 52. 51 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 58–59. 52 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Emergency Site Procedure at Windscale, Appendix VII, Windscale 1957, 176–77; Hartley Howe, “Accident at Windscale: The World’s First Atomic Alarm,” Popular Science (October 1958): 92–95. 53 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 790; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53–54. 54 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13–14. 55 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43. 56 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; “Persians Cannot Run Refinery,” Canberra Times, October 6, 1951; Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York, 2008), 62–82. 57 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “Uranium Rods Overheated in Pile,” Whitehaven News, October 11, 1957; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 58 “No Public Danger Announcement,” West Cumberland News, October 12, 1957. 59 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 93–94. 60 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 84. 61 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43–44. 62 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 69. 63 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86. 64 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 70. 65 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 791; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 55–58; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 94–95. 66 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 87; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 67 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 60. 68 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 63–66; Lord Sherfield, “William George Penney, O. M., K. B. E. Baron Penney of East Hendred, 24 June 1909–3 March 1991,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 39 (1994): 282–302. 69 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 67, 77. 70 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 71 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 173; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 787. 72 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 785, 792–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 84–85: “Prime Minister’s to Washington,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates, October 29, 1957, vol. 205, cc 545–46. 73 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 62, 82–83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 74 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 80–81; Steve Lohr, “Britain Suppressed Details of ’57 Atomic Disaster,” New York Times, January 2, 1988; Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 82. 75 “Windscale Atomic Plant Accident,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates November 21, 1957, vol. 206, cc 448–57. 76 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 77 Wilfrid E. Oulton, Christmas Island Cracker: An Account of the Planning and Execution of the British Thermonuclear Bomb Tests, 1957 (London, 1987). 78 Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 79 A. C. Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957,” Science of the Total Environment 63 (May 1987): 139–60; M. J. Crick and G. S. Linsley, “An assessment of the radiological impact of the Windscale reactor fire October 1957,” International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies 46 (November 1984): 479–506. For a comparison of Windscale radiation release with the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima fallouts, see Daniel Kunkel and Mark G. Lawrence, “Global risk of radioactive fallout after major nuclear reactor accidents,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12(9) (May 20212): 4245–4258, here 4247. 80 Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957”; A. Preston, J. W. R. Dutton, and B. R. Harvey, “Detection, Estimation and Radiological Significance of Silver-110m in Oysters in the Irish Sea and the Blackwater Estuary,” Nature 218 (1968): 689–90. 81 “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 82 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 789–90. 83 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 3. 84 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9–10; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 85 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; D. McGeoghegan, S. Whaley, K. Binks, M. Gillies, K. Thompson, D. M. McElvenny, “Mortality and cancer registration experience of the Sellafield workers known to have been involved in the 1957 Windscale accident: 50 year follow-up,” Journal of Radiological Protection 30, no. 3 (2010): 407–31. 86 “The incidence of childhood cancer around nuclear installations in Great Britain,” 10th Report, Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (2005), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/304596/COMARE10thReport.pdf. 87 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 159–60, 163; Robin McKie, “Sellafield: the most hazardous place in Europe,” The Guardian, April 18, 2009. 88 “Demolition starts on Windscale chimney,” Sellafield Ltd, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, February 28, 2019, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/demolition-starts-on-windscale-chimney; Paul Brown, “Windscale’s terrible legacy,” The Guardian, August 25, 1999. 89 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; “UK decommissioning agency lays out plans to 2019,” World Nuclear News, January 6, 2016, https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-UK-decommissioning-agency-lays-out-plans-to-2019-06011501.html; Sue Reid, “Britain’s nuclear inferno: How our own Government covered up Windscale reactor blaze that’s caused dozens of deaths and hundreds of cancer cases,” The Mail on Sunday, March 19, 2011. Chapter IV. ATOMS FOR PEACE: THREE MILE ISLAND 1. William G. Weart, “Eisenhower Hails Atoms for Peace. He Dedicates Shippingport Unit, First for Commercial Use, by Remote Control,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16. 2. “British Claim First,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16; V. Emelianov, “Atomnuiu energiiu na sluzhbu miru i progressu,” Pravda, August 31, 1956, 3. 3. Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 54–55; Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 46, 102; “UK Marks 60th Anniversary of Calder Hall,” World Nuclear News, October 18, 2016, https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/UK-marks-60th-anniversary-of-Calder-Hall. 4. Historic Achievement Recognized: Shippingport Atomic Power Station, A National Engineering Historical Landmark (Pittsburgh, PA, 1980); “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30; Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Ira Chernus, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station, TX, 2002), xi–xix, 79–118. 5. Hon. Chet Holifield, “Extension of Remarks, Dedication of Atomic Nuclear Power Plant,” Congressional Record, Appendix, May 29, 1958, A4977. 6. “The Price-Anderson Act,” Center for Nuclear Science and Technology Information, https://cdn.ans.org/policy/statements/docs/ps54-bi.pdf; David M. Rocchio, “The Price-Anderson Act: Allocation of the Extraordinary Risk of Nuclear Generated Electricity: A Model Punitive Damage Provision,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 14, no. 3 (1987): 521–60; “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30. 7. Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen, Rickover: Father of the Nuclear Navy (Washington, DC, 2007); Theodore Rockwell, The Rickover Effect: How One Man Made A Difference (Bloomington, IN, 2002), 115–98. 8. Harold Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, PBS, 1999, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s; cf. Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 9. The History of Nuclear Energy, Department of Energy (Washington, DC, n.d.), 14–17; “Nuclear Power in the USA,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/usa-nuclear-power.aspx; J. Samuel Walker, Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 2004), 3–7. 10 Luke Phillips, “Nixon’s Nuclear Energy Vision,” October 20, 2016, Richard Nixon Foundation, https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/10/26948/; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s. 11 Walker, Three Mile Island, 7–9; Steven L. Del Sesto, “The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power in the United States and the Limits of Regulation,” Technology in Society 4, no. 4 (1982): 295–314; James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York, 2010), notes 222, 223; “Nuclear Energy in France,” France Embassy in Washington, DC, https://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article637. 12 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films, https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/56125. 13 Sue Reilly, “A Disaster Movie Comes True,” People (April 16, 1979). 14 John G. Fuller, We Almost Lost Detroit (New York, 1976); Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (Princeton, NJ, 1999), 50–54; Marsha Freeman, “Who Killed U.S. Nuclear Power?” 21st Century Science and Technology Magazine (Spring 2001), https://21sci-tech.com/articles/spring01/nuclear_power.html; Walker, Three Mile Island, 4, 20–28. 15 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films; David Burnham, “Nuclear Experts Debate ‘The China Syndrome,’ ” New York Times, March 18, 1979, D1; Natasha Zaretsky, Radiation Nation: Three Mile Island and the Political Transformation of the 1970s (New York, 2018), 69–70 [notes 43–44]. 16 “The Babcock & Wilcox Company,” Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/babcock-wilcox-company; “A Corporate History of Three Mile Island,” Three Mile Island Alert, http://www.tmia.com/corp.historyTMI; Walker, Three Mile Island, 43–50. 17 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings before the Task Force of the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session. Hearings Held in Washington, DC, May 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1979, 119–20, 149, 159. 18 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant, 122–25, 160. 19 “Three Mile Island Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/three-mile-island-accident.aspx; James J. Duderstadt and Louis J. Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis (New York, 1976), 91–92; Walker, Three Mile Island, 71–72. 20 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 343–45. 21 Report of the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (Washington, DC, 1979), 27–28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 134; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents. A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 344; Walker, Three Mile Island, 74. 22 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 131–32; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330. 23 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346; Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76–77. 24 Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Report of the President’s Commission, 26–28. 25 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144. 26 Report of the President’s Commission, 28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 175; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346–47. 27 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 137; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330–32, 348; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76. 28 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 172–73; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78. 29 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 347; Walker, Three Mile Island, 77. 30 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 169, 172. 31 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176–79, 182–83; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 348–49; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78–79. 32 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 186–87; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 33 Bob Lang in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 34 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 183–84. 35 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144, 188. 36 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 350–51; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 190, 202, 204; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 37 Walker, Three Mile Island, 81–82. 38 Walker, Three Mile Island, 80–82; Dick Thornburgh, Where the Evidence Leads: An Autobiography (Pittsburgh, PA, 2003); “Dick Thornburgh,” Dick Thornburgh Papers, University of Pennsylvania, http://thornburgh.library.pitt.edu/biography.html. 39 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82; Mike Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 40 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of the US House of Representatives, Ninety-Seventh Congress, First Session, March 1981 (Washington, DC, 1981), 105–6, 123, 127. 41 Report of the President’s Commission, 126. 42 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82–83; William Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 43 Walker, Three Mile Island, 86–87; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 110, 115; Report of the President’s Commission, 129. 44 Report of the President’s Commission, 131; Walker, Three Mile Island, 97–99; Donald Janson, “Radiation Released at the Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania,” New York Times, March 29, 1979, A1, D22. 45 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 115–17; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Walker, Three Mile Island, 108; Report of the President’s Commission, 135. 46 Walker, Three Mile Island, 109–13; Report of the President’s Commission, 134. 47 Report of the President’s Commission, 139; Ben A. Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, A1 and A8; Walker, Three Mile Island, 127–29. 48 Dick Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 49 Report of the President’s Commission, 140; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 77–81. 50 Walker, Three Mile Island, 115–18, 130; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 51 Report of the President’s Commission, 138; Walker, Three Mile Island, 123–24. 52 Walker, Three Mile Island, 130–36; Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension”; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 53 Walker, Three Mile Island, 137. 54 Richard D. Lyons, “Children Evacuated,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, 1; “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 55 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 68–70. 56 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 70–72. 57 Report of the President’s Commission, 29; Walker, Three Mile Island, 140–45; Lyons, “Children Evacuated.” 58 Walker, Three Mile Island, 151–55. 59 Lyons, “Children Evacuated”; Bob Dvorchak and Harry Rosenthal, “AP Was There: Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Accident,” AP News, May 30, 2017, https://apnews.com/ca23009ea5b54f21a3fed04065cacc7e/AP-WAS-THERE:-Three-Mile-Island-nuclear-power-plant-accident; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39. 60 Marsha McHenry in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 61 Dvorchak and Rosenthal, “AP Was There”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39; Ken Myers in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 62 Report of the President’s Commission, 143. 63 Walker, Three Mile Island, 155–70; Richard Thornburgh press conference in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 64 Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? The First Fifty Years (Fayetteville, AR, 1996), 53–57. 65 Gordon Edwards, “Reactor Accidents at Chalk River: The Human Fallout,” Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, http://www.ccnr.org/paulson_legacy.html. 66 Carter, Why Not the Best?, 54; Carter, A Full Life: Reflections at Ninety (New York, 2015), 64–65. 67 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 94–102. 68 Carter, A Full Life, 64–65; Jimmy Carter, “Nuclear Energy and World Order,” Address at the United Nations, May 13, 1976, http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00150-7.pdf; Walker, Three Mile Island, 132–33. 69 Walker, Three Mile Island, 119–21, 145–48; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 70 Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 71 Walker, Three Mile Island, 147–50, 153–55, 167–69. 72 Walker, Three Mile Island, 170. 73 Mike Gray in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 74 Richard D. Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant; Urges Cooperation in Crisis; Some Experts Voice Optimism,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1, A14. 75 Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 76 Watson, Three Mile Island, 183–86. 77 Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, A1. 78 Steven Rattner, “Carter to Ask Tax on Oil and Release of Price Restraints,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, 1; Walker, Three Mile Island, 210. 79 Terence Smith, “President Names Panel to Assess Nuclear Mishap,” New York Times, April 12, 1979, A1; “The Kemeny Commission’s Duty,” New York Times, April 15, 1979; Seth Faison, “John Kemeny, 66, Computer Pioneer and Educator,” New York Times, December 27, 1992. 80 Ronald M. Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission,” Nuclear News, March 2004, 61–62; David Laprad, “From a Potato Farm, to the White House, to Signal Mountain,” Hamilton County Herald, March 26, 2010. 81 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission.” 82 Report of the President’s Commission, 11. 83 Report of the President’s Commission, 8, 17. 84 Report of the President’s Commission, 98. 85 Report of the President’s Commission, 14; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 92–94. 86 Report of the President’s Commission, 12; Walker, Three Mile Island, 231, 234–37; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 89. 87 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 209–25. 88 Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Peter T. Kilborn, “Babcock and Wilcox Worried,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1. 89 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone.” 90 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 355–56; Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Roger Mattson in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; “Three Mile Island – Unit 2,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/decommissioning/power-reactor/three-mile-island-unit-2.html. 91 “Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 1,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission; “Three Mile Island Unit 1 to Shut Down by September 30, 2019,” Exelon Newsroom, May 8, 2019, https://www.exeloncorp.com/newsroom/three-mile-island-unit-1-to-shut-down-by-september-30-2019; Taylor Romine, “The Famous Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Is Closing,” CNN, September 19, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/19/us/nuclear-three-mile-island-closing/index.html; Diane Cardwell and Jonathan Soble, “Westinghouse Files for Bankruptcy, in Blow to Nuclear Power,” New York Times, March 29, 2017. Chapter V. THE STAR OF APOCALYPSE: CHERNOBYL 1. Iu. S. Osipov, “A. P. Aleksandrov i Akademiia nauk,” in A. P. Aleksandrov, Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow, 2003), 111–17. 2. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Perspektivy ėnergetiki,” Izvestiia, April 10, 1979, 2–3. 3. Gennadii Gerasimov, “Uroki Garrisburge,” Sovetskaia kultura, April 17, 1979. Cf. “K avarii v Garrisburge,” Pravda, April 2, 1954, 5; “V pogone za pribyliami,” Pravda Ukrainy, April 3, 1979; “Skonchalsia diplomat i zhurnalist-mezhdunarodnik Gennadii Gerasimov,” RIA Novosti July 17, 2010, https://ria.ru/20100917/276562069.html. 4. “Vystuplenie tov. L. I. Brezhneva na Plenume TsK KPSS,” Pravda, November 28, 1979, 1–2; Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 46. 5. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Nauchno-tekhnicheskii progress i atomnaia ėnergetika,” Problemy mira i sotsializma, 1979, no. 6: 15–20; E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28; Josephson, Red Atom, 22–25. 6. N. Dollezha l and Iu. Koriakin, “Iadernaia ėnergetika: dostizheniia, problemy,” Kommunist, 1979, no. 14: 69; cf. N. Dollezhal and Iu. Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” Problems in Economics 23 (June 1980): 3–20; Josephson, Red Atom, 43–44. 7. Dollezhal and Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” 6; Joan T. Debardeleben, “Esoteric Policy Debate: Nuclear Safety Issues in the Soviet Union and German Democratic Republic,” British Journal of Political Science 15, no. 2 (April 1985): 227–53; Nikolai Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira (zapiski konstruktora) (Moscow, 2010), 194–96. 8. Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 916–17; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 9. Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 97, 99, 102–3; Josephson, Red Atom, 26–28; “ Pervaia v mire AĖS,” Fiziko-ėnergeticheskii institut im. A. I. Leipunskogo, https://www.ippe.ru/history/1ae; Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 917–18. 10 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 155–57, 221–22; Alvin M. Weinberg and Eugene P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors (Chicago, 1958). 11 Schmid, Producing Power, 100; A Companion to Global Environmental History, ed. J. R. McNeill and Erin Stewart Mauldin (New York, 2012), 308. 12 Schmid, Producing Power, 103–8; Josephson, Red Atom, 28–32, 37–43. 13 Schmid, Producing Power, 127; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 160–61, 225–26. 14 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161–62; Thomas Filburn and Stephan Bullard, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima: Curse of the Nuclear Genie (Cham, 2016), 46–48. 15 Schmid, Producing Power, 110–11; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 224–25. 16 Schmid, Producing Power, 114, 120; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161. 17 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 357–58. 18 Sonja D. Schmid, “From “Inherently Safe” to “Proliferation Resistant”: New Perspectives on Reactor Designs, Nuclear Technology 207, no. 9 (2021): 1312–28. 19 Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2020), 27, 31–33. 20 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 32–34; Schmid, Producing Power, 116. 21 Schmid, Producing Power, 114–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358. 22 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358–461. 23 Lina Zernova, “Leningradskii Chernobyl’,” Bellona, April 4, 2016, https://bellona.ru/2016/04/04/laes75/; Vitalii Borets, “Kak gotovilsia vzryv Chernobylia,” Pripiat.com Sait goroda Pripiat, http://pripyat.com/articles/kak-gotovilsya-vzryv-chernobylya-vospominaniya-vibortsa.html; “Avariia na bloke no. 1 Leningradskoi AĖS (SSSR), sviazannaia s razrusheniem tekhnologicheskogo kanala,” Radiatsionnaia bezopasnost’ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Federatsii, MChS Rossii, http://rb.mchs.gov.ru/mchs/radiation_accidents/m_other_accidents/1975_god/Avarija_na_bloke_1_Leningradskoj_AJES_SS. 24 M. Borisov, “Chto meshaet professionalizmu,” Isvestiia, February 27, 1984, 2. 25 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 24–26; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 7–24. 26 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 76–78. 27 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 76–77; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 77–78; Yurii Trehub in Yurii Shcherbak, Chernobyl’: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie (Moscow, 1991). 28 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 362; Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York and London, 1990), 14–19. 29 Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 13; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 75. 30 Igor Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 366; Nikolai Kapran, Chernobyl’: mest’ mirnogo atoma (Kyiv, 2005), 312–13. 31 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 64, 69–70; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 69–70; Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 34. 32 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363–64. 33 Razim Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” in Chernobyl’ desiat’ let spustia: neizbezhnost’ ili sluchainost’ (Moscow, 1995), 381–82. 34 Anatolii Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo (Moscow, 2003), 31. 35 Kazachkov and Trehub in Shcherbak, Chernoby l’, 367, 370; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363. 36 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 78–81. 37 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 30. 38 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 31; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 82–84; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 364–65. 39 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 40 Borys Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS—o rokovom ėksperimente i doprosakh KGB,” KishkiNA, July 14, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPRyciXh07k. 41 “Sequence of Events—Chernobyl Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/appendices/chernobyl-accident-appendix-1-sequence-of-events.aspx; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 366–67. 42 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 8, 49. 43 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 44 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 50–54; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 105–9. 45 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 46 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 53. 47 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 48 Svetlana Alexievich, Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclea r Disaster (New York, 2005), 5–8; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 87–110, 144–49. 49 Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia, 53. 50 Valerii Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS i atomnaia ėnergetika SSSR,” Skepsis: Nauchno-prosvetitel’skii zhurnal, https://scepsis.net/library/id_3203.html. 51 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; A. N. Makukhin, “Srochnoe donesenie,” April 26, 1986; Chernobyl’: Dokumenty. The National Security Archive, The George Washington University, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-26.pdf. 52 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 128–32. 53 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 132–42, 150–55. 54 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 153–63. 55 William Taubman, Gorbachev: His Life and Times (New York, 2017), 169–70, 238. 56 Minutes of the Politburo Meeting of July 3, 1986, in V Politbiuro TsK KPSS: Po zapisiam Anatoliia Cherniaeva, Vadima Medvedeva, Georgiia Shakhnazarova, 1985–1991 (Moscow, 2006), 61–66; Iu. A. Izraėl’, “O posledstviiakh avarii na Chernobyl’skoi AĖS,” April 27, 1986, National Security Archive, https://constitutions.ru/?p=23420; https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-27.Report.pdf. 57 Vypiska iz protokola no. 7 zasedaniia Politbiuro, April 28, 1986, Informatsiia ob avarii na Chernobyl’skoi atomnoi ėlektrostantsii 26 aprelia 1986 g., Gorbachev Foundation Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-28.Politburo.pdf; Text of the official announcement in “Avarii na Chenobyl’skoi AĖS ispolniaetsia 30 let,” Mezhdunarodnaia panorama, April 25, 2016; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 172–74. 58 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 1–3; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 170–72. 59 Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: An Environmental History of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York, 2019), 33–37. 60 Luther Whitington, “Chernobyl Reactor Still Burning,” UPI Archives, April 29, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/29/Chernobyl-reactor-still-burning/9981572611428/. 61 Kost’ Bondarenko, “Shcherbitsky Live. Chto nuzhno znat’ o znamenitom lidere sovetskoi Ukrainy,” Strana.UA, February 17, 2018, https://strana.ua/articles/istorii/124635-shcherbitskij-live-chto-nuzhno-znat-o-znamenitom-lidere-sovetskoj-ukrainy-kotoromu-sehodnja-by-ispolnilos-100-let.html; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 182–84; Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB. Suspil’ni nastroï. ChAES u postavariinyi period. Zbirnyk dokumentiv pro katastrofu na Chornobyl’s’kii AES, comp. Oleh Bazhan, Volodymyr Birchak, and Hennadii Boriak (Kyiv, 2019), 47. 62 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 165; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 185–86; Igor’ Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon.’ 20 let nazad Moskvu moglo nakryt’ radioaktivnoe oblako,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 21, 2006. 63 Katie Canales, “Photos show what daily life is really like inside Cherno­byl’s exclusion zone, one of the most polluted areas in the world,” Business Insider, April 20, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/what-daily-life-inside-chernobyls-exclusion-zone-is-really-like-2019-4#the-chernobyl-exclusion-zone-is-now-the-officially-designated-exclusion-zone-in-ukraine-5. 64 “Protokol no. 3 zasedaniia operativnoi gruppy Politbiuro,” May 1, 1986, Chernobyl: Dokumenty. National Security Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-01.Minutes.pdf; V. I. Andriianov and V. G. Chirskov, Boris Shcherbina (Moscow, 2009). 65 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 197, 201, 204–7. 66 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 215; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 208–10. 67 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 196–97, 210–12. 68 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 208; Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon’ ”; Vasilii Semashko, “Osazhdalis’ li ‘chernobyl’skie oblaka’ na Belarus’?” Belorusskie novosti, April 23, 2007, https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2007/04/23/ic_articles_116_150633. 69 Iulii Andreev, “Neschast’ia akademika Legasova,” Lebed: Nezavisimyi bostonskii al’manakh, October 2, 2005, http://lebed.com/2005/art4331.htm. 70 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; “Ot Fantomasa do Makkeny: kinokritik Denis Gorelov—o liubimykh zarubezhnykh fil’makh sovetskikh kinozritelei,” Seldon News, July 29, 2019; Rafael’ Arutiunian, “Kitaiskii sindrom,” Skepsis, https://scepsis.net/library/id_710.html. 71 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/news/newsid_4936000/4936186.stm; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 191–95. 72 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 239–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 249–66; Iu. M. Krupka and S. H. Plankova, “Zakon Ukraïny ‘Pro status i sotsial’nyi zakhyst hromadian, iaki postrazhdaly vnaslidok Chornobyl’s’koï katastrofy, 1991,’ ” Iurydychna entsyklopediia, ed. Iu. S. Shemchuchenko (Kyiv, 1998), 2; Adriana Petryna, Life Exposed: Biological Citizens and Chernobyl (Princeton, 2003), 107–14, 130–48. 73 “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 74 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 196–97; 228–29; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 236–38; Nikolai Ryzhkov to the Central Committee, May 14, 1986, National Security Archive, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/r09c6d-gecie/1986.05.14%20Ryzhkov%20Memorandum%20on%20Chernobyl.pdf. “Chernobyl’skaia katastrofa v dokumentakh Politbiuro TsK KPSS,” Rodina, 1992, no. 1: 84–85; Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo Operational Group, May 10, 1986, National Security Archive, 2, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-10.Politburo.pdf; Brown, Manual for Survival, 102–10. 75 Alla Iaroshinskaia, Chernobyl’ 20 let spustia: prestuplenie bez nakazaniia (Moscow, 2006), 448; Higginbotham, Midnight in C hernobyl, 270–74; Taubman, Gorbachev, 241–42. 76 Anatolii Aleksandrov, Autobiography, in Fiziki o sebe, ed. V. Ia. Frenkel’ (Leningrad, 1990), 277–83, here 282. 77 V Politbiuro TsK KPSS, 62. 78 Svetlana Samodelova, “Kak ubivali akademika Legasova, kotoryi provel sobstvennoe rassledovanie Chernobyl’skoi katastrofy,” Moskovskii komsomolets, April 25, 2017; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 275–77, 321–26. 79 Oleksii Breus in “Rozsekrechena istoriia. Choornobyl: shcho vstanovylo rozsliduvannia katastrofy?” Suspilne movlennia, April 28, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2qulMBzjmI&fbclid=IwAR2Qqd7E9a7J66NqsIVUoQwUK0r0wJtseHOmmxkl1xu368wLYBKKYk8o8kY; Igor Gegel, “Sudebnoe ėkho tekhnogennykh katastrof v pechati,” Mediaskop 2011, no. 2, http://www.mediascope.ru/en/node/834. 80 Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB, 216–17, 237; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 314–20. 81 Chernobylskaia avariia: Doklad Mezhdunarodnoi konsul’tativnoi gruppy po iadernoi bezopasnosti, INSAG-7, dopolnenie k INSAG-1 (Vienna, 1993), 29–31; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 346–49. 82 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006; Taubman, Gorbachev, 242. 83 Jane I. Dawson, Econationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania and Ukraine (Durham, NC, 1996), 59–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 285–330. 84 Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014), 295–387. 85 “Nuclear Power in Ukraine,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/ukraine.aspx; “World Nuclear Industry Status Report,” https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/; “RBMK Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx; Aria Bendix, “Russia still has 10 Chernobyl-style reactors that scientists say aren’t necessarily safe,” Business Insider, June 4, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/could-chernobyl-happen-again-russia-reactors-2019-6. 86 Kim Hjelmgaard, “Chernobyl Impact Is Breathtakingly Grim,” USA Today, April 17, 2016; Paulina Dedaj, “Chernobyl’s $1.7B Nuclear Confinement Shelter Revealed after Taking 9 Years to Complete,” Fox News, July 3, 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/world/chernobyl-nuclear-confinement-shelter-revealed. 87 Mary Mycio, Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl (Washington, DC, 2005), 217–42; David R. Marples, “The Decade of Despair,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 52, no. 3 (May–June 1996): 20–31; Judith Miller, “Chernobyl—Here’s What I Saw, Heard and Felt When I Visited the Site Last Year,” Fox News, May 2, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/chernobyl-site-judith-miller.amp?cmpid=prn_newsstand. 88 Brown, Manual for Survival, 240–48; Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, and Thomas E. Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–817, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html. 89 Keiji Suzuki, Norisato Mitsutake, Vladimir Saenko, and Shunichi Yamashita, “Radiation signatures in childhood thyroid cancers after the Chernobyl accident: Possible roles of radiation in carcinogenesis,” Cancer Science 106, no. 2 (February 2015): 127–33. 90 Brown, Manual for Survival, 227–76. 91 Brown, Manual for Survival, 249–64; Germán Orizaola, “Chernobyl Has Become a Refuge for Wildlife 33 Years After the Nuclear Accident,” The World, May 13, 2019, https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-05-13/chernobyl-has-become-refuge-wildlife-33-years-after-nuclear-accident; “Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/; Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents,” 808; “Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis,” Union of Concerned Scientists, April 22, 2011; “The Chernobyl Catastrophe: Consequences on Human Health,” Greenpeace 2006; Charles Hawley and Stefan Schmitt, “Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy, “ Spiegel International, April 18, 2006. Chapter VI. NUCLEAR TSUNAMI: FUKUSHIMA 1. Gerald M. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1. 2. Clyde Haberman, “5 Missiles, Discharged Shortly Before Reagan Visit, Miss the Target,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1; Susan Chira, “Tokyo Subway Traffic Disrupted by a Series of Small Explosions,” New York Times, May 6, 1986, A1. 3. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety.” 4. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake, Documents Show,” Japan Times, December 20, 2017. 5. U.S. Department of State Bull etin, no. 2112 (July 1986): 4–5; Economic Summits, 1975–1986: Declarations (Rome, 1987): 145–46; “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 6. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake”; “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; “IAEA Warned Japan Over Nuclear Quake Risk: WikiLeaks,” Indian Express, March 17, 2011. 7. Mayako Shimamoto, “Abolition of Ja pan’s Nuclear Power Plants?: Analysis from a Historical Perspective on Early Cold War, 1944–1955,” in Japan Viewed from Interdisciplinary Perspectives: History and Prospects, ed. Yoneyuki Sugita (Lanham, MD, 2015), 264–66; John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA, 2005), 150–86. 8. Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies, 182–83; “Atomic Energy Basic Act,” Act No. 186 of December 19, 1955, Japanese Law Translation, http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=1&re=01&dn=1&x=0&y=0&co=01&ia=03&ja=04&ky=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95&page=3; Mari Yamaguchi, “Yasuhiro Nakasone: Japanese Prime Minister at Height of Country’s Economic Growth,” Independent, December 21, 2019. 9. Kennedy Maize, “A Short History of Nuclear Power in Japan,” Power, March 14, 2011, https://www.powermag.com/blog/a-short-history-of-nuclear-power-in-japan/. 10 Nobumasa Akiyama, “America’s Nuclear Nonproliferation Order and Japan-US Relations,” Japan and the World, Japan Digital Library (March 2017), 3–5, http://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/digital_library/world.php; “Tokai no. 2 Power Station,” The Japan Atomic Power Company, http://www.japc.co.jp/english/power_stations/tokai2.html. 11 “The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html. 12 Kiyonobu Yamashita, “History of Nuclear Technology Development in Japan,” AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 020003 (2015): 6–7, https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916842; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York and London, 2014), 380–83. 13 The Fukushima Daiichi Accident: Description and Context of the Accident, Technical Volume 1/5 (Vienna, 2015), 59–64; TEPCO, Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, History, https://www7.tepco.co.jp/about/corporate/history-e.html; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York and London, 2014), 40–41. 14 Takafumi Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University, August 7, 2013, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1698290. 15 Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima”; “Action Alert: Japanese Activists Ask for Support,” November 23, 1990, World International Service on Energy, https://web.archive.org/web/20120326134237/http://www.klimaatkeuze.nl/wise/monitor/342/3418. 16 “TEPCO Chairman, President Announce Resignations Over Nuclear Coverups,” Japan Times, September 2, 2002; Masanori Makita, Naotaka Ito, and Mirai Nagira, “Ex-TEPCO Chairman Sorry for Nuke Accident but Says He Was Not in Control of Utility in 2011,” The Mainichi, October 30, 2018; Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 388. 17 “Operator of Fukushima Nuke Plant Admitted to Faking Repair Records,” Herald Sun, March 20, 2011. 18 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 378–79. 19 Lochbaum et al, Fukushima, 52–54; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, May 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516986; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 387–91; “Putting Tsunami Countermeasures on Hold at Fukushima Nuke Plant ‘Natural’: ex-TEPCO VP,” The Mainichi, October 20, 2018. 20 M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan, Earthquake Hazards Program, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30/executive#executive. 21 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 1–3; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 377, 390; “Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation Associated with 2011 Tohoku District,” National Police Agency of Japan Emergency Disaster ­Countermeasures Headquarters, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earth­-quake2011/pdf/higaijokyo_e.pdf. 22 Ryusho Kadota, On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi (Kumamoto: Kurodahan Press, 2014), 7–16. 23 Kadota, On the Brink, 7–16; Mahaff ey, Atomic Accidents, 388–90; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3–5. 24 The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission Report (Tokyo, 2012), chap. 2, 1–2; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 391–92. 25 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3, 10–12; Airi Ryu and Najmedin Meshkati, “Onagawa: The Japanese Nuclear Power Plant That Didn’t Melt Down on 3/11,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 10, 2014. 26 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33. 27 Kadota, On the Brink, 33–48; Tatsuyuki Kobori, “Report: Fukushi ma Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disaster Digital Archive, December 28, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1532037. 28 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–17, 22; Kadota, On the Brink, 43. 29 “Tokyo: Earthquake During Parliament Session,” March 11, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGrddjwY8zM; “What Went Wrong: Fukushima Flashback a Month after Crisis Started,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 4, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516215; Naoto Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare: Leading Japan through the Fukushima Disaster to a Nuclear-Free Future (Ithaca, NY, 2017), 28–29. 30 “Kan: Activist, Politico, Mah-jongg Lover,” Yomiuri Shimbun, June 5, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215002/http:/news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Asia/Story/A1Story20100605-220351.html. 31 Hideaki Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap: 5 da ys in the Prime Minister’s Office,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516701; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 2, 30–31. 32 “Statement by Prime Minister Naoto Kan on Tohoku district—off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake,” Friday, March 11 at 4:55 p.m., 2011 [Provisional Translation], Speeches and Statements by the Prime Minister, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, https://japan.kantei.go.jp/kan/statement/201103/11kishahappyo_e.html. 33 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–18. 34 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 35 “What Went Wrong.” 36 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 37 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24; “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 38 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 41–42; “What Went Wrong.” 39 “What Went Wrong.” 40 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori, “Report: Fukushima Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis”; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 43–45; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24. 41 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 25. 42 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “What Went Wrong.” 43 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 44 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 48; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die,’ ” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 13, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1531834. 45 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, February 29, 2012, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516636. 46 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response.” 47 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 52; “What Went Wrong”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 48 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 31–33, 57, 60; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 395–96. 49 “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12 2011—Japanese nuclear plant blast),” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psAuFr8Xeqs. 50 “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12, 2011). 51 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 59. 52 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 55–57; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396; “Fukushima Daiichi Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident.aspx. 53 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 380–84. 54 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 55 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60–61; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Nuke Plant Manager Ignores Bosses, Pumps in Seawater after Order to Halt,” Asahi Shimbun, May 27, 2011, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516396. 56 Toshihiro Okuyama, Hideaki Kimura, and Takashi Sugimoto, “Inside Fukushima: How Workers Tried but Failed to Avert a Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, October 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517417. 57 Okuyama et al., “Inside Fukushima”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 58 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396–97; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 59 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 7, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517276. 60 “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident.” 61 “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 10, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Hideaki Kimura, Takaaki Yorimitsu, and Tomomi Miyazaki, “Plaintiffs Seek Preservation of TEPCO Teleconference Videos,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 28, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517135. 62 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 80–84; Yoichi Funabashi, Meltdown: Inside the Fukushima Nuclear Crisis (Washington, DC, 2021), 136–40; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Ex-Fukushima Nuclear Plant Chief Denies ‘Pullout’ in Video,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 12, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517286; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response.” 63 Funabashi, Meltdown, 140–43; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 64 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap;” Funabashi, Meltdown, 145. 65 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3, 14. 66 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 67 Funabashi, Meltdown, 145–46. 68 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397. 69 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 75–76; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Japan Earthquake: Explosion at Fukushima Nuclear Plant,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OO_w8tCn9gU; Tatsuyuki Kobori, Jin Nishikawa, and Naoya Kon, “Remembering 3/11: Fukushima Plant’s ‘Fateful Day’ Was March 15,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 8, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516688. 70 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori et al., “Remembering 3/11.” 71 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 95–99; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98; “What Went Wrong.” 72 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98. 73 “Fukushima Plant Chief Defied TEPCO Headquarters to Protect Workers,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517505. 74 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html. 75 Takashi Sugimoto and Hideaki Kimura, “TEPCO Failed to Respond to Dire Warning of Radioactive Water Leaks at Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517504; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 76 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 77 “Fukushima Nuclear Chief Masao Yoshida Dies,” BBC News, July 10, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102; https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102. 78 Geoff Brumfiel, “Fukushima Reaches Cold Shutdown, but Milestone is More Symbolic than Real,” Nature, December 16, 2011; “Mid-and-Long-Term Roadmap towards the Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Units 1-4,” TEPCO, December 21, 2011 [Provisional Translation], http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/111221e10.pdf; https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 79 “2.4 trillion Yen in Fukushima Crisis Compensation Costs to be Tacked Onto Power Bills,” The Mainichi, December 10, 2016. 80 Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, Alexander and Thomas Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents: A Review of the Environmental Impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–17, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html; A. Hasegawa et al., “Health Effects of Radiation and Other Health Problems in the Aftermath of Nuclear Accidents, with an Emphasis on Fukushima,” The Lancet 386, no. 9992 (August 2015): 479–88; Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu, Nikolaos Evangeliou, Timothy Alexander Mousseau, Junwen Wu, and Ahmad Termizi Ramli, “An Overview of Current Knowledge Concerning the Health and Environmental Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) Accident,” Environment International 85 (December 2015): 213–28, https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/10140/1/(ITEM_10140)_steve_thomas_2013.pdf. 81 Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents”; Fuminori Tamba, “The Evacuation of Residents after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” in Fukushima: A Political and Economic Analysis of a Nuclear Disaster, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida (Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press, 2013), 89–108. 82 Jane Braxton Little, “Fukushima Residents Return Despite Radiation,” Scientific American, January 16, 2019; Michael Penn, “‘We don’t know when it will end’: 10 years after Fukushima,” Al Jazeera, March 9, 2021. 83 Jennifer Jett and Ben Dooley, “Fukushima Wastewater Will Be Released Into the Ocean, Japan Says,” New York Times, April 12, 2021; Dennis Normile, “Japan Plans to Release Fukushima’s Wastewater into the Ocean,” Science, April 13, 2021. 84 “ENSI Report on Fukushima III: Lessons Learned,” Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate, https://www.ensi.ch/en/ensi-report-on-fukushima-iii-lessons-learned/; “Organizational Issues of the Parties Involved in the Accident,” The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission, https://warp.da.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/3856371/naiic.go.jp/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/NAIIC_Eng_Chapter5_web.pdf. 85 Magdalena Osumi, “Former TEPCO Executives Found Not Guilty of Criminal Negligence in Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,” Japan Times, September 19, 2019; “High Court Orders TEPCO to Pay More in Damages to Fukushima Evacuees,” The Mainichi, March 13, 2020; “TEPCO ordered to pay minimal damages to Fukushima evacuees; Japan gov’t liability denied,” The Mainichi, December 18, 2019; Motoko Rich, “Japan and Utility Are Found Negligent Again in Fukushima Meltdowns,” New York Times, October 10, 2017. 86 “Liability for Nuclear Damage,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/liability-for-nuclear-damage.aspx. 87 Miranda A. Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Implications for Japan,” in Fukushima, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida, 1–20, here 16–20; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 16–30. 88 “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; Steve Kidd, “Japan—is there a future in nuclear?” Nuclear Engineering International, July 4, 2018, https://www.neimagazine.com/opinion/opinionjapan-is-there-a-future-in-nuclear-6231610/; Ken Silverstein, “Japan Circling Back To Nuclear Power After Fukushima Disaster,” Forbes, September 8, 2017; Florentine Koppenborg, “Nuclear Restart Politics: How the ‘Nuclear Village’ Lost Policy Implementation Power,” Social Science Japan Journal 24, no. 1 (Winter 2021): 115–35. 89 Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” 7–10; Fumikazu Yoshida, “Future Perspectives,” in Fukushima, ed. Schreus and Yoshida, 113–16; Elliott, Fukushima, 32–37. 90 Abby Rogers, “The 20 Countries with The Most Nuclear Reactors,” Business Insider, October 11, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/the-countries-with-the-most-nuclear-reactors-2011-10#11-china-10; James Griffiths, “China’s gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose?” CNN Business, September 13, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/13/business/china-nuclear-climate-intl-hnk/index.html; “Nuclear Power in China,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx. 91 Mycle Schneider, Antony Froggatt et al., The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013 (Paris and London, July 2013), 6; Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Sean McDonagh, Fukushima: The Death Knell for Nuclear Energy? (Dublin, 2012). Afterword: WHAT COMES NEXT? 1. Ayesha Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation,” Reuters, February 9, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-nrc/u-s-approves-first-new-nuclear-plant-in-a-generation-idUSTRE8182J720120209; Meghan Anzelc, “Gregory Jaczko, Ph.D. Physics, Commissioner, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,” American Physical Society, https://www.aps.org/units/fgsa/careers/non-traditional/jaczko.cfm; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2014), 89–96, 172–77. 2. Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation”; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 3 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog3.html; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 4 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog4.html; Abbie Bennett, “Southern CEO maintains Vogtle Unit 3 will start up in 2022, despite latest delay,” S&P Global Market Intelligence, November 4, 2021. 3. “Our Mission,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/our-association/who-we-are/mission.aspx; “The Harmony Programme,” World Nuclear Association, https://world-nuclear.org/harmony; “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 4. Gregory Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator (New York, 2019), 163, 165. 5. “Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Thomas Rose and Trevor Sweeting, “Severe Nuclear Accidents and Learning Effects,” IntechOpen, November 5, 2018, https://www.intechopen.com/books/statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics/severe-nuclear-accidents-and-learning-effects. 6. James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014). 7. “International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES),” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/international-nuclear-and-radiological-event-scale; Nuclear accidents—INES scale 1957–2011, Statista Research Department, May 12, 2011, https://www.statista.com/statistics/273002/the-biggest-nuclear-accidents-worldwide-rated-by-ines-scale/. 8. International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period: A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 2006). 9. J. Schofield, “Nuclear Sharing and Pakistan, North Korea and Iran,” in Strategic Nuclear Sharing, Global Issues Series (London, 2014). 10 Jeffrey Cassandra and , “Big Money, Nuclear Subsidies, and Systemic Corruption,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, February 12, 2021. 11 Dan Yurman and David Dalton, “China Keen to Match Pace Set by Russia in Overseas Construction,” NucNET, The Independent Nuclear News Agency, January 23, 2020, https://www.nucnet.org/news/china-keen-to-match-pace-set-by-russia-in-overseas-construction-1-4-2020. 12 “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Ivan Nechepurenko and Andrew Higgins, “Coming to a Country Near You: A Russian Nuclear Power Plant,” New York Times, March 21, 2020; Matthew Sparks, “Chernobyl radiation spike probably from Russian tanks disturbing dust,” New Scientist, February 25, 2022. 13 Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 118–19; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 409. 14 Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator, 167. kgmrcjfre8oqvttn686acfh5u5pigqq 519331 519317 2022-07-31T00:03:17Z InternetArchiveBot 34092 Bluelink 12 books for [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (invoked by [[User:Markjgraham hmb]])) #IABot (v2.0.8.9) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] wikitext text/x-wiki * Preface: STOLEN FIRE * 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. * 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 192; “Remarks prepared by Lewis L. Strauss,” United States Atomic Energy Commission, September 16, 1954, 9, https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1613/ML16131A120.pdf; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 88–90. ** [cite1]: {{Cite journal |journal=United States Atomic Energy Commission |title=Notitle-title |date=2012 |author1=Gerard, J |author2=Degroot |author3=Spencer, R |author4=Weart |editor=Lewis L. Strauss }} * 3. “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Marton Dunai and Geert De Clercq, “Nuclear Energy Too Slow, Too Expensive to Save Climate: Report,” Reuters, September 23, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-nuclearpower/nuclear-energy-too-slow-too-expensive-to-save-climate-report-idUSKBN1W909J; Amory B. Lovins, “Why Nuclear Power’s Failure in the Marketplace is Irreversible (Fortunately for Nonproliferation and Climate Protection),” in Nuclear Power and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, ed. Paul L. Levinthal, Sharon Tanzer, and Steven Dolley (Washington, DC, 2002), 69–84. ** [cite2]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=Why Nuclear Power’s Failure in the Marketplace is Irreversible (Fortunately for Nonproliferation and Climate Protection),” in Nuclear Power and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=Amory B. Lovins |date=2002 |editor1=Paul L. Levinthal, Sharon Tanzer, |editor2=Steven Dolley }} * 4. George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA, 1999); “Iran and the NPT,” Iran Primer, United States Institute of Peace, https://iranprimer.usip.org/index.php/blog/2020/jan/22/iran-and-npt. * 5. World Energy Model. Scenario Analysis of Future Energy Trends, International Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-model/sustainable-development-scenario; “Where Does Our Electricity Come From?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/where-does-our-electricity-come-from.aspx; “European Commission declares nuclear and gas to be green,” Deutche Welle, February 2, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/european-commission-declares-nuclear-and-gas-to-be-green/a-60614990. * 6. “Electricity Explained,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php; “How Can Nuclear Combat Climate Change?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/how-can-nuclear-combat-climate-change.aspx. * 7. “Nuclear Energy in the U.S.: Expensive Source Competing with Cheap Gas and Renewables,” Climate Nexus, https://climatenexus.org/climate-news-archive/nuclear-energy-us-expensive-source-competing-cheap-gas-renewables/; Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 247–55; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 2–5. * 8. “General Overview Worldwide, “The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2019, https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-HTML.html. * 9. Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 117–18. * 10 “INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf; “Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15. * Chapter I. WHITE ASHES: BIKINI ATOLL * 1. Steve Weintz, “Think Your Job Is Rough? Try Disabling a Nuclear Bomb,” The National Interest, January 7, 2020; John C. Clark as told to Robert Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” Saturday Evening Post (July 20, 1957), 17–19, 64–66, here 17. * 2. Major General P. W. Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army, 1954), 121. ** [cite3]: {{Cite book |title=History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army |year=1954 |editor=2. Major General P. W. Clarkson }} * 3. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 18–19. * 4. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 64. * 5. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 65–66. * 6. Bill Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” Saturday Evening Post (April 19, 1952), 32–33, 185–88, here 33, 186; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 8–32. ** [cite4]: {{Cite book |title=The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs |volume=33 |date=2005 |author=Degroot, Gerard }} * 7. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1986), 428–42; “Alvin Graves,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/alvin-graves; Michael Drapa, “A witness to atomic history: Ted Petry recounts the world’s first nuclear reaction at UChicago, 75 years later,” University of Chicago, November 13, 2017, https://www.uchicago.edu/features/a_witness_to_atomic_history/. * 8. DeGroot, The Bomb, 37–65, 82–105. ** [cite5]: {{Cite book |title=The Bomb |author=Degroot }} * 9. Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33; Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” Saturday Review of Literature, August 18, 1945, reprinted in Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York, 1967), 120–30; DeGroot, The Bomb, 74–75. * 10 Philip L. Fradkin, Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (Tucson, AZ, 1989), 89–91, 256; Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33, 186; “Floy Agnes Lee’s Interview,” Voices of the Manhattan Project, 11–12, https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/floy-agnes-lees-interview. ** [cite6]: {{Cite book |title=Floy Agnes Lee’s Interview,” Voices of the Manhattan Project |publisher=Becker |volume=33 |date=1989. 256. 186 |author=Fradkin, Philip }} * 11 Fradkin, Fallout, 106–11; Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (The Woodlands, TX, 1986), 363; Operation Upshot-Knothole Fact Sheet (Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, July 2007). ** [cite7]: {{Cite book |title=Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing |date=2007 |author=Miller, Richard }} * 12 De Groot, The Bomb, 162–84. * 13 “Percy Clarkson, General, 68, Dies,” New York Times, September 15, 1962, 25. ** [cite8]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Notitle-title |volume=68 |date=September 15, 1962, 25 |author=Percy Clarkson }} * 14 Richard Rh odes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 1995), 482–512. * 15 “Interview with Edward Teller,” National Security Archive, Episode 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/coldwar/interviews/episode-8/teller1.html; Rhodes, Dark Sun, 541–42; DeGroot, The Bomb, 177–79. * 16 Alex Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953),” Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog, February 8, 2012; We llerstein, Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States (Chicago, 2021), 241–44, 248; Thomas Kunkle and Byron Ristvet, Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore. A Guide to Off-Site Radiation Exposures (Kirtland AFB, NM: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, January 2013), 49, 51. * 17 Laura A. Bruno, “The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 33, no. 2 (2003): 237–60, here 246; W. G. Van Dorn, Ivy-Mike: The First Hydrogen Bomb (Bloomington, IN, 2008), 13, 36, 43–44, 170–71; Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953).” ** [cite9]: {{Cite journal |journal=Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences |title=The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War |volume=33 |number=2 |date=1953 |author=Bruno, Laura }} * 18 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 10, 54. * 19 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 4–8. * 20 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 6; Ma rtha Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War (Honolulu, 2016), 44–50; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 17. ** [cite10]: {{Cite book |title=History of Operation Castle, 6; Ma rtha Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War |author1=Clarkson, ; |author2=Kunkle |author3=Ristvet, Castle |author4=Bravo }} * 21 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 30–31. * 22 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 220–29. * 23 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 88; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 79–80, 81, 135. ** [cite11]: {{Cite book |title=88; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle |volume=81 |author1=23 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 24 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 44–47, 108. * 25 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 31; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 119. * 26 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 181; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 2, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a995409.pdf; Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” ** [cite12]: {{Cite journal |journal=Final Report |title=History of Operation Castle, 121, 181; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |publisher=Clark and Cahn |volume=2 |number=2 |year=1985 |author=Clarkson }} * 27 Walmer E. Strope quoted in “Castle-Bravo Nuclear Test Fallout Cover-Up,” https://glasstone.blogspot.com/2010/09/castle-bravo-nuclear-test-fallout-cover.html. ** [cite13]: {{Cite book |title=Strope quoted in “Castle-Bravo Nuclear Test Fallout Cover-Up |author=Walmer, E }} * 28 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3: Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 118. * 29 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 51–52. * 30 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 1–2. * 31 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout”; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. * 32 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. * 33 Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3, 4. * 34 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy (Cambridge, 2017), 56–57; “Race for the Superbomb,” transcript, American Experience, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/bomb/#transcript; “World’s Biggest Bomb,” transcript, Secrets of the Dead, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-worlds-biggest-bomb-watch-the-full-episode/863/; Bill Bryson, The Life and Times of Thunderbolt Kid: A Memoir (New York, 2006), 123–24. ** [cite14]: {{Cite journal |journal=American Experience, PBS |title=Race for the Superbomb |year=2006 |author1=Keith, M |author2=Parsons, Robert |author3=Zaballa }} * 35 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121–23. * 36 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” * 37 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121; Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 4. ** [cite15]: {{Cite journal |journal=Final Report |title=History of Operation Castle, 121; Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety |publisher=ADA995409 |volume=2 |number=4 |year=1985 |author=Clarkson }} * 38 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. ** [cite16]: {{Cite book |title=Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |volume=109 |number=4 |author1=38 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 39 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 107, 109. * 40 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. ** [cite17]: {{Cite book |title=Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |volume=109 |number=4 |author1=40 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 41 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 111–12; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 6. ** [cite18]: {{Cite book |title=Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |volume=2 |number=6 |author1=41 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 42 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. ** [cite19]: {{Cite book |title=42 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |volume=2 |number=7 |author1=Kunkle, Ristvet |author2=Bravo, Castle }} * 43 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 8–9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 126; Operation CASTLE Commander’s Report, https://archive.org/details/CastleCommandersReport1954. ** [cite20]: {{Cite journal |journal=Report |title=History of Operation Castle, 121, 126; Operation CASTLE Commander’s |publisher=Clarkson |volume=115 |number=8-9 |author1=43 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 44 Jack Niedenthal, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands (Boulder, CO: Bravo Publishers, 2001). ** [cite21]: {{Cite book |title=For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands |publisher=Bravo Publishers |year=2001 |author=Niedenthal, Jack }} * 45 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 74; Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders (New York, 1998), 25. ** [cite22]: {{Cite book |title=Bombing the Marshall Islands, 74; Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders |year=1998 |author1=Keith, M |author2=Parsons, Robert |author3=Zaballa }} * 46 Stewart Firth, Nuclear Playground (Sydney, 1987), 16. ** [cite23]: {{Cite book |title=Nuclear Playground (Sydney, 1987) |author=Firth, Stewart }} * 47 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 73–74; Dibblin, Day of Two Suns, 24–25. * 48 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115. ** [cite24]: {{Cite book |title=48 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |volume=2 |number=7 |author1=Kunkle, Ristvet |author2=Bravo, Castle }} * 49 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127. ** [cite25]: {{Cite book |title=Operation Castle: Radiological Safety |publisher=Clarkson, History of Operation Castle |volume=115 |number=9 |author1=49 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 50 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 122–24; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. ** [cite26]: {{Cite book |title=Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle |volume=2 |number=9 |author1=50 Kunkle |author2=Ristvet, Castle |author3=Bravo }} * 51 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. * 52 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130. * 53 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 54, 137. * 54 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. * 55 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 110; Beverly Deepe Keever, “The Largest Nuclear Bomb in U.S. History Still Shakes Rongelap Atoll and Its Displaced People 50 Years Later,” The Other News: Voices Against the Tide, February 4, 2005, https://www.other-news.info/2005/02/the-largest-nuclear-bomb-in-us-history-still-shakes-rongelap-atoll-and-its-displaced-people-50-years-later-beverly-deepe-keever/. ** [cite27]: {{Cite book |title=The Largest Nuclear Bomb in U.S. History Still Shakes Rongelap Atoll and Its Displaced People 50 Years Later |date=2005 |author=Clarkson }} * 56 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. * 57 Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York, 1958), 6–26; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012. ** [cite28]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Times |title=The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon |publisher=Mark Schreiber |date=2012 |author=Lapp, Ralph }} * 58 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” * 59 Matashichi Ōishi, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I (Honolulu, HI, 2011), 18–19. ** [cite29]: {{Cite book |title=The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I |year=2011 |author=Ōishi, Matashichi }} * 60 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 136. * 61 Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 27–54; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 27; James R. Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 9 (1954): 347–48. ** [cite30]: {{Cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |title=Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings |volume=10 |number=9 |year=1954 |author1=Kunkle, Ristvet |author2=Bravo, Castle |author3=James, ; |author4=Arnold, R }} * 62 Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” 347–48; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 67–68. ** [cite31]: {{Cite book |title=Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings |author=null, Arnold }} * 63 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” * 64 Lora Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb (London, 2001), 19–20. ** [cite32]: {{Cite book |title=Britain and the H-Bomb |year=2001 |author=Arnold, Lora }} * 65 “Statement of Lewis Strauss,” March 22, 1955, AEC-FCDA Relationship: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1955), 6–9; Wellerstein, Restricted Data, 247–48. ** [cite33]: {{Cite journal |journal=Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy |title=Statement of Lewis Strauss |date=1955 |author=Relationship, Aec-Fcda }} * 66 Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb, 20; “H-Bomb Can Wipe Out Any City, Strauss Reports after Tests,” New York Times, April 1, 1954, 1. ** [cite34]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=H-Bomb Can Wipe Out Any City, Strauss Reports after Tests |date=20. April 1, 1954, 1 |author1=Arnold |author2=Britain, H-Bomb }} * 67 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 71–72. * 68 Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953)”; “Operation Castle, 1954,” film produced by Joint Task Force 7, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfbHwj71k48. * 69 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 132, 135–37. * 70 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 140; “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground,” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html. ** [cite35]: {{Cite book |title=History of Operation Castle, 140; “Operation Castle, 1954-Pacific Proving Ground |author=Clarkson }} * 71 “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground”; Timothy J. Jorgensen, Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation (Princeton, NJ, 2016), 170–73; Rhodes, , 541–43. ** [cite36]: {{Cite book |title=Operation Castle, 1954-Pacific Proving Ground” |year=2016 |author1=Jorgensen, Timothy |author2=Glow, Strange }} * 72 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 130, 190–91. * 73 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 80–82. * 74 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 143; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 82–83. * 75 Clark son, History of Operation Castle, 143; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. ** [cite37]: {{Cite book |title=75 Clark son, History of Operation Castle, 143 |author1=Kunkle, Ristvet |author2=Bravo, Castle }} * 76 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 83. * 77 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 131–32; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 86–90; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 119–20; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership: The History of the RMI’s Bilateral Relationship with the United States,” https://web.archive.org/web/20160424042410/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm. ** [cite38]: {{Cite book |title=The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership: The History of the RMI’s Bilateral Relationship with the United States |author1=Clarkson, ; |author2=Kunkle |author3=Ristvet, Castle |author4=Bravo }} * 78 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 18; Calin Georgescu, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,” Mission to the Marshall Islands (March 27–30, 2012) and the United States of America (April 24–27, 2012), 5, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-48-Add1_en.pdf; “Zhertvy amerikanskikh ispytanii atomnogo i vodorodnogo oruzhiia,” Pravda, July 8, 1954, 3. ** [cite39]: {{Cite journal |journal=Pravda |title=Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,” Mission to the Marshall Islands |volume=5 |date=1954 |author1=Firth, Nuclear |author2=Playground }} * 79 “Atomnoe oruzhie dolzhno byt’ zapreshcheno,” Pravda, February 8, 1955. * 80 Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, 1957–1985 (New York, 1986), 14–15; Ralph E. Lapp, “Civil Defense Faces New Peril,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9 (November 1954): 349–51; Ralph Lapp, “Radioactive Fallout,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1 (February 1955): 45–51. ** [cite40]: {{Cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |title=Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy |volume=9 |date=1955 |author=Katz, Milton }} * 81 “The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, London, 9 July 1955,” Student Pugwash, Michigan, http://umich.edu/~pugwash/Manifesto.html. * 82 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 50–613; Fradkin, Fallout, 91; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 42; Louis Henry Hempelman, Clarence C. Lushbaugh, and George L. Voelz, “What Has Happened to the Survivors of the Early Los Alamos Nuclear Accidents?” Conference for Radiation Accident Preparedness, Oak Ridge, TN, October 19, 1979 (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, October 2, 1979), https://www.orau.org/ptp/pdf/accidentsurvivorslanl.pdf; https://web.archive.org/web/20130218012525/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/factsheets/Upshot_Knothole.pdf. ** [cite41]: {{Cite book |title=What Has Happened to the Survivors of the Early Los Alamos Nuclear Accidents?” Conference for Radiation Accident Preparedness |date=1979 |author1=Henry Hempelman, Louis |author2=Lushbaugh, Clarence |author3=Voelz, George }} * 83 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch”; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 129. ** [cite42]: {{Cite book |title=Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch |author1=Kunkle, Ristvet |author2=Bravo, Castle }} * 84 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 75–77, 86–92. * 85 James N. Yamazaki with Louise B. Fleming, Children of the Atomic Bomb: An American Physician’s Memoir of Nagasaki, Hiroshima and the Marshall Islands (Durham, NC, 1995), 109–12; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 41; Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: A Chernobyl Guide to the Future (New York, 2019), 244–45. ** [cite43]: {{Cite book |title=Children of the Atomic Bomb: An American Physician’s Memoir of Nagasaki, Hiroshima and the Marshall Islands |date=2019 |author1=James, N |author2=Yamazaki, Louise |author3=Fleming }} * 86 Robert A. Conard, “Fallout: The Experiences of a Medical Team in the Care of Marshallese Population Accidentally Exposed to Fallout Radiation,” iii, https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/23/053/23053209.pdf?r=1&r=1; Steven L. Simon, André Bouville, and Charles E. Land, “Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 Years Ago Still Have Health Implications Today That Will Continue into the Future,” American Scientist 94, no. 1 (January 2006): 48–57; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 79–82. ** [cite44]: {{Cite book |title=Fallout: The Experiences of a Medical Team in the Care of Marshallese Population Accidentally Exposed to Fallout Radiation |author=Conard, Robert }} * 87 Fi rth, Nuclear Playground, 19–20; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 61–74. * 88 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 46–48, 67–69; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 92–95; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership.” ** [cite45]: {{Cite book |title=67-69; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 92-95; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership |author1=Firth, Nuclear |author2=Playground }} * Chapter II. NORTHERN LIGHTS: KYSHTYM * 1. Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 167–68, 193–94; Alex Wellerstein, “A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name,” New Yorker, January 8, 2016; “Soviet Hydrogen Bomb Program,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-hydrogen-bomb-program. ** [cite46]: {{Cite journal |journal=Atomic Heritage Foundation |title=A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name |publisher=Alex Wellerstein |date=2016 |author=Degroot, Gerard }} * 2. “Resumption of Nuclear Tests by Soviet Union,” Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 422–28, here Appendix, 425–27. * 3. Iu. V. Gaponov, “Igor’ Vasil’evich Kurchatov: The Scientist and Doer (January 12, 1903–February 7, 1960),” Physics of Atomic Nuclei 66, no. 1 (2003): 3–7. ** [cite47]: {{Cite journal |journal=Physics of Atomic Nuclei |title=Notitle-title |volume=66 |number=1 |date=2003 |author1=Iu, . |author2=Gaponov |author3=Igor, ’ |author4=Vasil’evich Kurchatov }} * 4. DeGroot, The Bomb, 125–30; Vladimir Gobarev, Sekretnyi atom (Moscow, 2006), 75; “Institut Kurchatova poluchil dokumenty iz arkhiva SVR po atomnomu proektu SSSR,” RIA Novosti, July 17, 2019, https://ria.ru/20190917/1558762897.html. ** [cite48]: {{Cite book |title=Institut Kurchatova poluchil dokumenty iz arkhiva SVR po atomnomu proektu SSSR |publisher=Vladimir Gobarev |date=2019 |author=Degroot |editor=RIA Novosti }} * 5. E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28, here 916–17. ** [cite49]: {{Cite book |title=Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia |volume=69 |number=10 |year=1999 |author1=Adamov, . |author2=Ulasevich, V |author3=Zhirnov, A }} * 6. “Kyshtym,” Moi gorod, Narodnaia ėntsiklopediia gorodov i regionov Rosiii, http://www.mojgorod.ru/cheljab_obl/kyshtym/index.html; “Gorod s osoboi sud’boi,” Ozerskii gorodskoi okrug, http://www.ozerskadm.ru/city/history/index.php. ** [cite50]: {{Cite book |title=Gorod s osoboi sud |author1=Kyshtym, ” |author2=Moi Gorod, Narodnaia |author3=Ėntsiklopediia Gorodov I Regionov Rosiii }} * 7. Kate Brown, Pl utopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 87–123; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. * 8. “Dokladnaia zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, B. G. Muzurukova, E. P. Slavskogo na imia L. P. Berii ob osushchestvlenii reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817 pri nalichii vody v tekhologicheskikh kanalakh,” June 11, 1948; Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev, vol. 2, Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954, bk. 1 (Moscow, 1999), 635–36; Mikhail Grabovskii, Plutonieva zona (Moscow, 2002), 20. ** [cite51]: {{Cite book |title=Berii ob osushchestvlenii reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817 pri nalichii vody v tekhologicheskikh kanalakh |publisher=Mikhail Grabovskii |volume=2 |date=2002 |author1=Kurchatova, V |author2=Muzurukova, B |author3=Slavskogo Na Imia, E |author4=null, L |editor=L. D. Riabev }} * 9. V. I. Shevchenko, “Kak prostoi rabochii,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 84–86; B. V. Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia sosluzhivtsa (Ozersk/Cheliabinsk 65, 1995), 18; Zhores Medvedev and Roi Medvedev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 2005), 336. ** [cite52]: {{Cite book |title=Kak prostoi rabochii |volume=65 |date=2005 |editor=B. V. Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia sosluzhivtsa }} * 10 Kurchatovskii Institut: Istoriia iadernogo proekta (Moscow, 1998), 65; E. P. Slavskii, “Nashei moshchi, nashei sily boiatsia,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, April 4, 1998, 16. ** [cite53]: {{Cite book |title=Nashei moshchi, nashei sily boiatsia |date=1998 |author=Slavskii, E }} * 11 Gennady Gorelik, “The Riddle of the Third Idea: How Did the Soviets Build a Thermonuclear Bomb So Suspiciously Fast?” Scientific American, August 21, 2011; Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 428; A. V. Artizov, “Poslednee interv’iu E. P. Slavskogo,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 381–82. ** [cite54]: {{Cite journal |journal=E. P. Slavskogo,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P |title=The Riddle of the Third Idea: How Did the Soviets Build a Thermonuclear Bomb So Suspiciously Fast? |volume=35 |number=1 |date=2013 |author=Gorelik, Gennady }} * 12 Richard Lourie, Sakharov: A Biography (Lexington, MA, 2018). ** [cite55]: {{Cite journal |journal=Sakharov: A Biography |title=Notitle-title |year=2018 |author=Lourie, Richard }} * 13 Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York, 1990), 98–100, 190–92. * 14 Brown, Plutopia, 115–23, 214; Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 2008 Report to the General Assembly, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2011, Annex C: Radiation exposures in accidents, 3, https://web.archive.org/web/20130531015743/http:/www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_C.pdf. ** [cite56]: {{Cite journal |journal=United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation |title=Notitle-title |volume=3 |date=2011 |editor=14 Brown, Plutopia }} * 15 Brown, Plutopia, 189–96; Vladislav Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” problema na veka (Moscow, 2001), 34–42; Vitalii Tolstikov and Irina Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale po vospominaniiam ikh uchastnikov,” Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 405 (2016): 137–41, here 137; V. I. Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala (Ekaterinburg, 2000), 66–71. ** [cite57]: {{Cite journal |journal=Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta |title=Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale po vospominaniiam ikh uchastnikov |volume=405 |number=137 |date=2000 |author=Utkin, V |editor=15 Brown, Plutopia }} * 16 Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44; Thomas B. Cochran, Robert Standish Norris, and Kristen L. Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 18, 1 (November 2003): 507–28, here, 511–15. ** [cite58]: {{Cite journal |journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment |title=Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia |volume=18 |number=1 |date=2003 |author1=Larin, Kombinat |author2=Maiak, ; |author3=Thomas, B |author4=Cochran, Robert |author5=Norris, Kristen |author6=Suokko }} * 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 282–83; Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44. ** [cite59]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima |year=2014 |author1=Mahaffey ; Larin, James |author2=Kombinat, “ |author3=Maiak }} * 18 Valerii Ivanovich Komarov in Sled 57-go goda: Sbornik vospominanii likvidatorov avarii 1957 goda na PO “Maiak” (Ozersk, 2007), 30–37. * 19 Valentina Dmitrievna Malaia (Cherevkova) in Sled 57-go goda, 42–43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. * 20 Igor Fedorovich Serov in Sled 57-go goda, 44–47; Semen Fedorovich Osotin and Lidiia Pavlovna Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14; M. Filippova, “Ozerskoi divizii–55, [v/ch 3273],” Pro Maiak, August 25, 2006, 3, http://www.lib.csu.ru/vch/1/1999_01/009.pdf; http://libozersk.ru/pbd/ozerskproekt/politics/filippova.html; Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale: Istoricheskie otsenki i dokumenty (Ekaterinburg, 2017), 132. ** [cite60]: {{Cite book |title=Ozerskoi divizii-55 |volume=3 |date=2017 |author=Filippova, M }} * 21 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20–21. * 22 Valery Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered,” Moscow News, September 19, 2007, 12. ** [cite61]: {{Cite book |title=Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered |publisher=Moscow News |date=2007 |author=Kazansky, Valery }} * 23 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 132; Osotin and Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14. ** [cite62]: {{Cite book |title=Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 132; Osotin and Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov }} * 24 Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” * 25 Vladimir Alekseevich Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 144–45; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 57–60. * 26 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 133. * 27 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 134. * 28 Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, “Iadernaia katastrofa 1957 goda na Urale,” Magistra Vitae: ėlektronnyi zhurnal po istoricheskim naukam i arkheologii 1, no. 9 (1999): 84–95, here 86, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/yadernaya-katastrofa-1957-goda-na-urale; Nikolai Stepanovich Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 74–75. ** [cite63]: {{Cite journal |journal=Nikolai Stepanovich Burdakov in Sled |title=Iadernaia katastrofa 1957 goda na Urale,” Magistra Vitae: ėlektronnyi zhurnal po istoricheskim naukam i arkheologii 1 |volume=86 |number=9 |year=1999 |author1=Tolstikov, Vitalii |author2=Kuznetsov, Viktor }} * 29 Valentina Dmitrieva Malaia (Cherevkova), 43; Dim Iliasov in Sled 57-go goda, 64–65. * 30 Il’ia Mitrofanovich Moshin, 70; Gurii Vasil’evich Baimon in Sled 57-go goda, 192. * 31 Anatolii Vasil’evich Dubrovskii in Sled 57-go goda, 195–200. * 32 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 36; “Semenov Nikolai Anatolievich,” Geroi atomnogo proekta (Sarov, 2005), 334–35. * 33 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 27; “N. S. Khrushchev. Khronologiia 1953–1964. Sostavlena po ofitsial’nym publikatsiiam. 1957 god,” in Nikita Khrushchev, Vospominaniia: vremia, liudi, vlast’ (Moscow, 2016), vol. 2. ** [cite64]: {{Cite book |title=Khronologiia 1953-1964. Sostavlena po ofitsial’nym publikatsiiam. 1957 god,” in Nikita Khrushchev, Vospominaniia: vremia, liudi, vlast |volume=2 |year=2016 |author=Khrushchev, “ }} * 34 Anatolii D’iachenko, Opalennye pri sozdanii iadernogo shchita Rodiny (Moscow, 2009), 227. ** [cite65]: {{Cite book |title=Opalennye pri sozdanii iadernogo shchita Rodiny |year=2009 |author1=34 Anatolii, D’ |author2=Iachenko }} * 35 Sakharov, Memoirs, 213. * 36 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 20–21; P. A. Zhuravlev, “Moi Atomnyi vek,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka, Slavskii, 91. ** [cite66]: {{Cite book |title=Moi Atomnyi vek |author1=Brokhovich |author2=Slavskii, ; |author3=Zhuravlev }} * 37 Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 78. * 38 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 38; Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 77. * 39 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. * 40 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 52; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 139–40. ** [cite67]: {{Cite book |title=Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 52; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale |author=40 Tolstikov An D Kuznetsov }} * 41 Evgenii Ivanovich Andreev in Sled 57-go goda, 87–88. * 42 Iurii Aleksandrovich Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180. * 43 Dim Fatkulbaianovich Il’iasov, 65; Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. * 44 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 39; Vasilii Ivanovich Moiseev in Sled 57-go goda, 68. * 45 Sokhina in S led 57-go goda, 12–13. * 46 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148; Brown, Plutopia, 234; “Shtefan Petr Tikhonovich,” Geroi strany, http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero_id=13972. ** [cite68]: {{Cite journal |journal=Plutopia |title=Shtefan Petr Tikhonovich |publisher=Brown |date=148. 234 |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov, Iadernoe |author3=Nasledie Na Urale }} * 47 Mikhail Gladyshev, Plutonii dlia atomnoi bomby, 43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. ** [cite69]: {{Cite book |title=Plutonii dlia atomnoi bomby, 43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda |author=Gladyshev, Mikhail }} * 48 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 167, 171, 193; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 59; Mikhail Kel’manovich Sandratskii, in Sled 57-go goda, 93. ** [cite70]: {{Cite book |title=Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 59; Mikhail Kel’manovich Sandratskii |volume=167 |date=193 |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov, Iadernoe |author3=Nasledie Na Urale }} * 49 Vasilii Ivanovich Shevchenko in Sled 57-go goda, 29. * 50 Boris Mitrofanovich Semov in Sled 57-go goda, 107–8. * 51 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 154–59; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 137. ** [cite71]: {{Cite book |title=Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale |publisher=Tolstikov and Bochkareva |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov, Iadernoe |author3=Nasledie Na Urale }} * 52 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. * 53 R. R. Aspand’iarova, “Avtomobilisty—likvidatory,” in Sled 57-go goda, 51–52; Iurii Andreevich Shestakov in Sled 57-go goda, 98; Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 145. ** [cite72]: {{Cite book |title=Avtomobilisty-likvidatory,” in Sled 57-go goda |author=Aspand’iarova, R }} * 54 Sokhhina in Sled 57-go goda, 16; Konstantin Ivanovich Tikhonov in Sled 57-go goda, 103; Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 193; Brown, Plutopia, 236; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. * 55 Brown, Plutopia, 235–36. * 56 Brown, Plutopia, 236–37; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 195. * 57 “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019. * 58 Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 192. * 59 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 196–97. * 60 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 218. * 61 Brown, Plutopia, 240; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 45, 149–51, 220. * 62 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 28. * 63 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 220, 224–25. * 64 Gennadiii Vasil’evich Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 122–24; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 176, 271. * 65 Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 125–26; Leonid Ivanovich Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127–28; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 173. * 66 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 216, 222–25; Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127. ** [cite73]: {{Cite book |title=Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda |volume=216 |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov, Iadernoe |author3=Nasledie Na Urale }} * 67 Brown, Plutopia, 241–46; Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala, 68; Regina Khissamova and Sergei Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone. 60 let posle Kyshtymskoi katastrofy,” Nastoiashchee vremia, https://www.currenttime.tv/a/28769685.html. ** [cite74]: {{Cite book |title=Radioaktivnye bedy Urala, 68; Regina Khissamova and Sergei Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone. 60 let posle Kyshtymskoi katastrofy |author1=Brown |author2=Plutopia, ; |author3=Utkin }} * 68 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 213, 214. * 69 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 274–81. * 70 Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 18; Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 135–37. * 71 “Akt komissii po rassledovaniiu prichin vzryva v khranilishche radioaktivnykh otkhodov kombinata 817,” in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138–46; Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 17–18. * 72 “Prikaz dire ktora gosudarstvennogo ordena Lenina khimicheskogo za­­v­oda imeni Mendeleeva,” November 15, 1957, in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138; Nikolai Alekseevich Sekretov in Sled 57-go goda, 185; “Dem’ianovich Mikhail Antonovich,” Ėntsiklopadiia Cheliabinskoi oblasti, http://chel-portal.ru/?site=encyclopedia&t=Demyanovich&id=2632. * 73 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 37. * 74 Brown, Plutopia, 244; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285. * 75 Utkin et al., Ra dioaktivnye bedy Urala, 66–71; Cheliabinskaia oblast: Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii, ed. A. V. Akleev (Cheliabinsk, 2006), 49–51; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 231; Brown, Plutopia, 239–46; Khissamova and Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone.” ** [cite75]: {{Cite journal |journal=Tolstikov and Kuznetsov |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Khissamova and Poteriaev |year=2006 |author=75 Utkin |editor=A. V. Akleev (Cheliabinsk }} * 76 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 201–2. * 77 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285–98; “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019; Pavel Raspopov, “Vostochno-ural’skii radiatsionnyi zapovednik,” Uraloved, April 22, 2011. ** [cite76]: {{Cite journal |journal=Nash Ural |title=Vostochno-ural’skii radiatsionnyi zapovednik |date=2011 |author1=Tolstikov |author2=Kuznetsov, Iadernoe |author3=Nasledie Na Urale }} * 78 Daria Litvinova, “Human rights activist forced to flee Russia following TV ‘witch-hunt’,” The Guardian, October 20, 2015; Izol’da Drobina, “Iadovitoe oblako prishlo s Maiaka,” Novaia gazeta, September 29, 2020. ** [cite77]: {{Cite book |title=Human rights activist forced to flee Russia following TV ‘witch-hunt |date=2020 |author=Litvinova, Daria }} * 79 Cochran, Norris, and Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” 522. ** [cite78]: {{Cite book |title=Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65 |author1=Cochran, Norris |author2=null, Suokko }} * Chapter III. A VERY ENGLISH FIRE: WINDSCALE * 1. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1955–1957, Western Europe and Canada, vol. 27, no. 304. * 2. Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Shock of the Century (New York, 2001), 108–90. ** [cite79]: {{Cite book |title=Sputnik: The Shock of the Century |url=https://archive.org/details/sputnikshockofce00dick |year=2001 |editor=2. Paul Dickson }} * 3. Paul H. Septimus, Nuclea r Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 (Columbus, OH, 2000), 9–93. ** [cite80]: {{Cite book |title=Nuclea r Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations |year=2000 |author=Septimus, Paul }} * 4. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 72–198; John Baylis, Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945–1964 (New York, 1995), 67–240; Margaret Gowing, assisted by Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, vol. 1, Policy Making (London, 1974). ** [cite81]: {{Cite journal |journal=Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Margaret Gowing |volume=1 |date=1974 |editor=Lorna Arnold }} * 5. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957; Nigel J. Ashton, “Harold Macmillan and the ‘Golden Days’ of Anglo-American Relations Revisited, 1957–63,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 4 (September 2005): 691–723, here 699–702. ** [cite82]: {{Cite journal |journal=Anglo-American Relations Revisited |title=Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower |volume=29 |number=4 |date=2005 |author=Ashton, Nigel }} * 6. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 87–159, 168. * 7. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 16–193. * 8. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No. 10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Peter Hennessy, Cabinets and the Bomb (London, 2007), 45–46; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2015), 32. * 9. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 55–71. * 10 Margaret Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 36 (December 1990): 218–39. ** [cite83]: {{Cite journal |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |title=Notitle-title |volume=12 |date=1990 |author1=Gowing, Margaret |author2=Lord Hinton Of Bankside, “ |author3=null, O |author4=Eng, F }} * 11 Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident, 3d ed. (New York, 2007), 8–11. ** [cite84]: {{Cite book |title=Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident |date=2007 |author=Arnold, Lorna }} * 12 John Harris inte rviewed in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster,” 2007 BBC Documentary, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5cDiqVHW7Y; G. A. Polukhin, Atomnyi pervenets Rossii: PO “Maiak,” Istoricheskie ocherki (Ozersk, 1998), 1: 83–137; Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 121–22. ** [cite85]: {{Cite journal |journal=BBC Documentary |title=Atomnyi pervenets Rossii: PO “Maiak,” Istoricheskie ocherki (Ozersk |publisher=Kate Brown |volume=1 |date=2013 |author=Polukhin, G }} * 13 Jean McSorley, Living in the Shadow: The Story of the People of Sellafield (London, 1990), 13, 23. ** [cite86]: {{Cite book |title=Living in the Shadow: The Story of the People of Sellafield |url=https://archive.org/details/livinginshadow0000mcso |year=1990 |author=Mcsorley, Jean }} * 14 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” * 15 Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 497–500, 547–48, 557–60. ** [cite87]: {{Cite book |title=The Making of the Atomic Bomb |year=1988 |author=Rhodes, Richard }} * 16 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 190–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 9–11. * 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents . A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 160–63; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15–16. ** [cite88]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents . A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima |date=1957 |author=Mahaffey, James }} * 18 Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 439–42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 164–65, 169; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 12–13. * 19 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 13–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 165–66. * 20 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 17–18. * 21 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 449–50; Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 188–98; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath (New York, 2006), 29–48. ** [cite89]: {{Cite book |title=Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 188-98; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath |volume=1 |year=2006 |author1=Gowing |author2=Arnold |author3=Independence, Deterrence }} * 22 “Queen Visits Calder Hall” (1956) Newsreel, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey9envpF_TE; Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” 230–32. * 23 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 193, 446; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 41. * 24 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7–18, 32, 34–35; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 167–68. * 25 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 35. * 26 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 36–37. * 27 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 30–31. * 28 William Penney et al., “Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957,” Journal of Radiological Protection 37, no. 3 (2017): 780–96, here 780; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 33–34, 42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 172. ** [cite90]: {{Cite journal |journal=Journal of Radiological Protection |title=Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |volume=37 |number=3 |date=10 October 1957. 2017. 1957. 42 |author=Penney, William }} * 29 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 44–46. * 30 Kara Rogers, “1957 Flu Pandemic,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Asian-flu-of-1957. ** [cite91]: {{Cite book |title=1957 Flu Pandemic |author=Rogers, Kara }} * 31 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 783; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173. * 32 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 784; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 47–48; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173–75; Roy Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” New Scientist (October 14, 1982): 84–86, here 85. ** [cite92]: {{Cite journal |journal=New Scientist |title=The Day the Reactor Caught Fire |publisher=Roy Herbert |volume=14 |number=784 |date=1982 |author=null, Penney }} * 33 Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1–2. * 34 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 2. ** [cite93]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |publisher=Wilson in McSorley |volume=2 |author=null, Arnold }} * 35 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents,175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1. ** [cite94]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |volume=1 |author=null, Arnold }} * 36 Tom Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4, 12; David Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy: Windscale Manager Who Doused the Flames of the 1957 Fire,” Independent, March 26, 2008. * 37 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 17; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; Tuohy in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” ** [cite95]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale 1957, 15, 17; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; Tuohy in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster |author=null, Arnold }} * 38 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5, 10; Tuohy interviewed in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” two-part documentary, ITV production, pt. 1 (2007). ** [cite96]: {{Cite book |title=Tuohy interviewed in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” two-part documentary, ITV production |volume=5 |date=2007 |author=null, Penney }} * 39 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5. * 40 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. * 41 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6. * 42 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7. ** [cite97]: {{Cite book |title=Report on the Accident |volume=7 |author=null, Penney }} * 43 Neville Ramsden in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 1 (2007). * 44 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Tuohy in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). ** [cite98]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale 1957, 50; Tuohy in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria |number=2 |year=2007 |author=null, Arnold }} * 45 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. * 46 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50–51. * 47 Jack Coyle in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 11. * 48 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 8–9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. * 49 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Alan Daugherty in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. * 50 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 52. * 51 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 58–59. * 52 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Emergency Site Procedure at Windscale, Appendix VII, Windscale 1957, 176–77; Hartley Howe, “Accident at Windscale: The World’s First Atomic Alarm,” Popular Science (October 1958): 92–95. ** [cite99]: {{Cite journal |journal=Popular Science |title=Accident at Windscale: The World’s First Atomic Alarm |publisher=Hartley Howe |date=1958 |author=null, Arnold }} * 53 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 790; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53–54. ** [cite100]: {{Cite book |title=Report on the Accident |number=790 |year=1957 |author=null, Penney }} * 54 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13–14. ** [cite101]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale 1957, 50; McSorley, Living in the Shadow |author=null, Arnold }} * 55 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43. * 56 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; “Persians Cannot Run Refinery,” Canberra Times, October 6, 1951; Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York, 2008), 62–82. ** [cite102]: {{Cite book |title=Persians Cannot Run Refinery,” Canberra Times |date=2008 |author=null, Arnold }} * 57 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “Uranium Rods Overheated in Pile,” Whitehaven News, October 11, 1957; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” * 58 “No Public Danger Announcement,” West Cumberland News, October 12, 1957. * 59 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 93–94. ** [cite103]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Howe, “Accident at Windscale |volume=12 |author=Mcsorley }} * 60 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 84. ** [cite104]: {{Cite book |title=The Day the Reactor Caught Fire |volume=84 |author=Herbert }} * 61 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43–44. * 62 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 69. ** [cite105]: {{Cite book |title=The Day the Reactor Caught Fire |number=2 |date=1957 |author=Herbert }} * 63 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86. ** [cite106]: {{Cite book |title=The Day the Reactor Caught Fire |publisher=Herbert |date=1957. 53 |author=null, Arnold }} * 64 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 70. ** [cite107]: {{Cite book |title=Living in the Shadow |volume=12 |year=1957 |author=Mcsorley }} * 65 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 791; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 55–58; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 94–95. ** [cite108]: {{Cite book |title=Report on the Accident |publisher=Howe |number=791 |year=1957 |author=null, Penney }} * 66 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 87; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. ** [cite109]: {{Cite book |title=Living in the Shadow, 13; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire |publisher=Penney |volume=87 |author=Mcsorley }} * 67 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 60. * 68 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 63–66; Lord Sherfield, “William George Penney, O. M., K. B. E. Baron Penney of East Hendred, 24 June 1909–3 March 1991,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 39 (1994): 282–302. ** [cite110]: {{Cite journal |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |title=Notitle-title |volume=24 |date=1994 |author=Arnold, Windscale |editor=Lord Sherfield, “William George Penney, O. M., K. B. E. Baron Penney of East Hendred }} * 69 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 67, 77. * 70 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” * 71 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 173; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 787. ** [cite111]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident |volume=173 |year=1957 |author=null, Arnold }} * 72 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 785, 792–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 84–85: “Prime Minister’s to Washington,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates, October 29, 1957, vol. 205, cc 545–46. ** [cite112]: {{Cite book |title=Prime Minister’s to Washington |volume=785 |date=1957 |author=null, Penney }} * 73 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 62, 82–83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” ** [cite113]: {{Cite book |title=Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster |volume=62 |year=1957 |author=null, Arnold }} * 74 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 80–81; Steve Lohr, “Britain Suppressed Details of ’57 Atomic Disaster,” New York Times, January 2, 1988; Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 82. * 75 “Windscale Atomic Plant Accident,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates November 21, 1957, vol. 206, cc 448–57. * 76 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” * 77 Wilfrid E. Oulton, Christmas Island Cracker: An Account of the Planning and Execution of the British Thermonuclear Bomb Tests, 1957 (London, 1987). ** [cite114]: {{Cite book |title=Christmas Island Cracker: An Account of the Planning and Execution of the British Thermonuclear Bomb Tests |date=1987 |author=Oulton, Wilfrid }} * 78 Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” * 79 A. C. Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957,” Science of the Total Environment 63 (May 1987): 139–60; M. J. Crick and G. S. Linsley, “An assessment of the radiological impact of the Windscale reactor fire October 1957,” International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies 46 (November 1984): 479–506. For a comparison of Windscale radiation release with the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima fallouts, see Daniel Kunkel and Mark G. Lawrence, “Global risk of radioactive fallout after major nuclear reactor accidents,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12(9) (May 20212): 4245–4258, here 4247. ** [cite115]: {{Cite journal |journal=International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies |title=For a comparison of Windscale radiation release with the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima fallouts, see Daniel Kunkel and Mark G. Lawrence, “Global risk of radioactive fallout after major nuclear reactor accidents |volume=63 |number=9 |date=0212 |author1=Chamberlain ; M, A |author2=Crick, G |author3=Linsley }} * 80 Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957”; A. Preston, J. W. R. Dutton, and B. R. Harvey, “Detection, Estimation and Radiological Significance of Silver-110m in Oysters in the Irish Sea and the Blackwater Estuary,” Nature 218 (1968): 689–90. ** [cite116]: {{Cite journal |journal=Nature |title=Detection, Estimation and Radiological Significance of Silver-110m in Oysters in the Irish Sea and the Blackwater Estuary |volume=218 |year=1968 |author1=Preston, A |author2=Dutton, J |author3=Harvey, B }} * 81 “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). * 82 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 789–90. ** [cite117]: {{Cite book |title=Report on the Accident |author=null, Penney }} * 83 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 3. * 84 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9–10; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. ** [cite118]: {{Cite journal |journal=Biggest Nuclear Disaster |title=Windscale: Britain’s |publisher=Penney |author=Mcsorley }} * 85 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; D. McGeoghegan, S. Whaley, K. Binks, M. Gillies, K. Thompson, D. M. McElvenny, “Mortality and cancer registration experience of the Sellafield workers known to have been involved in the 1957 Windscale accident: 50 year follow-up,” Journal of Radiological Protection 30, no. 3 (2010): 407–31. ** [cite119]: {{Cite journal |journal=Journal of Radiological Protection |title=Mortality and cancer registration experience of the Sellafield workers known to have been involved in the 1957 Windscale accident: 50 year follow-up |volume=30 |number=3 |year=2010 |author1=Mcsorley, ; |author2=Mcgeoghegan, S |author3=Whaley, K |author4=Binks, M |author5=Gillies, K |author6=Thompson, D |author7=Mcelvenny }} * 86 “The incidence of childhood cancer around nuclear installations in Great Britain,” 10th Report, Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (2005), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/304596/COMARE10thReport.pdf. * 87 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 159–60, 163; Robin McKie, “Sellafield: the most hazardous place in Europe,” The Guardian, April 18, 2009. * 88 “Demolition starts on Windscale chimney,” Sellafield Ltd, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, February 28, 2019, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/demolition-starts-on-windscale-chimney; Paul Brown, “Windscale’s terrible legacy,” The Guardian, August 25, 1999. * 89 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; “UK decommissioning agency lays out plans to 2019,” World Nuclear News, January 6, 2016, https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-UK-decommissioning-agency-lays-out-plans-to-2019-06011501.html; Sue Reid, “Britain’s nuclear inferno: How our own Government covered up Windscale reactor blaze that’s caused dozens of deaths and hundreds of cancer cases,” The Mail on Sunday, March 19, 2011. ** [cite120]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear News |title=Britain’s nuclear inferno: How our own Government covered up Windscale reactor blaze that’s caused dozens of deaths and hundreds of cancer cases |date=2011 |author=Mcsorley }} * Chapter IV. ATOMS FOR PEACE: THREE MILE ISLAND * 1. William G. Weart, “Eisenhower Hails Atoms for Peace. He Dedicates Shippingport Unit, First for Commercial Use, by Remote Control,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16. ** [cite121]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Eisenhower Hails Atoms for Peace. He Dedicates Shippingport Unit, First for Commercial Use, by Remote Control |date=1958 |author1=William, G |author2=Weart }} * 2. “British Claim First,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16; V. Emelianov, “Atomnuiu energiiu na sluzhbu miru i progressu,” Pravda, August 31, 1956, 3. * 3. Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 54–55; Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 46, 102; “UK Marks 60th Anniversary of Calder Hall,” World Nuclear News, October 18, 2016, https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/UK-marks-60th-anniversary-of-Calder-Hall. ** [cite122]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear News |title=UK Marks 60th Anniversary of Calder Hall |publisher=Calder-Hall |volume=46 |date=2016 |author1=Paul, R |author2=Josephson |author3=Sonja, D |author4=Schmid, Producing |author5=Power }} * 4. Historic Achievement Recognized: Shippingport Atomic Power Station, A National Engineering Historical Landmark (Pittsburgh, PA, 1980); “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30; Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Ira Chernus, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station, TX, 2002), xi–xix, 79–118. ** [cite123]: {{Cite journal |journal=International Atomic Energy Agency |title=President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday |date=2002 |editor=Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower }} * 5. Hon. Chet Holifield, “Extension of Remarks, Dedication of Atomic Nuclear Power Plant,” Congressional Record, Appendix, May 29, 1958, A4977. * 6. “The Price-Anderson Act,” Center for Nuclear Science and Technology Information, https://cdn.ans.org/policy/statements/docs/ps54-bi.pdf; David M. Rocchio, “The Price-Anderson Act: Allocation of the Extraordinary Risk of Nuclear Generated Electricity: A Model Punitive Damage Provision,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 14, no. 3 (1987): 521–60; “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30. ** [cite124]: {{Cite journal |journal=Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review |title=The Price-Anderson Act: Allocation of the Extraordinary Risk of Nuclear Generated Electricity: A Model Punitive Damage Provision |volume=14 |number=3 |date=1958 |author=Rocchio, David }} * 7. Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen, Rickover: Father of the Nuclear Navy (Washington, DC, 2007); Theodore Rockwell, The Rickover Effect: How One Man Made A Difference (Bloomington, IN, 2002), 115–98. ** [cite125]: {{Cite book |title=The Rickover Effect: How One Man Made A Difference |date=2002 |author1=Polmar, Thomas |author2=Allen }} * 8. Harold Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, PBS, 1999, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s; cf. Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. * 9. The History of Nuclear Energy, Department of Energy (Washington, DC, n.d.), 14–17; “Nuclear Power in the USA,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/usa-nuclear-power.aspx; J. Samuel Walker, Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 2004), 3–7. ** [cite126]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=Nuclear Power in the USA |year=2004 |editor=J. Samuel Walker }} * 10 Luke Phillips, “Nixon’s Nuclear Energy Vision,” October 20, 2016, Richard Nixon Foundation, https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/10/26948/; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s. ** [cite127]: {{Cite book |title=/; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |date=2016 |author=Phillips, Luke }} * 11 Walker, Three Mile Island, 7–9; Steven L. Del Sesto, “The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power in the United States and the Limits of Regulation,” Technology in Society 4, no. 4 (1982): 295–314; James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York, 2010), notes 222, 223; “Nuclear Energy in France,” France Embassy in Washington, DC, https://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article637. ** [cite128]: {{Cite journal |journal=Technology in Society |title=The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power in the United States and the Limits of Regulation |publisher=James Mahaffey |volume=4 |number=4 |date=1982. 2010. 223 |author1=Steven, L |author2=Sesto }} * 12 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films, https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/56125. * 13 Sue Reilly, “A Disaster Movie Comes True,” People (April 16, 1979). ** [cite129]: {{Cite journal |journal=People |title=A Disaster Movie Comes True |date=1979 |author=Reilly, Sue }} * 14 John G. Fuller, We Almost Lost Detroit (New York, 1976); Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (Princeton, NJ, 1999), 50–54; Marsha Freeman, “Who Killed U.S. Nuclear Power?” 21st Century Science and Technology Magazine (Spring 2001), https://21sci-tech.com/articles/spring01/nuclear_power.html; Walker, Three Mile Island, 4, 20–28. ** [cite130]: {{Cite journal |journal=Marsha Freeman |title=Who Killed U.S. Nuclear Power?” 21st Century Science and Technology Magazine |volume=4 |date=2001 |author=Fuller, John }} * 15 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films; David Burnham, “Nuclear Experts Debate ‘The China Syndrome,’ ” New York Times, March 18, 1979, D1; Natasha Zaretsky, Radiation Nation: Three Mile Island and the Political Transformation of the 1970s (New York, 2018), 69–70 [notes 43–44]. * 16 “The Babcock & Wilcox Company,” Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/babcock-wilcox-company; “A Corporate History of Three Mile Island,” Three Mile Island Alert, http://www.tmia.com/corp.historyTMI; Walker, Three Mile Island, 43–50. * 17 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings before the Task Force of the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session. Hearings Held in Washington, DC, May 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1979, 119–20, 149, 159. * 18 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant, 122–25, 160. * 19 “Three Mile Island Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/three-mile-island-accident.aspx; James J. Duderstadt and Louis J. Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis (New York, 1976), 91–92; Walker, Three Mile Island, 71–72. ** [cite131]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Walker |year=1976 |editor1=James J. Duderstadt |editor2=Louis J. Hamilton }} * 20 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 343–45. ** [cite132]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 21 Report of the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (Washington, DC, 1979), 27–28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 134; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents. A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 344; Walker, Three Mile Island, 74. * 22 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 131–32; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330. * 23 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346; Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76–77. ** [cite133]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents, 346; Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Walker |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 24 Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Report of the President’s Commission, 26–28. ** [cite134]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Awakening, 315; Report of the President’s Commission |year=2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicawakeningn0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 25 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144. * 26 Report of the President’s Commission, 28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 175; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346–47. * 27 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 137; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330–32, 348; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76. * 28 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 172–73; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78. * 29 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 347; Walker, Three Mile Island, 77. * 30 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 169, 172. * 31 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176–79, 182–83; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 348–49; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78–79. * 32 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 186–87; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. * 33 Bob Lang in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. * 34 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 183–84. * 35 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144, 188. * 36 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 350–51; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 190, 202, 204; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. ** [cite135]: {{Cite book |title=Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings |volume=190 |date=204 |author=Mahaffey }} * 37 Walker, Three Mile Island, 81–82. * 38 Walker, Three Mile Island, 80–82; Dick Thornburgh, Where the Evidence Leads: An Autobiography (Pittsburgh, PA, 2003); “Dick Thornburgh,” Dick Thornburgh Papers, University of Pennsylvania, http://thornburgh.library.pitt.edu/biography.html. ** [cite136]: {{Cite book |title=Where the Evidence Leads: An Autobiography |publisher=Dick Thornburgh |year=2003 |author=Walker }} * 39 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82; Mike Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite137]: {{Cite book |title=Three Mile Island, 82; Mike Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |author=Walker }} * 40 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of the US House of Representatives, Ninety-Seventh Congress, First Session, March 1981 (Washington, DC, 1981), 105–6, 123, 127. * 41 Report of the President’s Commission, 126. * 42 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82–83; William Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite138]: {{Cite book |title=William Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |author=Walker }} * 43 Walker, Three Mile Island, 86–87; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 110, 115; Report of the President’s Commission, 129. ** [cite139]: {{Cite book |title=Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript |author=Walker }} * 44 Report of the President’s Commission, 131; Walker, Three Mile Island, 97–99; Donald Janson, “Radiation Released at the Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania,” New York Times, March 29, 1979, A1, D22. * 45 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 115–17; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Walker, Three Mile Island, 108; Report of the President’s Commission, 135. * 46 Walker, Three Mile Island, 109–13; Report of the President’s Commission, 134. * 47 Report of the President’s Commission, 139; Ben A. Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, A1 and A8; Walker, Three Mile Island, 127–29. ** [cite140]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Conflicting Reports Add to Tension |date=1979 |author1=Ben, A |author2=Franklin }} * 48 Dick Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 49 Report of the President’s Commission, 140; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 77–81. * 50 Walker, Three Mile Island, 115–18, 130; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite141]: {{Cite book |title=Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |volume=130 |author=Walker }} * 51 Report of the President’s Commission, 138; Walker, Three Mile Island, 123–24. * 52 Walker, Three Mile Island, 130–36; Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension”; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite142]: {{Cite journal |journal=American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript |title=Conflicting Reports Add to Tension”; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |publisher=Franklin |author=Walker }} * 53 Walker, Three Mile Island, 137. * 54 Richard D. Lyons, “Children Evacuated,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, 1; “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite143]: {{Cite journal |journal=American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript |title=Meltdown at Three Mile Island |date=1979 |author=Lyons, Richard }} * 55 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 68–70. * 56 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 70–72. * 57 Report of the President’s Commission, 29; Walker, Three Mile Island, 140–45; Lyons, “Children Evacuated.” * 58 Walker, Three Mile Island, 151–55. * 59 Lyons, “Children Evacuated”; Bob Dvorchak and Harry Rosenthal, “AP Was There: Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Accident,” AP News, May 30, 2017, https://apnews.com/ca23009ea5b54f21a3fed04065cacc7e/AP-WAS-THERE:-Three-Mile-Island-nuclear-power-plant-accident; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39. ** [cite144]: {{Cite journal |journal=AP News |title=AP Was There: Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Accident |publisher=Walker |date=2017 |author1=Dvorchak, Harry |author2=Rosenthal }} * 60 Marsha McHenry in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 61 Dvorchak and Rosenthal, “AP Was There”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39; Ken Myers in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite145]: {{Cite journal |journal=American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript |title=AP Was There”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138-39; Ken Myers in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |author=Dvorchak, Rosenthal }} * 62 Report of the President’s Commission, 143. * 63 Walker, Three Mile Island, 155–70; Richard Thornburgh press conference in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 64 Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? The First Fifty Years (Fayetteville, AR, 1996), 53–57. ** [cite146]: {{Cite book |title=Why Not the Best? The First Fifty Years |url=https://archive.org/details/whynotbestfirstf0000cart |year=1996 |author=Carter, Jimmy }} * 65 Gordon Edwards, “Reactor Accidents at Chalk River: The Human Fallout,” Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, http://www.ccnr.org/paulson_legacy.html. ** [cite147]: {{Cite journal |journal=Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility |title=Reactor Accidents at Chalk River: The Human Fallout |author=Edwards, Gordon }} * 66 Carter, Why Not the Best?, 54; Carter, A Full Life: Reflections at Ninety (New York, 2015), 64–65. ** [cite148]: {{Cite book |title=Why Not the Best? |year=2015 |author=Carter }} * 67 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 94–102. ** [cite149]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 68 Carter, A Full Life, 64–65; Jimmy Carter, “Nuclear Energy and World Order,” Address at the United Nations, May 13, 1976, http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00150-7.pdf; Walker, Three Mile Island, 132–33. ** [cite150]: {{Cite book |title=Nuclear Energy and World Order,” Address at the United Nations |publisher=Walker |date=1976 |author=Carter }} * 69 Walker, Three Mile Island, 119–21, 145–48; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. ** [cite151]: {{Cite book |title=145-48; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island |author=Walker }} * 70 Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 71 Walker, Three Mile Island, 147–50, 153–55, 167–69. * 72 Walker, Three Mile Island, 170. * 73 Mike Gray in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 74 Richard D. Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant; Urges Cooperation in Crisis; Some Experts Voice Optimism,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1, A14. ** [cite152]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Carter Visits Nuclear Plant; Urges Cooperation in Crisis; Some Experts Voice Optimism |date=April 2, 1979, A1 |author=Lyons, Richard }} * 75 Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. * 76 Watson, Three Mile Island, 183–86. * 77 Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, A1. * 78 Steven Rattner, “Carter to Ask Tax on Oil and Release of Price Restraints,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, 1; Walker, Three Mile Island, 210. ** [cite153]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Carter to Ask Tax on Oil and Release of Price Restraints |number=1 |date=1979 |author=Rattner, Steven }} * 79 Terence Smith, “President Names Panel to Assess Nuclear Mishap,” New York Times, April 12, 1979, A1; “The Kemeny Commission’s Duty,” New York Times, April 15, 1979; Seth Faison, “John Kemeny, 66, Computer Pioneer and Educator,” New York Times, December 27, 1992. ** [cite154]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=President Names Panel to Assess Nuclear Mishap |publisher=Seth Faison |volume=66 |date=1992 |author=Smith, Terence }} * 80 Ronald M. Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission,” Nuclear News, March 2004, 61–62; David Laprad, “From a Potato Farm, to the White House, to Signal Mountain,” Hamilton County Herald, March 26, 2010. ** [cite155]: {{Cite book |title=From a Potato Farm, to the White House, to Signal Mountain |publisher=David Laprad |date=2010 |author=Eytchison, Ronald }} * 81 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission.” * 82 Report of the President’s Commission, 11. * 83 Report of the President’s Commission, 8, 17. * 84 Report of the President’s Commission, 98. * 85 Report of the President’s Commission, 14; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 92–94. * 86 Report of the President’s Commission, 12; Walker, Three Mile Island, 231, 234–37; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 89. * 87 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 209–25. * 88 Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Peter T. Kilborn, “Babcock and Wilcox Worried,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1. ** [cite156]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Peter T |date=April 2, 1979, A1 |author=Mahaffey }} * 89 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone.” * 90 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 355–56; Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Roger Mattson in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; “Three Mile Island – Unit 2,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/decommissioning/power-reactor/three-mile-island-unit-2.html. ** [cite157]: {{Cite book |title=Roger Mattson in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; “Three Mile Island - Unit 2,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission |publisher=Mahaffey |author=Mahaffey }} * 91 “Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 1,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission; “Three Mile Island Unit 1 to Shut Down by September 30, 2019,” Exelon Newsroom, May 8, 2019, https://www.exeloncorp.com/newsroom/three-mile-island-unit-1-to-shut-down-by-september-30-2019; Taylor Romine, “The Famous Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Is Closing,” CNN, September 19, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/19/us/nuclear-three-mile-island-closing/index.html; Diane Cardwell and Jonathan Soble, “Westinghouse Files for Bankruptcy, in Blow to Nuclear Power,” New York Times, March 29, 2017. * Chapter V. THE STAR OF APOCALYPSE: CHERNOBYL * 1. Iu. S. Osipov, “A. P. Aleksandrov i Akademiia nauk,” in A. P. Aleksandrov, Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow, 2003), 111–17. ** [cite158]: {{Cite book |title=Aleksandrov i Akademiia nauk |author1=Iu, . |author2=Osipov, “ |editor=A. P. Aleksandrov, Dokumenty i vospominaniia }} * 2. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Perspektivy ėnergetiki,” Izvestiia, April 10, 1979, 2–3. ** [cite159]: {{Cite journal |journal=Izvestiia |title=Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Perspektivy ėnergetiki |date=1979 |author=2 }} * 3. Gennadii Gerasimov, “Uroki Garrisburge,” Sovetskaia kultura, April 17, 1979. Cf. “K avarii v Garrisburge,” Pravda, April 2, 1954, 5; “V pogone za pribyliami,” Pravda Ukrainy, April 3, 1979; “Skonchalsia diplomat i zhurnalist-mezhdunarodnik Gennadii Gerasimov,” RIA Novosti July 17, 2010, https://ria.ru/20100917/276562069.html. ** [cite160]: {{Cite book |title=Skonchalsia diplomat i zhurnalist-mezhdunarodnik Gennadii Gerasimov |date=2010 |author1=Gerasimov ; Cf. “k Avarii V Garrisburge, ” |author2=Pravda }} * 4. “Vystuplenie tov. L. I. Brezhneva na Plenume TsK KPSS,” Pravda, November 28, 1979, 1–2; Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 46. ** [cite161]: {{Cite book |title=Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today |date=2005 |author1=Brezhneva Na Plenume Tsk, L |author2=null, Kpss |author3=Pravda, ” }} * 5. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Nauchno-tekhnicheskii progress i atomnaia ėnergetika,” Problemy mira i sotsializma, 1979, no. 6: 15–20; E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28; Josephson, Red Atom, 22–25. ** [cite162]: {{Cite book |title=Nauchno-tekhnicheskii progress i atomnaia ėnergetika |volume=69 |number=6 |date=1999 |author1=Adamov, E |author2=Ulasevich, V |author3=Zhirnov, A |editor=5. Anatolii Aleksandrov }} * 6. N. Dollezha l and Iu. Koriakin, “Iadernaia ėnergetika: dostizheniia, problemy,” Kommunist, 1979, no. 14: 69; cf. N. Dollezhal and Iu. Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” Problems in Economics 23 (June 1980): 3–20; Josephson, Red Atom, 43–44. * 7. Dollezhal and Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” 6; Joan T. Debardeleben, “Esoteric Policy Debate: Nuclear Safety Issues in the Soviet Union and German Democratic Republic,” British Journal of Political Science 15, no. 2 (April 1985): 227–53; Nikolai Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira (zapiski konstruktora) (Moscow, 2010), 194–96. ** [cite163]: {{Cite journal |journal=British Journal of Political Science |title=Esoteric Policy Debate: Nuclear Safety Issues in the Soviet Union and German Democratic Republic |volume=15 |number=6 |date=2010 |author=Debardeleben, Joan }} * 8. Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 916–17; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. ** [cite164]: {{Cite book |title=Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia |year=1996 |author=8. Adamov et al. }} * 9. Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 97, 99, 102–3; Josephson, Red Atom, 26–28; “ Pervaia v mire AĖS,” Fiziko-ėnergeticheskii institut im. A. I. Leipunskogo, https://www.ippe.ru/history/1ae; Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 917–18. ** [cite165]: {{Cite journal |journal=Pervaia v mire AĖS,” Fiziko-ėnergeticheskii institut im. A. I. Leipunskogo |title=Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia |volume=97 |year=2015 |author1=Schmid, Sonja |author2=Power, Producing |author3=Adamov, ; }} * 10 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 155–57, 221–22; Alvin M. Weinberg and Eugene P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors (Chicago, 1958). ** [cite166]: {{Cite book |title=The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors |year=1958 |author1=Dollezhal, Alvin |author2=Weinberg, Eugene |author3=Wigner }} * 11 Schmid, Producing Power, 100; A Companion to Global Environmental History, ed. J. R. McNeill and Erin Stewart Mauldin (New York, 2012), 308. ** [cite167]: {{Cite book |title=Producing Power, 100; A Companion to Global Environmental History |year=2012 |editor1=J. R. McNeill |editor2=Erin Stewart Mauldin }} * 12 Schmid, Producing Power, 103–8; Josephson, Red Atom, 28–32, 37–43. * 13 Schmid, Producing Power, 127; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 160–61, 225–26. * 14 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161–62; Thomas Filburn and Stephan Bullard, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima: Curse of the Nuclear Genie (Cham, 2016), 46–48. ** [cite168]: {{Cite book |title=Curse of the Nuclear Genie |year=2016 |author1=Dollezhal, Thomas |author2=Filburn, Stephan |author3=Bullard }} * 15 Schmid, Producing Power, 110–11; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 224–25. ** [cite169]: {{Cite book |title=15 Schmid, Producing Power |author1=Dollezhal, U |author2=Istokov |author3=Mira }} * 16 Schmid, Producing Power, 114, 120; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161. * 17 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 357–58. ** [cite170]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima |publisher=James Mahaffey |year=2014 |author1=Dollezhal, U |author2=Istokov |author3=Mira }} * 18 Sonja D. Schmid, “From “Inherently Safe” to “Proliferation Resistant”: New Perspectives on Reactor Designs, Nuclear Technology 207, no. 9 (2021): 1312–28. ** [cite171]: {{Cite journal |journal=Nuclear Technology |title=From “Inherently Safe” to “Proliferation Resistant”: New Perspectives on Reactor Designs |volume=207 |number=9 |year=2021 |editor=18 Sonja D. Schmid }} * 19 Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2020), 27, 31–33. * 20 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 32–34; Schmid, Producing Power, 116. * 21 Schmid, Producing Power, 114–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358. * 22 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358–461. ** [cite172]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 23 Lina Zernova, “Leningradskii Chernobyl’,” Bellona, April 4, 2016, https://bellona.ru/2016/04/04/laes75/; Vitalii Borets, “Kak gotovilsia vzryv Chernobylia,” Pripiat.com Sait goroda Pripiat, http://pripyat.com/articles/kak-gotovilsya-vzryv-chernobylya-vospominaniya-vibortsa.html; “Avariia na bloke no. 1 Leningradskoi AĖS (SSSR), sviazannaia s razrusheniem tekhnologicheskogo kanala,” Radiatsionnaia bezopasnost’ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Federatsii, MChS Rossii, http://rb.mchs.gov.ru/mchs/radiation_accidents/m_other_accidents/1975_god/Avarija_na_bloke_1_Leningradskoj_AJES_SS. ** [cite173]: {{Cite journal |journal=MChS Rossii |title=Avariia na bloke no. 1 Leningradskoi AĖS (SSSR), sviazannaia s razrusheniem tekhnologicheskogo kanala |date=2016 |author=Zernova, Lina }} * 24 M. Borisov, “Chto meshaet professionalizmu,” Isvestiia, February 27, 1984, 2. ** [cite174]: {{Cite journal |journal=Isvestiia |title=Chto meshaet professionalizmu |date=February 27, 1984, 2 |author=Borisov, M }} * 25 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 24–26; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 7–24. ** [cite175]: {{Cite book |title=Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster |publisher=Adam Higginbotham |year=2019 |author=Plokhy }} * 26 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 76–78. * 27 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 76–77; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 77–78; Yurii Trehub in Yurii Shcherbak, Chernobyl’: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie (Moscow, 1991). ** [cite176]: {{Cite book |title=Yurii Trehub in Yurii Shcherbak, Chernobyl’: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie |year=1991 |author=Plokhy }} * 28 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 362; Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York and London, 1990), 14–19. ** [cite177]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents, 362; Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl |year=1990 |author=Mahaffey }} * 29 Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 13; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 75. ** [cite178]: {{Cite book |title=The Legacy of Chernobyl, 13; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl |author=Medvedev }} * 30 Igor Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 366; Nikolai Kapran, Chernobyl’: mest’ mirnogo atoma (Kyiv, 2005), 312–13. * 31 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 64, 69–70; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 69–70; Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 34. * 32 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363–64. * 33 Razim Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” in Chernobyl’ desiat’ let spustia: neizbezhnost’ ili sluchainost’ (Moscow, 1995), 381–82. ** [cite179]: {{Cite book |title=Posledniaia smena,” in Chernobyl’ desiat’ let spustia: neizbezhnost’ ili sluchainost |year=1995 |author=Davletbaev, Razim }} * 34 Anatolii Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo (Moscow, 2003), 31. ** [cite180]: {{Cite journal |journal=Kak ėto bylo |title=Notitle-title |year=2003 |author=Diatlov, Anatolii }} * 35 Kazachkov and Trehub in Shcherbak, Chernoby l’, 367, 370; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363. ** [cite181]: {{Cite journal |journal=367 |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |author1=Kazachkov |author2=Trehub In Shcherbak }} * 36 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 78–81. * 37 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 30. * 38 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 31; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 82–84; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 364–65. ** [cite182]: {{Cite journal |journal=Kak ėto bylo |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |date=31 |author1=Diatlov |author2=Chernobyl, ’ }} * 39 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. * 40 Borys Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS—o rokovom ėksperimente i doprosakh KGB,” KishkiNA, July 14, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPRyciXh07k. * 41 “Sequence of Events—Chernobyl Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/appendices/chernobyl-accident-appendix-1-sequence-of-events.aspx; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 366–67. * 42 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 8, 49. * 43 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. * 44 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 50–54; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 105–9. ** [cite183]: {{Cite journal |journal=Kak |title=Notitle-title |author1=Diatlov |author2=Chernobyl, ’ }} * 45 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” * 46 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 53. * 47 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” * 48 Svetlana Alexievich, Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclea r Disaster (New York, 2005), 5–8; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 87–110, 144–49. ** [cite184]: {{Cite book |title=Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclea r Disaster |year=2005 |author=48 Svetlana, Alexievich }} * 49 Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia, 53. * 50 Valerii Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS i atomnaia ėnergetika SSSR,” Skepsis: Nauchno-prosvetitel’skii zhurnal, https://scepsis.net/library/id_3203.html. ** [cite185]: {{Cite book |title=Avariia na ChAĖS i atomnaia ėnergetika SSSR,” Skepsis: Nauchno-prosvetitel’skii zhurnal |author=Legasov, Valerii }} * 51 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; A. N. Makukhin, “Srochnoe donesenie,” April 26, 1986; Chernobyl’: Dokumenty. The National Security Archive, The George Washington University, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-26.pdf. ** [cite186]: {{Cite journal |journal=Dokumenty. The National Security Archive |title=Srochnoe donesenie |date=1986 |author1=Legasov |author2=Avariia Na Chaės, ”; A |author3=Makukhin }} * 52 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 128–32. ** [cite187]: {{Cite book |title=Avariia na ChAĖS”; Plokhy, Chernobyl |author=Legasov }} * 53 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 132–42, 150–55. * 54 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 153–63. * 55 William Taubman, Gorbachev: His Life and Times (New York, 2017), 169–70, 238. ** [cite188]: {{Cite book |title=Gorbachev: His Life and Times |volume=238 |year=2017 |author=Taubman, William }} * 56 Minutes of the Politburo Meeting of July 3, 1986, in V Politbiuro TsK KPSS: Po zapisiam Anatoliia Cherniaeva, Vadima Medvedeva, Georgiia Shakhnazarova, 1985–1991 (Moscow, 2006), 61–66; Iu. A. Izraėl’, “O posledstviiakh avarii na Chernobyl’skoi AĖS,” April 27, 1986, National Security Archive, https://constitutions.ru/?p=23420; https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-27.Report.pdf. * 57 Vypiska iz protokola no. 7 zasedaniia Politbiuro, April 28, 1986, Informatsiia ob avarii na Chernobyl’skoi atomnoi ėlektrostantsii 26 aprelia 1986 g., Gorbachev Foundation Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-28.Politburo.pdf; Text of the official announcement in “Avarii na Chenobyl’skoi AĖS ispolniaetsia 30 let,” Mezhdunarodnaia panorama, April 25, 2016; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 172–74. ** [cite189]: {{Cite journal |journal=Politburo |title=pdf; Text of the official announcement in “Avarii na Chenobyl’skoi AĖS ispolniaetsia 30 let |number=7 |date=2016 |author=Zasedaniia, Politbiuro }} * 58 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 1–3; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 170–72. * 59 Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: An Environmental History of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York, 2019), 33–37. ** [cite190]: {{Cite book |title=Manual for Survival: An Environmental History of the Chernobyl Disaster |year=2019 |author=Brown, Kate }} * 60 Luther Whitington, “Chernobyl Reactor Still Burning,” UPI Archives, April 29, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/29/Chernobyl-reactor-still-burning/9981572611428/. ** [cite191]: {{Cite book |title=Chernobyl Reactor Still Burning,” UPI Archives |date=1986 |author=Whitington, Luther }} * 61 Kost’ Bondarenko, “Shcherbitsky Live. Chto nuzhno znat’ o znamenitom lidere sovetskoi Ukrainy,” Strana.UA, February 17, 2018, https://strana.ua/articles/istorii/124635-shcherbitskij-live-chto-nuzhno-znat-o-znamenitom-lidere-sovetskoj-ukrainy-kotoromu-sehodnja-by-ispolnilos-100-let.html; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 182–84; Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB. Suspil’ni nastroï. ChAES u postavariinyi period. Zbirnyk dokumentiv pro katastrofu na Chornobyl’s’kii AES, comp. Oleh Bazhan, Volodymyr Birchak, and Hennadii Boriak (Kyiv, 2019), 47. ** [cite192]: {{Cite journal |journal=Strana.UA |title=Shcherbitsky Live |date=2019 |author1=Kost, ’ |author2=Bondarenko }} * 62 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 165; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 185–86; Igor’ Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon.’ 20 let nazad Moskvu moglo nakryt’ radioaktivnoe oblako,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 21, 2006. * 63 Katie Canales, “Photos show what daily life is really like inside Cherno­byl’s exclusion zone, one of the most polluted areas in the world,” Business Insider, April 20, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/what-daily-life-inside-chernobyls-exclusion-zone-is-really-like-2019-4#the-chernobyl-exclusion-zone-is-now-the-officially-designated-exclusion-zone-in-ukraine-5. ** [cite193]: {{Cite journal |journal=Business Insider |title=Photos show what daily life is really like inside Cherno­byl’s exclusion zone, one of the most polluted areas in the world |date=2020 |author=Canales, Katie }} * 64 “Protokol no. 3 zasedaniia operativnoi gruppy Politbiuro,” May 1, 1986, Chernobyl: Dokumenty. National Security Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-01.Minutes.pdf; V. I. Andriianov and V. G. Chirskov, Boris Shcherbina (Moscow, 2009). ** [cite194]: {{Cite journal |journal=Chernobyl: Dokumenty. National Security Archive |title=Notitle-title |date=2009 |author1=Andriianov, V |author2=Chirskov, V |author3=Shcherbina, Boris }} * 65 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 197, 201, 204–7. * 66 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 215; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 208–10. * 67 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 196–97, 210–12. * 68 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 208; Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon’ ”; Vasilii Semashko, “Osazhdalis’ li ‘chernobyl’skie oblaka’ na Belarus’?” Belorusskie novosti, April 23, 2007, https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2007/04/23/ic_articles_116_150633. ** [cite195]: {{Cite book |title=Osazhdalis’ li ‘chernobyl’skie oblaka’ na Belarus |date=2007 |author1=68 Plokhy |author2=Elokov, “ |author3=Chernobyl’skii ‘tsiklon, ’ ”; Vasilii |author4=Semashko }} * 69 Iulii Andreev, “Neschast’ia akademika Legasova,” Lebed: Nezavisimyi bostonskii al’manakh, October 2, 2005, http://lebed.com/2005/art4331.htm. * 70 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; “Ot Fantomasa do Makkeny: kinokritik Denis Gorelov—o liubimykh zarubezhnykh fil’makh sovetskikh kinozritelei,” Seldon News, July 29, 2019; Rafael’ Arutiunian, “Kitaiskii sindrom,” Skepsis, https://scepsis.net/library/id_710.html. ** [cite196]: {{Cite book |title=Ot Fantomasa do Makkeny: kinokritik Denis Gorelov-o liubimykh zarubezhnykh fil’makh sovetskikh kinozritelei |date=2019 |author1=Legasov |author2=Avariia Na, Chaės }} * 71 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/news/newsid_4936000/4936186.stm; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 191–95. * 72 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 239–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 249–66; Iu. M. Krupka and S. H. Plankova, “Zakon Ukraïny ‘Pro status i sotsial’nyi zakhyst hromadian, iaki postrazhdaly vnaslidok Chornobyl’s’koï katastrofy, 1991,’ ” Iurydychna entsyklopediia, ed. Iu. S. Shemchuchenko (Kyiv, 1998), 2; Adriana Petryna, Life Exposed: Biological Citizens and Chernobyl (Princeton, 2003), 107–14, 130–48. ** [cite197]: {{Cite journal |journal=Life Exposed: Biological Citizens and Chernobyl |title=Zakon Ukraïny ‘Pro status i sotsial’nyi zakhyst hromadian, iaki postrazhdaly vnaslidok Chornobyl’s’koï katastrofy |publisher=Adriana Petryna |number=2 |date=2003 |author1=Iu |author2=Krupka, S |author3=Plankova |editor=Iu. S. Shemchuchenko }} * 73 “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. * 74 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 196–97; 228–29; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 236–38; Nikolai Ryzhkov to the Central Committee, May 14, 1986, National Security Archive, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/r09c6d-gecie/1986.05.14%20Ryzhkov%20Memorandum%20on%20Chernobyl.pdf. “Chernobyl’skaia katastrofa v dokumentakh Politbiuro TsK KPSS,” Rodina, 1992, no. 1: 84–85; Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo Operational Group, May 10, 1986, National Security Archive, 2, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-10.Politburo.pdf; Brown, Manual for Survival, 102–10. ** [cite198]: {{Cite journal |journal=Ryzhkov Memorandum on Chernobyl.pdf. “Chernobyl’skaia katastrofa v dokumentakh Politbiuro TsK KPSS |title=Notitle-title |volume=2 |number=1 |date=May 14. 1986. 1992. May 10, 1986. 1986-05-10 |author=Plokhy }} * 75 Alla Iaroshinskaia, Chernobyl’ 20 let spustia: prestuplenie bez nakazaniia (Moscow, 2006), 448; Higginbotham, Midnight in C hernobyl, 270–74; Taubman, Gorbachev, 241–42. ** [cite199]: {{Cite journal |journal=Gorbachev |title=Notitle-title |publisher=Taubman |year=2006 |author=Iaroshinskaia, Alla }} * 76 Anatolii Aleksandrov, Autobiography, in Fiziki o sebe, ed. V. Ia. Frenkel’ (Leningrad, 1990), 277–83, here 282. ** [cite200]: {{Cite book |title=Autobiography, in Fiziki o sebe |year=1990 |author=76 Anatolii, Aleksandrov }} * 77 V Politbiuro TsK KPSS, 62. * 78 Svetlana Samodelova, “Kak ubivali akademika Legasova, kotoryi provel sobstvennoe rassledovanie Chernobyl’skoi katastrofy,” Moskovskii komsomolets, April 25, 2017; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 275–77, 321–26. ** [cite201]: {{Cite book |title=Kak ubivali akademika Legasova, kotoryi provel sobstvennoe rassledovanie Chernobyl’skoi katastrofy |date=2017 |author=Samodelova, Svetlana }} * 79 Oleksii Breus in “Rozsekrechena istoriia. Choornobyl: shcho vstanovylo rozsliduvannia katastrofy?” Suspilne movlennia, April 28, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2qulMBzjmI&fbclid=IwAR2Qqd7E9a7J66NqsIVUoQwUK0r0wJtseHOmmxkl1xu368wLYBKKYk8o8kY; Igor Gegel, “Sudebnoe ėkho tekhnogennykh katastrof v pechati,” Mediaskop 2011, no. 2, http://www.mediascope.ru/en/node/834. * 80 Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB, 216–17, 237; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 314–20. * 81 Chernobylskaia avariia: Doklad Mezhdunarodnoi konsul’tativnoi gruppy po iadernoi bezopasnosti, INSAG-7, dopolnenie k INSAG-1 (Vienna, 1993), 29–31; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 346–49. * 82 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006; Taubman, Gorbachev, 242. * 83 Jane I. Dawson, Econationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania and Ukraine (Durham, NC, 1996), 59–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 285–330. ** [cite202]: {{Cite journal |journal=Lithuania and Ukraine |title=Econationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia |year=1996 |author=Dawson, Jane }} * 84 Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014), 295–387. ** [cite203]: {{Cite book |title=The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union |url=https://archive.org/details/lastempirefinald0000plok |year=2014 |author=Plokhy }} * 85 “Nuclear Power in Ukraine,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/ukraine.aspx; “World Nuclear Industry Status Report,” https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/; “RBMK Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx; Aria Bendix, “Russia still has 10 Chernobyl-style reactors that scientists say aren’t necessarily safe,” Business Insider, June 4, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/could-chernobyl-happen-again-russia-reactors-2019-6. * 86 Kim Hjelmgaard, “Chernobyl Impact Is Breathtakingly Grim,” USA Today, April 17, 2016; Paulina Dedaj, “Chernobyl’s $1.7B Nuclear Confinement Shelter Revealed after Taking 9 Years to Complete,” Fox News, July 3, 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/world/chernobyl-nuclear-confinement-shelter-revealed. ** [cite204]: {{Cite journal |journal=USA Today |title=Chernobyl’s $1.7B Nuclear Confinement Shelter Revealed after Taking 9 Years to Complete |publisher=Fox News |date=2019 |author=Hjelmgaard, Kim }} * 87 Mary Mycio, Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl (Washington, DC, 2005), 217–42; David R. Marples, “The Decade of Despair,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 52, no. 3 (May–June 1996): 20–31; Judith Miller, “Chernobyl—Here’s What I Saw, Heard and Felt When I Visited the Site Last Year,” Fox News, May 2, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/chernobyl-site-judith-miller.amp?cmpid=prn_newsstand. ** [cite205]: {{Cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |title=Chernobyl-Here’s What I Saw, Heard and Felt When I Visited the Site Last Year,” Fox News |publisher=Judith Miller |volume=52 |number=3 |date=2020 |author1=Mycio, Mary |author2=Forest, Wormwood |author3=David, ; |author4=Marples, R }} * 88 Brown, Manual for Survival, 240–48; Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, and Thomas E. Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–817, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html. ** [cite206]: {{Cite journal |journal=Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On |title=Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts |volume=470 |number=803 |date=2002 |author1=Steinhauser, Georg |author2=Brandl, Alexander |author3=Johnson, Thomas }} * 89 Keiji Suzuki, Norisato Mitsutake, Vladimir Saenko, and Shunichi Yamashita, “Radiation signatures in childhood thyroid cancers after the Chernobyl accident: Possible roles of radiation in carcinogenesis,” Cancer Science 106, no. 2 (February 2015): 127–33. ** [cite207]: {{Cite journal |journal=Cancer Science |title=Radiation signatures in childhood thyroid cancers after the Chernobyl accident: Possible roles of radiation in carcinogenesis |volume=106 |number=2 |date=2015 |author1=Suzuki, Keiji |author2=Mitsutake, Norisato |author3=Saenko, Vladimir |author4=Yamashita, Shunichi }} * 90 Brown, Manual for Survival, 227–76. * 91 Brown, Manual for Survival, 249–64; Germán Orizaola, “Chernobyl Has Become a Refuge for Wildlife 33 Years After the Nuclear Accident,” The World, May 13, 2019, https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-05-13/chernobyl-has-become-refuge-wildlife-33-years-after-nuclear-accident; “Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/; Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents,” 808; “Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis,” Union of Concerned Scientists, April 22, 2011; “The Chernobyl Catastrophe: Consequences on Human Health,” Greenpeace 2006; Charles Hawley and Stefan Schmitt, “Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy, “ Spiegel International, April 18, 2006. ** [cite208]: {{Cite journal |journal=Greenpeace |title=Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis,” Union of Concerned Scientists |publisher=Charles Hawley and Stefan Schmitt |date=2006 |author=Steinhauser }} * Chapter VI. NUCLEAR TSUNAMI: FUKUSHIMA * 1. Gerald M. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1. ** [cite209]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety |date=May 5, 1986, A1 |author=Boyd, Gerald }} * 2. Clyde Haberman, “5 Missiles, Discharged Shortly Before Reagan Visit, Miss the Target,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1; Susan Chira, “Tokyo Subway Traffic Disrupted by a Series of Small Explosions,” New York Times, May 6, 1986, A1. ** [cite210]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=5 Missiles, Discharged Shortly Before Reagan Visit, Miss the Target |date=May 5. 1986. May 6, 1986, A1 |editor=2. Clyde Haberman }} * 3. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety.” * 4. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake, Documents Show,” Japan Times, December 20, 2017. * 5. U.S. Department of State Bull etin, no. 2112 (July 1986): 4–5; Economic Summits, 1975–1986: Declarations (Rome, 1987): 145–46; “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. * 6. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake”; “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; “IAEA Warned Japan Over Nuclear Quake Risk: WikiLeaks,” Indian Express, March 17, 2011. * 7. Mayako Shimamoto, “Abolition of Ja pan’s Nuclear Power Plants?: Analysis from a Historical Perspective on Early Cold War, 1944–1955,” in Japan Viewed from Interdisciplinary Perspectives: History and Prospects, ed. Yoneyuki Sugita (Lanham, MD, 2015), 264–66; John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA, 2005), 150–86. ** [cite211]: {{Cite book |title=Abolition of Ja pan’s Nuclear Power Plants? |publisher=John Swenson-Wright |date=2005 |editor=Yoneyuki Sugita }} * 8. Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies, 182–83; “Atomic Energy Basic Act,” Act No. 186 of December 19, 1955, Japanese Law Translation, http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=1&re=01&dn=1&x=0&y=0&co=01&ia=03&ja=04&ky=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95&page=3; Mari Yamaguchi, “Yasuhiro Nakasone: Japanese Prime Minister at Height of Country’s Economic Growth,” Independent, December 21, 2019. ** [cite212]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Energy Basic Act |publisher=Japanese Law Translation |number=186 |date=1955 |author=Swenson-Wright }} * 9. Kennedy Maize, “A Short History of Nuclear Power in Japan,” Power, March 14, 2011, https://www.powermag.com/blog/a-short-history-of-nuclear-power-in-japan/. * 10 Nobumasa Akiyama, “America’s Nuclear Nonproliferation Order and Japan-US Relations,” Japan and the World, Japan Digital Library (March 2017), 3–5, http://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/digital_library/world.php; “Tokai no. 2 Power Station,” The Japan Atomic Power Company, http://www.japc.co.jp/english/power_stations/tokai2.html. * 11 “The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html. * 12 Kiyonobu Yamashita, “History of Nuclear Technology Development in Japan,” AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 020003 (2015): 6–7, https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916842; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York and London, 2014), 380–83. ** [cite213]: {{Cite journal |journal=AIP Conference Proceedings |title=Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima |publisher=James Mahaffey |volume=1659 |date=2014 |author=Yamashita, Kiyonobu }} * 13 The Fukushima Daiichi Accident: Description and Context of the Accident, Technical Volume 1/5 (Vienna, 2015), 59–64; TEPCO, Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, History, https://www7.tepco.co.jp/about/corporate/history-e.html; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York and London, 2014), 40–41. * 14 Takafumi Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University, August 7, 2013, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1698290. ** [cite214]: {{Cite journal |journal=Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima |date=2013 |author=14 Takafumi, Yoshida }} * 15 Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima”; “Action Alert: Japanese Activists Ask for Support,” November 23, 1990, World International Service on Energy, https://web.archive.org/web/20120326134237/http://www.klimaatkeuze.nl/wise/monitor/342/3418. * 16 “TEPCO Chairman, President Announce Resignations Over Nuclear Coverups,” Japan Times, September 2, 2002; Masanori Makita, Naotaka Ito, and Mirai Nagira, “Ex-TEPCO Chairman Sorry for Nuke Accident but Says He Was Not in Control of Utility in 2011,” The Mainichi, October 30, 2018; Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 388. ** [cite215]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Times |title=Masanori Makita, Naotaka Ito, and Mirai Nagira, “Ex-TEPCO Chairman Sorry for Nuke Accident but Says He Was Not in Control of Utility in 2011 |publisher=Stephanie Cooke |date=2009 |author=Tepco Chairman, “ }} * 17 “Operator of Fukushima Nuke Plant Admitted to Faking Repair Records,” Herald Sun, March 20, 2011. * 18 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 378–79. * 19 Lochbaum et al, Fukushima, 52–54; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, May 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516986; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 387–91; “Putting Tsunami Countermeasures on Hold at Fukushima Nuke Plant ‘Natural’: ex-TEPCO VP,” The Mainichi, October 20, 2018. ** [cite216]: {{Cite journal |journal=The Mainichi |title=TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |date=2018 |editor=19 Lochbaum et al, Fukushima }} * 20 M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan, Earthquake Hazards Program, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30/executive#executive. * 21 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 1–3; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 377, 390; “Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation Associated with 2011 Tohoku District,” National Police Agency of Japan Emergency Disaster ­Countermeasures Headquarters, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earth­-quake2011/pdf/higaijokyo_e.pdf. ** [cite217]: {{Cite journal |journal=National Police Agency of Japan Emergency Disaster ­Countermeasures Headquarters |title=Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation Associated with 2011 Tohoku District |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |volume=377 |author=Lochbaum }} * 22 Ryusho Kadota, On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi (Kumamoto: Kurodahan Press, 2014), 7–16. ** [cite218]: {{Cite book |title=On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi |publisher=Kurodahan Press |year=2014 |author=Kadota, Ryusho }} * 23 Kadota, On the Brink, 7–16; Mahaff ey, Atomic Accidents, 388–90; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3–5. ** [cite219]: {{Cite book |title=Mahaff ey, Atomic Accidents |author1=Kadota, ; |author2=Lochbaum }} * 24 The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission Report (Tokyo, 2012), chap. 2, 1–2; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 391–92. * 25 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3, 10–12; Airi Ryu and Najmedin Meshkati, “Onagawa: The Japanese Nuclear Power Plant That Didn’t Melt Down on 3/11,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 10, 2014. ** [cite220]: {{Cite journal |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |title=Onagawa: The Japanese Nuclear Power Plant That Didn |volume=3 |date=2014 |author1=Kadota, ; |author2=Lochbaum }} * 26 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33. ** [cite221]: {{Cite book |title=On the Brink |author=Kadota }} * 27 Kadota, On the Brink, 33–48; Tatsuyuki Kobori, “Report: Fukushi ma Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disaster Digital Archive, December 28, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1532037. ** [cite222]: {{Cite journal |journal=Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disaster Digital Archive |title=Report: Fukushi ma Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis |date=2011 |author=Kadota }} * 28 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–17, 22; Kadota, On the Brink, 43. * 29 “Tokyo: Earthquake During Parliament Session,” March 11, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGrddjwY8zM; “What Went Wrong: Fukushima Flashback a Month after Crisis Started,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 4, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516215; Naoto Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare: Leading Japan through the Fukushima Disaster to a Nuclear-Free Future (Ithaca, NY, 2017), 28–29. ** [cite223]: {{Cite journal |journal=Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=What Went Wrong: Fukushima Flashback a Month after Crisis Started |publisher=Naoto Kan |date=2017 |author=Tokyo, “ }} * 30 “Kan: Activist, Politico, Mah-jongg Lover,” Yomiuri Shimbun, June 5, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215002/http:/news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Asia/Story/A1Story20100605-220351.html. * 31 Hideaki Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap: 5 da ys in the Prime Minister’s Office,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516701; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 2, 30–31. ** [cite224]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=The Prometheus Trap: 5 da ys in the Prime Minister’s Office,” Asahi Shimbun |publisher=Kan |volume=2 |date=2012 |author=Kimura, Hideaki }} * 32 “Statement by Prime Minister Naoto Kan on Tohoku district—off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake,” Friday, March 11 at 4:55 p.m., 2011 [Provisional Translation], Speeches and Statements by the Prime Minister, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, https://japan.kantei.go.jp/kan/statement/201103/11kishahappyo_e.html. * 33 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–18. * 34 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” ** [cite225]: {{Cite book |title=My Nuclear Nightmare, 3; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap |author=Kan }} * 35 “What Went Wrong.” * 36 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” * 37 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24; “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” ** [cite226]: {{Cite journal |journal=Fukushima |title=Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster |date=2012 |author=Lochbaum }} * 38 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 41–42; “What Went Wrong.” ** [cite227]: {{Cite book |title=What Went Wrong |author=Lochbaum }} * 39 “What Went Wrong.” * 40 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori, “Report: Fukushima Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis”; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 43–45; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24. ** [cite228]: {{Cite journal |journal=Crisis |title=Report: Fukushima Plant Chief Kept His Cool in |author=Lochbaum }} * 41 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 25. ** [cite229]: {{Cite book |title=The Prometheus Trap |author=Lochbaum }} * 42 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “What Went Wrong.” * 43 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” * 44 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 48; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die,’ ” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 13, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1531834. ** [cite230]: {{Cite journal |journal=Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die |date=2011 |author=Kan }} * 45 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, February 29, 2012, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516636. * 46 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response.” * 47 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 52; “What Went Wrong”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” ** [cite231]: {{Cite journal |journal=My Nuclear Nightmare |title=What Went Wrong”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap |volume=52 |author=Kan }} * 48 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 31–33, 57, 60; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 395–96. ** [cite232]: {{Cite book |title=The Prometheus Trap” |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |volume=57 |author=Lochbaum }} * 49 “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12 2011—Japanese nuclear plant blast),” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psAuFr8Xeqs. * 50 “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12, 2011). * 51 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 59. ** [cite233]: {{Cite book |title=The Prometheus Trap |author=Lochbaum }} * 52 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 55–57; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396; “Fukushima Daiichi Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident.aspx. ** [cite234]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=Fukushima Daiichi Accident |publisher=Mahaffey |volume=396 |author=Lochbaum }} * 53 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 380–84. ** [cite235]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 54 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” ** [cite236]: {{Cite book |title=Fukushima, 60; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap |author=Lochbaum }} * 55 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60–61; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Nuke Plant Manager Ignores Bosses, Pumps in Seawater after Order to Halt,” Asahi Shimbun, May 27, 2011, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516396. ** [cite237]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=The Prometheus Trap”; “Nuke Plant Manager Ignores Bosses, Pumps in Seawater after Order to Halt |date=2011 |author=Lochbaum }} * 56 Toshihiro Okuyama, Hideaki Kimura, and Takashi Sugimoto, “Inside Fukushima: How Workers Tried but Failed to Avert a Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, October 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517417. ** [cite238]: {{Cite book |title=Inside Fukushima: How Workers Tried but Failed to Avert a Nuclear Disaster |date=2012 |author1=56 Toshihiro Okuyama, Hideaki |author2=Kimura, Takashi |author3=Sugimoto }} * 57 Okuyama et al., “Inside Fukushima”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” ** [cite239]: {{Cite book |title=Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die |author=Okuyama }} * 58 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396–97; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” ** [cite240]: {{Cite book |title=The Prometheus Trap |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |author=Lochbaum }} * 59 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 7, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517276. ** [cite241]: {{Cite journal |journal=Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident |date=2012 |author=Lochbaum }} * 60 “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident.” * 61 “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 10, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Hideaki Kimura, Takaaki Yorimitsu, and Tomomi Miyazaki, “Plaintiffs Seek Preservation of TEPCO Teleconference Videos,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 28, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517135. ** [cite242]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive |publisher=Asahi Shimbun |date=2012 |editor1=Hideaki Kimura, Takaaki Yorimitsu, |editor2=Tomomi Miyazaki }} * 62 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 80–84; Yoichi Funabashi, Meltdown: Inside the Fukushima Nuclear Crisis (Washington, DC, 2021), 136–40; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Ex-Fukushima Nuclear Plant Chief Denies ‘Pullout’ in Video,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 12, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517286; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response.” * 63 Funabashi, Meltdown, 140–43; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” * 64 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap;” Funabashi, Meltdown, 145. * 65 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3, 14. * 66 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” * 67 Funabashi, Meltdown, 145–46. * 68 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397. * 69 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 75–76; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Japan Earthquake: Explosion at Fukushima Nuclear Plant,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OO_w8tCn9gU; Tatsuyuki Kobori, Jin Nishikawa, and Naoya Kon, “Remembering 3/11: Fukushima Plant’s ‘Fateful Day’ Was March 15,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 8, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516688. ** [cite243]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die |publisher=Asahi Shimbun |date=2012 |author=Lochbaum }} * 70 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori et al., “Remembering 3/11.” ** [cite244]: {{Cite book |title=The Prometheus Trap |author=Kobori }} * 71 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 95–99; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98; “What Went Wrong.” ** [cite245]: {{Cite book |title=My Nuclear Nightmare |publisher=Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents |author=Kan }} * 72 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98. ** [cite246]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents |year=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |author=Mahaffey }} * 73 “Fukushima Plant Chief Defied TEPCO Headquarters to Protect Workers,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517505. * 74 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html. * 75 Takashi Sugimoto and Hideaki Kimura, “TEPCO Failed to Respond to Dire Warning of Radioactive Water Leaks at Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517504; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” ** [cite247]: {{Cite journal |journal=Japan Disasters Digital Archive |title=TEPCO Failed to Respond to Dire Warning of Radioactive Water Leaks at Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun |date=2012 |author1=Sugimoto, Takashi |author2=Kimura, Hideaki }} * 76 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” * 77 “Fukushima Nuclear Chief Masao Yoshida Dies,” BBC News, July 10, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102; https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102. * 78 Geoff Brumfiel, “Fukushima Reaches Cold Shutdown, but Milestone is More Symbolic than Real,” Nature, December 16, 2011; “Mid-and-Long-Term Roadmap towards the Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Units 1-4,” TEPCO, December 21, 2011 [Provisional Translation], http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/111221e10.pdf; https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” ** [cite248]: {{Cite journal |journal=Nature |title=Mid-and-Long-Term Roadmap towards the Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Units 1-4 |date=2011 |author=Brumfiel, Geoff }} * 79 “2.4 trillion Yen in Fukushima Crisis Compensation Costs to be Tacked Onto Power Bills,” The Mainichi, December 10, 2016. * 80 Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, Alexander and Thomas Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents: A Review of the Environmental Impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–17, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html; A. Hasegawa et al., “Health Effects of Radiation and Other Health Problems in the Aftermath of Nuclear Accidents, with an Emphasis on Fukushima,” The Lancet 386, no. 9992 (August 2015): 479–88; Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu, Nikolaos Evangeliou, Timothy Alexander Mousseau, Junwen Wu, and Ahmad Termizi Ramli, “An Overview of Current Knowledge Concerning the Health and Environmental Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) Accident,” Environment International 85 (December 2015): 213–28, https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/10140/1/(ITEM_10140)_steve_thomas_2013.pdf. ** [cite249]: {{Cite journal |journal=Science of the Total Environment |title=An Overview of Current Knowledge Concerning the Health and Environmental Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) Accident |publisher=Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu |volume=470 |number=9992 |date=2015 |author1=Steinhauser, Georg |author2=Brandl, Alexander |author3=null, Alexander |author4=Johnson, Thomas |author5=Hasegawa, ; |editor1=Nikolaos Evangeliou, Timothy Alexander Mousseau, Junwen Wu, |editor2=Ahmad Termizi Ramli }} * 81 Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents”; Fuminori Tamba, “The Evacuation of Residents after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” in Fukushima: A Political and Economic Analysis of a Nuclear Disaster, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida (Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press, 2013), 89–108. ** [cite250]: {{Cite book |title=Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents”; Fuminori Tamba |publisher=Hokkaido University Press |year=2013 |author=Steinhauser |editor1=Miranda A. Schreus |editor2=Fumikazu Yoshida }} * 82 Jane Braxton Little, “Fukushima Residents Return Despite Radiation,” Scientific American, January 16, 2019; Michael Penn, “‘We don’t know when it will end’: 10 years after Fukushima,” Al Jazeera, March 9, 2021. * 83 Jennifer Jett and Ben Dooley, “Fukushima Wastewater Will Be Released Into the Ocean, Japan Says,” New York Times, April 12, 2021; Dennis Normile, “Japan Plans to Release Fukushima’s Wastewater into the Ocean,” Science, April 13, 2021. ** [cite251]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Japan Plans to Release Fukushima’s Wastewater into the Ocean |publisher=Dennis Normile |date=2021 |author1=Jett, Jennifer |author2=Dooley, Ben }} * 84 “ENSI Report on Fukushima III: Lessons Learned,” Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate, https://www.ensi.ch/en/ensi-report-on-fukushima-iii-lessons-learned/; “Organizational Issues of the Parties Involved in the Accident,” The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission, https://warp.da.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/3856371/naiic.go.jp/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/NAIIC_Eng_Chapter5_web.pdf. * 85 Magdalena Osumi, “Former TEPCO Executives Found Not Guilty of Criminal Negligence in Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,” Japan Times, September 19, 2019; “High Court Orders TEPCO to Pay More in Damages to Fukushima Evacuees,” The Mainichi, March 13, 2020; “TEPCO ordered to pay minimal damages to Fukushima evacuees; Japan gov’t liability denied,” The Mainichi, December 18, 2019; Motoko Rich, “Japan and Utility Are Found Negligent Again in Fukushima Meltdowns,” New York Times, October 10, 2017. ** [cite252]: {{Cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=Former TEPCO Executives Found Not Guilty of Criminal Negligence in Fukushima Nuclear Disaster |date=2017 |author=Osumi, Magdalena }} * 86 “Liability for Nuclear Damage,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/liability-for-nuclear-damage.aspx. * 87 Miranda A. Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Implications for Japan,” in Fukushima, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida, 1–20, here 16–20; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 16–30. ** [cite253]: {{Cite book |title=The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Implications for Japan |publisher=David Elliott |year=2013 |author=Schreus, Miranda |editor1=Fukushima, ed. Miranda A. Schreus |editor2=Fumikazu Yoshida }} * 88 “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; Steve Kidd, “Japan—is there a future in nuclear?” Nuclear Engineering International, July 4, 2018, https://www.neimagazine.com/opinion/opinionjapan-is-there-a-future-in-nuclear-6231610/; Ken Silverstein, “Japan Circling Back To Nuclear Power After Fukushima Disaster,” Forbes, September 8, 2017; Florentine Koppenborg, “Nuclear Restart Politics: How the ‘Nuclear Village’ Lost Policy Implementation Power,” Social Science Japan Journal 24, no. 1 (Winter 2021): 115–35. * 89 Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” 7–10; Fumikazu Yoshida, “Future Perspectives,” in Fukushima, ed. Schreus and Yoshida, 113–16; Elliott, Fukushima, 32–37. * 90 Abby Rogers, “The 20 Countries with The Most Nuclear Reactors,” Business Insider, October 11, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/the-countries-with-the-most-nuclear-reactors-2011-10#11-china-10; James Griffiths, “China’s gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose?” CNN Business, September 13, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/13/business/china-nuclear-climate-intl-hnk/index.html; “Nuclear Power in China,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx. ** [cite254]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=China’s gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose? |publisher=James Griffiths |date=2019 |author=Rogers, Abby }} * 91 Mycle Schneider, Antony Froggatt et al., The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013 (Paris and London, July 2013), 6; Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Sean McDonagh, Fukushima: The Death Knell for Nuclear Energy? (Dublin, 2012). ** [cite255]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Sean McDonagh, Fukushima: The Death Knell for Nuclear Energy? |publisher=Paris and London |date=2012 |author1=Schneider, Mycle |author2=Froggatt, Antony }} * Afterword: WHAT COMES NEXT? * 1. Ayesha Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation,” Reuters, February 9, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-nrc/u-s-approves-first-new-nuclear-plant-in-a-generation-idUSTRE8182J720120209; Meghan Anzelc, “Gregory Jaczko, Ph.D. Physics, Commissioner, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,” American Physical Society, https://www.aps.org/units/fgsa/careers/non-traditional/jaczko.cfm; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2014), 89–96, 172–77. ** [cite256]: {{Cite journal |journal=Ph.D. Physics, Commissioner, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission |title=Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation |publisher=American Physical Society |date=2014 |editor=David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, }} * 2. Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation”; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 3 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog3.html; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 4 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog4.html; Abbie Bennett, “Southern CEO maintains Vogtle Unit 3 will start up in 2022, despite latest delay,” S&P Global Market Intelligence, November 4, 2021. ** [cite257]: {{Cite book |title=Unit 3 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission |publisher=Abbie Bennett |editor=2. Rascoe, “U.S }} * 3. “Our Mission,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/our-association/who-we-are/mission.aspx; “The Harmony Programme,” World Nuclear Association, https://world-nuclear.org/harmony; “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. * 4. Gregory Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator (New York, 2019), 163, 165. * 5. “Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Thomas Rose and Trevor Sweeting, “Severe Nuclear Accidents and Learning Effects,” IntechOpen, November 5, 2018, https://www.intechopen.com/books/statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics/severe-nuclear-accidents-and-learning-effects. * 6. James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014). ** [cite258]: {{Cite book |title=Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima |url=https://archive.org/details/atomicaccidentsh0000maha |year=2014 |author=Mahaffey, James }} * 7. “International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES),” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/international-nuclear-and-radiological-event-scale; Nuclear accidents—INES scale 1957–2011, Statista Research Department, May 12, 2011, https://www.statista.com/statistics/273002/the-biggest-nuclear-accidents-worldwide-rated-by-ines-scale/. * 8. International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period: A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 2006). * 9. J. Schofield, “Nuclear Sharing and Pakistan, North Korea and Iran,” in Strategic Nuclear Sharing, Global Issues Series (London, 2014). * 10 Jeffrey Cassandra and , “Big Money, Nuclear Subsidies, and Systemic Corruption,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, February 12, 2021. * 11 Dan Yurman and David Dalton, “China Keen to Match Pace Set by Russia in Overseas Construction,” NucNET, The Independent Nuclear News Agency, January 23, 2020, https://www.nucnet.org/news/china-keen-to-match-pace-set-by-russia-in-overseas-construction-1-4-2020. ** [cite259]: {{Cite journal |journal=NucNET |title=China Keen to Match Pace Set by Russia in Overseas Construction |date=2020 |editor1=11 Dan Yurman |editor2=David Dalton }} * 12 “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Ivan Nechepurenko and Andrew Higgins, “Coming to a Country Near You: A Russian Nuclear Power Plant,” New York Times, March 21, 2020; Matthew Sparks, “Chernobyl radiation spike probably from Russian tanks disturbing dust,” New Scientist, February 25, 2022. ** [cite260]: {{Cite journal |journal=World Nuclear Association |title=Chernobyl radiation spike probably from Russian tanks disturbing dust |publisher=Matthew Sparks |date=2022 |author1=Nechepurenko, Ivan |author2=Higgins, Andrew }} * 13 Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 118–19; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 409. 14 Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator, 167. ru2qv61u03secooc97l5nwmcf6ab8bj User:Markjgraham hmb/testcases/Atoms And Ashes A Global History Of Nuclear Disasters/anystyle 2 127551 519318 2022-07-30T20:20:56Z Markjgraham hmb 50568 Created page with "Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States..." wikitext text/x-wiki Preface: STOLEN FIRE 1. Serge Schmemann, “Chernobyl Within the Barbed Wire: Monument to Innocence and Anguish,” New York Times, April 23, 1991; “Pamiatnik pogibshim na ChAES Prometei,” izi.TRAVEL, https://izi.travel/zh/cca2-pamyatnik-pogibshim-na-chaes-prometey/ru; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 23–24. 2. Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 192; “Remarks prepared by Lewis L. Strauss,” United States Atomic Energy Commission, September 16, 1954, 9, https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML1613/ML16131A120.pdf; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 88–90. 3. “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Marton Dunai and Geert De Clercq, “Nuclear Energy Too Slow, Too Expensive to Save Climate: Report,” Reuters, September 23, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-nuclearpower/nuclear-energy-too-slow-too-expensive-to-save-climate-report-idUSKBN1W909J; Amory B. Lovins, “Why Nuclear Power’s Failure in the Marketplace is Irreversible (Fortunately for Nonproliferation and Climate Protection),” in Nuclear Power and the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, ed. Paul L. Levinthal, Sharon Tanzer, and Steven Dolley (Washington, DC, 2002), 69–84. 4. George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA, 1999); “Iran and the NPT,” Iran Primer, United States Institute of Peace, https://iranprimer.usip.org/index.php/blog/2020/jan/22/iran-and-npt. 5. World Energy Model. Scenario Analysis of Future Energy Trends, International Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-model/sustainable-development-scenario; “Where Does Our Electricity Come From?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/where-does-our-electricity-come-from.aspx; “European Commission declares nuclear and gas to be green,” Deutche Welle, February 2, 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/european-commission-declares-nuclear-and-gas-to-be-green/a-60614990. 6. “Electricity Explained,” U.S. Energy Information Administration, https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us.php; “How Can Nuclear Combat Climate Change?” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-essentials/how-can-nuclear-combat-climate-change.aspx. 7. “Nuclear Energy in the U.S.: Expensive Source Competing with Cheap Gas and Renewables,” Climate Nexus, https://climatenexus.org/climate-news-archive/nuclear-energy-us-expensive-source-competing-cheap-gas-renewables/; Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 247–55; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 2–5. 8. “General Overview Worldwide, “The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2019, https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/The-World-Nuclear-Industry-Status-Report-2019-HTML.html. 9. Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 117–18. 10 “INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/ines.pdf; “Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log,” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/fukushima-nuclear-accident-update-log-15. Chapter I. WHITE ASHES: BIKINI ATOLL 1. Steve Weintz, “Think Your Job Is Rough? Try Disabling a Nuclear Bomb,” The National Interest, January 7, 2020; John C. Clark as told to Robert Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” Saturday Evening Post (July 20, 1957), 17–19, 64–66, here 17. 2. Major General P. W. Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army, 1954), 121. 3. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 18–19. 4. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 64. 5. Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout,” 65–66. 6. Bill Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” Saturday Evening Post (April 19, 1952), 32–33, 185–88, here 33, 186; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 8–32. 7. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1986), 428–42; “Alvin Graves,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/alvin-graves; Michael Drapa, “A witness to atomic history: Ted Petry recounts the world’s first nuclear reaction at UChicago, 75 years later,” University of Chicago, November 13, 2017, https://www.uchicago.edu/features/a_witness_to_atomic_history/. 8. DeGroot, The Bomb, 37–65, 82–105. 9. Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33; Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” Saturday Review of Literature, August 18, 1945, reprinted in Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York, 1967), 120–30; DeGroot, The Bomb, 74–75. 10 Philip L. Fradkin, Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy (Tucson, AZ, 1989), 89–91, 256; Becker, “The Man Who Sets Off Atomic Bombs,” 33, 186; “Floy Agnes Lee’s Interview,” Voices of the Manhattan Project, 11–12, https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/floy-agnes-lees-interview. 11 Fradkin, Fallout, 106–11; Richard L. Miller, Under the Cloud: The Decades of Nuclear Testing (The Woodlands, TX, 1986), 363; Operation Upshot-Knothole Fact Sheet (Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, July 2007). 12 De Groot, The Bomb, 162–84. 13 “Percy Clarkson, General, 68, Dies,” New York Times, September 15, 1962, 25. 14 Richard Rh odes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 1995), 482–512. 15 “Interview with Edward Teller,” National Security Archive, Episode 8, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/coldwar/interviews/episode-8/teller1.html; Rhodes, Dark Sun, 541–42; DeGroot, The Bomb, 177–79. 16 Alex Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953),” Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog, February 8, 2012; We llerstein, Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States (Chicago, 2021), 241–44, 248; Thomas Kunkle and Byron Ristvet, Castle Bravo: Fifty Years of Legend and Lore. A Guide to Off-Site Radiation Exposures (Kirtland AFB, NM: Defense Threat Reduction Agency, January 2013), 49, 51. 17 Laura A. Bruno, “The Bequest of the Nuclear Battlefield: Science, Nature, and the Atom during the First Decade of the Cold War,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 33, no. 2 (2003): 237–60, here 246; W. G. Van Dorn, Ivy-Mike: The First Hydrogen Bomb (Bloomington, IN, 2008), 13, 36, 43–44, 170–71; Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953).” 18 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 10, 54. 19 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 4–8. 20 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 6; Ma rtha Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance: The United States and the Marshall Islands during the Cold War (Honolulu, 2016), 44–50; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 17. 21 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 30–31. 22 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 220–29. 23 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 88; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 79–80, 81, 135. 24 Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 44–47, 108. 25 Ku nkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 31; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 119. 26 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 181; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 2, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a995409.pdf; Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 27 Walmer E. Strope quoted in “Castle-Bravo Nuclear Test Fallout Cover-Up,” https://glasstone.blogspot.com/2010/09/castle-bravo-nuclear-test-fallout-cover.html. 28 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3: Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 118. 29 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 51–52. 30 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 1–2. 31 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout”; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 32 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3. 33 Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 3, 4. 34 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands: A Cold War Tragedy (Cambridge, 2017), 56–57; “Race for the Superbomb,” transcript, American Experience, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/bomb/#transcript; “World’s Biggest Bomb,” transcript, Secrets of the Dead, PBS, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-worlds-biggest-bomb-watch-the-full-episode/863/; Bill Bryson, The Life and Times of Thunderbolt Kid: A Memoir (New York, 2006), 123–24. 35 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121–23. 36 Clark and Cahn, “We Were Trapped by Radioactive Fallout.” 37 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121; Op eration Castle: Radiological Safety, Final Report, vol. 2 (ADA995409, 1985), K 4. 38 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 39 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 107, 109. 40 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 109; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 4. 41 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 111–12; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 6. 42 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 43 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 8–9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 121, 126; Operation CASTLE Commander’s Report, https://archive.org/details/CastleCommandersReport1954. 44 Jack Niedenthal, For the Good of Mankind: A History of the People of Bikini and Their Islands (Boulder, CO: Bravo Publishers, 2001). 45 Keith M. Parsons and Robert A. Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 74; Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders (New York, 1998), 25. 46 Stewart Firth, Nuclear Playground (Sydney, 1987), 16. 47 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 73–74; Dibblin, Day of Two Suns, 24–25. 48 Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 7; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115. 49 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 115; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127. 50 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 122–24; Operation Castle: Radiological Safety, vol. 2, K 9; Cl arkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 51 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130; Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 127–28. 52 Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 130. 53 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 54, 137. 54 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 55 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 110; Beverly Deepe Keever, “The Largest Nuclear Bomb in U.S. History Still Shakes Rongelap Atoll and Its Displaced People 50 Years Later,” The Other News: Voices Against the Tide, February 4, 2005, https://www.other-news.info/2005/02/the-largest-nuclear-bomb-in-us-history-still-shakes-rongelap-atoll-and-its-displaced-people-50-years-later-beverly-deepe-keever/. 56 “264 Exposed to Atom Radiation After Nuclear Blast in Pacific,” New York Times, March 12, 1954, 1. 57 Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York, 1958), 6–26; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012. 58 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 59 Matashichi Ōishi, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I (Honolulu, HI, 2011), 18–19. 60 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 136. 61 Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 27–54; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 27; James R. Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 9 (1954): 347–48. 62 Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” 347–48; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 67–68. 63 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch.” 64 Lora Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb (London, 2001), 19–20. 65 “Statement of Lewis Strauss,” March 22, 1955, AEC-FCDA Relationship: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1955), 6–9; Wellerstein, Restricted Data, 247–48. 66 Arnold, Britain and the H-Bomb, 20; “H-Bomb Can Wipe Out Any City, Strauss Reports after Tests,” New York Times, April 1, 1954, 1. 67 Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 71–72. 68 Wellerstein, “Declassifying the Ivy Mike Film (1953)”; “Operation Castle, 1954,” film produced by Joint Task Force 7, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfbHwj71k48. 69 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 132, 135–37. 70 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 140; “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground,” The Nuclear Weapon Archive, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Castle.html. 71 “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground”; Timothy J. Jorgensen, Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation (Princeton, NJ, 2016), 170–73; Rhodes, , 541–43. 72 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 130, 190–91. 73 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 80–82. 74 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 143; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 82–83. 75 Clark son, History of Operation Castle, 143; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 112. 76 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 83. 77 Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, 131–32; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 86–90; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 119–20; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership: The History of the RMI’s Bilateral Relationship with the United States,” https://web.archive.org/web/20160424042410/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Nuclear%20Issues.htm. 78 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 18; Calin Georgescu, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Implications for Human Rights of the Environmentally Sound Management and Disposal of Hazardous Substances and Wastes,” Mission to the Marshall Islands (March 27–30, 2012) and the United States of America (April 24–27, 2012), 5, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-48-Add1_en.pdf; “Zhertvy amerikanskikh ispytanii atomnogo i vodorodnogo oruzhiia,” Pravda, July 8, 1954, 3. 79 “Atomnoe oruzhie dolzhno byt’ zapreshcheno,” Pravda, February 8, 1955. 80 Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, 1957–1985 (New York, 1986), 14–15; Ralph E. Lapp, “Civil Defense Faces New Peril,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9 (November 1954): 349–51; Ralph Lapp, “Radioactive Fallout,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1 (February 1955): 45–51. 81 “The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, London, 9 July 1955,” Student Pugwash, Michigan, http://umich.edu/~pugwash/Manifesto.html. 82 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 50–613; Fradkin, Fallout, 91; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 42; Louis Henry Hempelman, Clarence C. Lushbaugh, and George L. Voelz, “What Has Happened to the Survivors of the Early Los Alamos Nuclear Accidents?” Conference for Radiation Accident Preparedness, Oak Ridge, TN, October 19, 1979 (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, October 2, 1979), https://www.orau.org/ptp/pdf/accidentsurvivorslanl.pdf; https://web.archive.org/web/20130218012525/http://www.dtra.mil/documents/ntpr/factsheets/Upshot_Knothole.pdf. 83 Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch”; Kunkle and Ristvet, Castle Bravo, 129. 84 Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 75–77, 86–92. 85 James N. Yamazaki with Louise B. Fleming, Children of the Atomic Bomb: An American Physician’s Memoir of Nagasaki, Hiroshima and the Marshall Islands (Durham, NC, 1995), 109–12; Firth, Nuclear Playground, 41; Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: A Chernobyl Guide to the Future (New York, 2019), 244–45. 86 Robert A. Conard, “Fallout: The Experiences of a Medical Team in the Care of Marshallese Population Accidentally Exposed to Fallout Radiation,” iii, https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/23/053/23053209.pdf?r=1&r=1; Steven L. Simon, André Bouville, and Charles E. Land, “Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 Years Ago Still Have Health Implications Today That Will Continue into the Future,” American Scientist 94, no. 1 (January 2006): 48–57; Parsons and Zaballa, Bombing the Marshall Islands, 79–82. 87 Fi rth, Nuclear Playground, 19–20; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 61–74. 88 Firth, Nuclear Playground, 46–48, 67–69; Smith-Norris, Domination and Resistance, 92–95; A Permanent Exhibit, “The Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United States: A Strategic Partnership.” Chapter II. NORTHERN LIGHTS: KYSHTYM 1. Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 167–68, 193–94; Alex Wellerstein, “A Hydrogen Bomb by Any Other Name,” New Yorker, January 8, 2016; “Soviet Hydrogen Bomb Program,” Atomic Heritage Foundation, https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/soviet-hydrogen-bomb-program. 2. “Resumption of Nuclear Tests by Soviet Union,” Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 422–28, here Appendix, 425–27. 3. Iu. V. Gaponov, “Igor’ Vasil’evich Kurchatov: The Scientist and Doer (January 12, 1903–February 7, 1960),” Physics of Atomic Nuclei 66, no. 1 (2003): 3–7. 4. DeGroot, The Bomb, 125–30; Vladimir Gobarev, Sekretnyi atom (Moscow, 2006), 75; “Institut Kurchatova poluchil dokumenty iz arkhiva SVR po atomnomu proektu SSSR,” RIA Novosti, July 17, 2019, https://ria.ru/20190917/1558762897.html. 5. E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28, here 916–17. 6. “Kyshtym,” Moi gorod, Narodnaia ėntsiklopediia gorodov i regionov Rosiii, http://www.mojgorod.ru/cheljab_obl/kyshtym/index.html; “Gorod s osoboi sud’boi,” Ozerskii gorodskoi okrug, http://www.ozerskadm.ru/city/history/index.php. 7. Kate Brown, Pl utopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 87–123; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 8. “Dokladnaia zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, B. G. Muzurukova, E. P. Slavskogo na imia L. P. Berii ob osushchestvlenii reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817 pri nalichii vody v tekhologicheskikh kanalakh,” June 11, 1948; Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev, vol. 2, Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954, bk. 1 (Moscow, 1999), 635–36; Mikhail Grabovskii, Plutonieva zona (Moscow, 2002), 20. 9. V. I. Shevchenko, “Kak prostoi rabochii,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 84–86; B. V. Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia sosluzhivtsa (Ozersk/Cheliabinsk 65, 1995), 18; Zhores Medvedev and Roi Medvedev, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow, 2005), 336. 10 Kurchatovskii Institut: Istoriia iadernogo proekta (Moscow, 1998), 65; E. P. Slavskii, “Nashei moshchi, nashei sily boiatsia,” Nezavisimaia gazeta, April 4, 1998, 16. 11 Gennady Gorelik, “The Riddle of the Third Idea: How Did the Soviets Build a Thermonuclear Bomb So Suspiciously Fast?” Scientific American, August 21, 2011; Department of State Bulletin 35, pt. 1 (September 10, 1956): 428; A. V. Artizov, “Poslednee interv’iu E. P. Slavskogo,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka: Slavskii E. P. (Moscow, 2013), 381–82. 12 Richard Lourie, Sakharov: A Biography (Lexington, MA, 2018). 13 Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York, 1990), 98–100, 190–92. 14 Brown, Plutopia, 115–23, 214; Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 2008 Report to the General Assembly, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2011, Annex C: Radiation exposures in accidents, 3, https://web.archive.org/web/20130531015743/http:/www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_C.pdf. 15 Brown, Plutopia, 189–96; Vladislav Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” problema na veka (Moscow, 2001), 34–42; Vitalii Tolstikov and Irina Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale po vospominaniiam ikh uchastnikov,” Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta 405 (2016): 137–41, here 137; V. I. Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala (Ekaterinburg, 2000), 66–71. 16 Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44; Thomas B. Cochran, Robert Standish Norris, and Kristen L. Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 18, 1 (November 2003): 507–28, here, 511–15. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 282–83; Larin, Kombinat “Maiak,” 42–44. 18 Valerii Ivanovich Komarov in Sled 57-go goda: Sbornik vospominanii likvidatorov avarii 1957 goda na PO “Maiak” (Ozersk, 2007), 30–37. 19 Valentina Dmitrievna Malaia (Cherevkova) in Sled 57-go goda, 42–43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 20 Igor Fedorovich Serov in Sled 57-go goda, 44–47; Semen Fedorovich Osotin and Lidiia Pavlovna Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14; M. Filippova, “Ozerskoi divizii–55, [v/ch 3273],” Pro Maiak, August 25, 2006, 3, http://www.lib.csu.ru/vch/1/1999_01/009.pdf; http://libozersk.ru/pbd/ozerskproekt/politics/filippova.html; Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale: Istoricheskie otsenki i dokumenty (Ekaterinburg, 2017), 132. 21 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20–21. 22 Valery Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered,” Moscow News, September 19, 2007, 12. 23 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 132; Osotin and Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 13–14. 24 Kazansky, “Maiak Nuclear Accident Remembered.” 25 Vladimir Alekseevich Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 144–45; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 57–60. 26 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 133. 27 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 134. 28 Vitalii Tolstikov and Viktor Kuznetsov, “Iadernaia katastrofa 1957 goda na Urale,” Magistra Vitae: ėlektronnyi zhurnal po istoricheskim naukam i arkheologii 1, no. 9 (1999): 84–95, here 86, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/yadernaya-katastrofa-1957-goda-na-urale; Nikolai Stepanovich Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 74–75. 29 Valentina Dmitrieva Malaia (Cherevkova), 43; Dim Iliasov in Sled 57-go goda, 64–65. 30 Il’ia Mitrofanovich Moshin, 70; Gurii Vasil’evich Baimon in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 31 Anatolii Vasil’evich Dubrovskii in Sled 57-go goda, 195–200. 32 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 36; “Semenov Nikolai Anatolievich,” Geroi atomnogo proekta (Sarov, 2005), 334–35. 33 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 27; “N. S. Khrushchev. Khronologiia 1953–1964. Sostavlena po ofitsial’nym publikatsiiam. 1957 god,” in Nikita Khrushchev, Vospominaniia: vremia, liudi, vlast’ (Moscow, 2016), vol. 2. 34 Anatolii D’iachenko, Opalennye pri sozdanii iadernogo shchita Rodiny (Moscow, 2009), 227. 35 Sakharov, Memoirs, 213. 36 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 20–21; P. A. Zhuravlev, “Moi Atomnyi vek,” in Tvortsy atomnogo veka, Slavskii, 91. 37 Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 78. 38 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 38; Burdakov in Sled 57-go goda, 77. 39 Petr Ivanovich Triakin in Sled 57-go goda, 20; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 40 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 52; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 139–40. 41 Evgenii Ivanovich Andreev in Sled 57-go goda, 87–88. 42 Iurii Aleksandrovich Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180. 43 Dim Fatkulbaianovich Il’iasov, 65; Burnevskii in Sled 57-go goda, 180; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148. 44 “Mekhaniki na likvidatsii avarii,” 39; Vasilii Ivanovich Moiseev in Sled 57-go goda, 68. 45 Sokhina in S led 57-go goda, 12–13. 46 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 148; Brown, Plutopia, 234; “Shtefan Petr Tikhonovich,” Geroi strany, http://www.warheroes.ru/hero/hero.asp?Hero_id=13972. 47 Mikhail Gladyshev, Plutonii dlia atomnoi bomby, 43; Mariia Vasil’evna Zhonkina in Sled 57-go goda, 56. 48 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 167, 171, 193; Nikolai Nikolaevich Kostesha in Sled 57-go goda, 59; Mikhail Kel’manovich Sandratskii, in Sled 57-go goda, 93. 49 Vasilii Ivanovich Shevchenko in Sled 57-go goda, 29. 50 Boris Mitrofanovich Semov in Sled 57-go goda, 107–8. 51 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 154–59; Tolstikov and Bochkareva, “Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii na Urale,” 137. 52 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 53 R. R. Aspand’iarova, “Avtomobilisty—likvidatory,” in Sled 57-go goda, 51–52; Iurii Andreevich Shestakov in Sled 57-go goda, 98; Matiushkin in Sled 57-go goda, 145. 54 Sokhhina in Sled 57-go goda, 16; Konstantin Ivanovich Tikhonov in Sled 57-go goda, 103; Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 193; Brown, Plutopia, 236; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 194. 55 Brown, Plutopia, 235–36. 56 Brown, Plutopia, 236–37; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 195. 57 “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019. 58 Barmin in Sled 57-go goda, 192. 59 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 196–97. 60 Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 218. 61 Brown, Plutopia, 240; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 45, 149–51, 220. 62 Brokhovich, Slavskii, 28. 63 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 220, 224–25. 64 Gennadiii Vasil’evich Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 122–24; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 176, 271. 65 Sidorov in Sled 57-go goda, 125–26; Leonid Ivanovich Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127–28; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 173. 66 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 216, 222–25; Zaletov in Sled 57-go goda, 127. 67 Brown, Plutopia, 241–46; Utkin et al., Radioaktivnye bedy Urala, 68; Regina Khissamova and Sergei Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone. 60 let posle Kyshtymskoi katastrofy,” Nastoiashchee vremia, https://www.currenttime.tv/a/28769685.html. 68 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 213, 214. 69 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 274–81. 70 Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 18; Tolstikov an d Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 135–37. 71 “Akt komissii po rassledovaniiu prichin vzryva v khranilishche radioaktivnykh otkhodov kombinata 817,” in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138–46; Sokhina in Sled 57-go goda, 17–18. 72 “Prikaz dire ktora gosudarstvennogo ordena Lenina khimicheskogo za­­v­oda imeni Mendeleeva,” November 15, 1957, in Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 138; Nikolai Alekseevich Sekretov in Sled 57-go goda, 185; “Dem’ianovich Mikhail Antonovich,” Ėntsiklopadiia Cheliabinskoi oblasti, http://chel-portal.ru/?site=encyclopedia&t=Demyanovich&id=2632. 73 Komarov in Sled 57-go goda, 37. 74 Brown, Plutopia, 244; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285. 75 Utkin et al., Ra dioaktivnye bedy Urala, 66–71; Cheliabinskaia oblast: Likvidatsiia posledstvii radiatsionnykh avarii, ed. A. V. Akleev (Cheliabinsk, 2006), 49–51; Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 231; Brown, Plutopia, 239–46; Khissamova and Poteriaev, “Zhizn’ v radioaktivnoi zone.” 76 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 201–2. 77 Tolstikov and Kuznetsov, Iadernoe nasledie na Urale, 285–98; “Kyshtymskaia avariia. Ural’skii Chernobyl’,” Nash Ural, May 30, 2019; Pavel Raspopov, “Vostochno-ural’skii radiatsionnyi zapovednik,” Uraloved, April 22, 2011. 78 Daria Litvinova, “Human rights activist forced to flee Russia following TV ‘witch-hunt’,” The Guardian, October 20, 2015; Izol’da Drobina, “Iadovitoe oblako prishlo s Maiaka,” Novaia gazeta, September 29, 2020. 79 Cochran, Norris, and Suokko, “Radioactive Contamination at Chelyabinsk-65, Russia,” 522. Chapter III. A VERY ENGLISH FIRE: WINDSCALE 1. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1955–1957, Western Europe and Canada, vol. 27, no. 304. 2. Paul Dickson, Sputnik: The Shock of the Century (New York, 2001), 108–90. 3. Paul H. Septimus, Nuclea r Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 (Columbus, OH, 2000), 9–93. 4. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 72–198; John Baylis, Ambiguity and Deterrence: British Nuclear Strategy 1945–1964 (New York, 1995), 67–240; Margaret Gowing, assisted by Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, vol. 1, Policy Making (London, 1974). 5. Letter from Prime Minister Macmillan to President Eisenhower, London, October 10, 1957; Nigel J. Ashton, “Harold Macmillan and the ‘Golden Days’ of Anglo-American Relations Revisited, 1957–63,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 4 (September 2005): 691–723, here 699–702. 6. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 87–159, 168. 7. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 16–193. 8. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No. 10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Peter Hennessy, Cabinets and the Bomb (London, 2007), 45–46; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2015), 32. 9. Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 55–71. 10 Margaret Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 36 (December 1990): 218–39. 11 Lorna Arnold, Windscale 1957: Anatomy of a Nuclear Accident, 3d ed. (New York, 2007), 8–11. 12 John Harris inte rviewed in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster,” 2007 BBC Documentary, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5cDiqVHW7Y; G. A. Polukhin, Atomnyi pervenets Rossii: PO “Maiak,” Istoricheskie ocherki (Ozersk, 1998), 1: 83–137; Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 121–22. 13 Jean McSorley, Living in the Shadow: The Story of the People of Sellafield (London, 1990), 13, 23. 14 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 15 Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 497–500, 547–48, 557–60. 16 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 190–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 9–11. 17 James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents . A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 160–63; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15–16. 18 Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 439–42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 164–65, 169; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 12–13. 19 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 13–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 165–66. 20 Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 17–18. 21 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 449–50; Septimus, Nuclear Rivals, 188–98; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath (New York, 2006), 29–48. 22 “Queen Visits Calder Hall” (1956) Newsreel, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey9envpF_TE; Gowing, “Lord Hinton of Bankside, O. M., F. Eng. 12 May 1901–22 June 1983,” 230–32. 23 Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 193, 446; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 41. 24 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 7–18, 32, 34–35; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 167–68. 25 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 35. 26 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 36–37. 27 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 30–31. 28 William Penney et al., “Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957,” Journal of Radiological Protection 37, no. 3 (2017): 780–96, here 780; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 33–34, 42; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 172. 29 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 44–46. 30 Kara Rogers, “1957 Flu Pandemic,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Asian-flu-of-1957. 31 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 783; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173. 32 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 784; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 47–48; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 173–75; Roy Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” New Scientist (October 14, 1982): 84–86, here 85. 33 Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1–2. 34 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 2. 35 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents,175–76; Wilson in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 1. 36 Tom Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4, 12; David Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy: Windscale Manager Who Doused the Flames of the 1957 Fire,” Independent, March 26, 2008. 37 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 15, 17; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 4; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; Tuohy in “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 38 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5, 10; Tuohy interviewed in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” two-part documentary, ITV production, pt. 1 (2007). 39 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 5. 40 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 41 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 6. 42 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7. 43 Neville Ramsden in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 1 (2007). 44 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Tuohy in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 45 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 46 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 7; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 788; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50–51. 47 Jack Coyle in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 11. 48 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 8–9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 51. 49 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Alan Daugherty in “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50. 50 Tuohy in McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 52. 51 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 58–59. 52 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; Emergency Site Procedure at Windscale, Appendix VII, Windscale 1957, 176–77; Hartley Howe, “Accident at Windscale: The World’s First Atomic Alarm,” Popular Science (October 1958): 92–95. 53 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 790; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53–54. 54 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 50; McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13–14. 55 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43. 56 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 49; “Persians Cannot Run Refinery,” Canberra Times, October 6, 1951; Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York, 2008), 62–82. 57 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “Uranium Rods Overheated in Pile,” Whitehaven News, October 11, 1957; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 58 “No Public Danger Announcement,” West Cumberland News, October 12, 1957. 59 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 93–94. 60 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 84. 61 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 43–44. 62 Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86; “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007); Arnold, Windscale 1957, 69. 63 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 53; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 86. 64 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 12; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 70. 65 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 791; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 55–58; Howe, “Accident at Windscale,” 94–95. 66 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 13; Herbert, “The Day the Reactor Caught Fire,” 87; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 67 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 60. 68 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 63–66; Lord Sherfield, “William George Penney, O. M., K. B. E. Baron Penney of East Hendred, 24 June 1909–3 March 1991,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 39 (1994): 282–302. 69 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 67, 77. 70 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 71 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 173; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 787. 72 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 785, 792–93; Arnold, Windscale 1957, 84–85: “Prime Minister’s to Washington,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates, October 29, 1957, vol. 205, cc 545–46. 73 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 62, 82–83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 74 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 80–81; Steve Lohr, “Britain Suppressed Details of ’57 Atomic Disaster,” New York Times, January 2, 1988; Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 82. 75 “Windscale Atomic Plant Accident,” Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of Debates in Parliament, HL Debates November 21, 1957, vol. 206, cc 448–57. 76 “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 77 Wilfrid E. Oulton, Christmas Island Cracker: An Account of the Planning and Execution of the British Thermonuclear Bomb Tests, 1957 (London, 1987). 78 Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 83; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster.” 79 A. C. Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957,” Science of the Total Environment 63 (May 1987): 139–60; M. J. Crick and G. S. Linsley, “An assessment of the radiological impact of the Windscale reactor fire October 1957,” International Journal of Radiation Biology and Related Studies 46 (November 1984): 479–506. For a comparison of Windscale radiation release with the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima fallouts, see Daniel Kunkel and Mark G. Lawrence, “Global risk of radioactive fallout after major nuclear reactor accidents,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12(9) (May 20212): 4245–4258, here 4247. 80 Chamberlain, “Environmental impact of particles emitted from Windscale piles, 1954–1957”; A. Preston, J. W. R. Dutton, and B. R. Harvey, “Detection, Estimation and Radiological Significance of Silver-110m in Oysters in the Irish Sea and the Blackwater Estuary,” Nature 218 (1968): 689–90. 81 “The Man Who Saved Cumbria,” pt. 2 (2007). 82 Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 789–90. 83 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 3. 84 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 9–10; Fishlock, “Thomas Tuohy”; “Windscale: Britain’s Biggest Nuclear Disaster”; Penney, “Report on the Accident,” 792. 85 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; D. McGeoghegan, S. Whaley, K. Binks, M. Gillies, K. Thompson, D. M. McElvenny, “Mortality and cancer registration experience of the Sellafield workers known to have been involved in the 1957 Windscale accident: 50 year follow-up,” Journal of Radiological Protection 30, no. 3 (2010): 407–31. 86 “The incidence of childhood cancer around nuclear installations in Great Britain,” 10th Report, Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment (2005), https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/304596/COMARE10thReport.pdf. 87 Arnold, Windscale 1957, 159–60, 163; Robin McKie, “Sellafield: the most hazardous place in Europe,” The Guardian, April 18, 2009. 88 “Demolition starts on Windscale chimney,” Sellafield Ltd, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority, February 28, 2019, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/demolition-starts-on-windscale-chimney; Paul Brown, “Windscale’s terrible legacy,” The Guardian, August 25, 1999. 89 McSorley, Living in the Shadow, 14–15; “UK decommissioning agency lays out plans to 2019,” World Nuclear News, January 6, 2016, https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-UK-decommissioning-agency-lays-out-plans-to-2019-06011501.html; Sue Reid, “Britain’s nuclear inferno: How our own Government covered up Windscale reactor blaze that’s caused dozens of deaths and hundreds of cancer cases,” The Mail on Sunday, March 19, 2011. Chapter IV. ATOMS FOR PEACE: THREE MILE ISLAND 1. William G. Weart, “Eisenhower Hails Atoms for Peace. He Dedicates Shippingport Unit, First for Commercial Use, by Remote Control,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16. 2. “British Claim First,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 16; V. Emelianov, “Atomnuiu energiiu na sluzhbu miru i progressu,” Pravda, August 31, 1956, 3. 3. Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 54–55; Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 46, 102; “UK Marks 60th Anniversary of Calder Hall,” World Nuclear News, October 18, 2016, https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/UK-marks-60th-anniversary-of-Calder-Hall. 4. Historic Achievement Recognized: Shippingport Atomic Power Station, A National Engineering Historical Landmark (Pittsburgh, PA, 1980); “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30; Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech; Ira Chernus, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station, TX, 2002), xi–xix, 79–118. 5. Hon. Chet Holifield, “Extension of Remarks, Dedication of Atomic Nuclear Power Plant,” Congressional Record, Appendix, May 29, 1958, A4977. 6. “The Price-Anderson Act,” Center for Nuclear Science and Technology Information, https://cdn.ans.org/policy/statements/docs/ps54-bi.pdf; David M. Rocchio, “The Price-Anderson Act: Allocation of the Extraordinary Risk of Nuclear Generated Electricity: A Model Punitive Damage Provision,” Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 14, no. 3 (1987): 521–60; “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30. 7. Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen, Rickover: Father of the Nuclear Navy (Washington, DC, 2007); Theodore Rockwell, The Rickover Effect: How One Man Made A Difference (Bloomington, IN, 2002), 115–98. 8. Harold Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, PBS, 1999, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s; cf. Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 9. The History of Nuclear Energy, Department of Energy (Washington, DC, n.d.), 14–17; “Nuclear Power in the USA,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/usa-nuclear-power.aspx; J. Samuel Walker, Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 2004), 3–7. 10 Luke Phillips, “Nixon’s Nuclear Energy Vision,” October 20, 2016, Richard Nixon Foundation, https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2016/10/26948/; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8W5hq5dsZ4&t=1009s. 11 Walker, Three Mile Island, 7–9; Steven L. Del Sesto, “The Rise and Fall of Nuclear Power in the United States and the Limits of Regulation,” Technology in Society 4, no. 4 (1982): 295–314; James Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York, 2010), notes 222, 223; “Nuclear Energy in France,” France Embassy in Washington, DC, https://franceintheus.org/spip.php?article637. 12 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films, https://catalog.afi.com/Catalog/moviedetails/56125. 13 Sue Reilly, “A Disaster Movie Comes True,” People (April 16, 1979). 14 John G. Fuller, We Almost Lost Detroit (New York, 1976); Charles Perrow, Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies (Princeton, NJ, 1999), 50–54; Marsha Freeman, “Who Killed U.S. Nuclear Power?” 21st Century Science and Technology Magazine (Spring 2001), https://21sci-tech.com/articles/spring01/nuclear_power.html; Walker, Three Mile Island, 4, 20–28. 15 “The China Syndrome,” AFI Catalogue of Feature Films; David Burnham, “Nuclear Experts Debate ‘The China Syndrome,’ ” New York Times, March 18, 1979, D1; Natasha Zaretsky, Radiation Nation: Three Mile Island and the Political Transformation of the 1970s (New York, 2018), 69–70 [notes 43–44]. 16 “The Babcock & Wilcox Company,” Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/babcock-wilcox-company; “A Corporate History of Three Mile Island,” Three Mile Island Alert, http://www.tmia.com/corp.historyTMI; Walker, Three Mile Island, 43–50. 17 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings before the Task Force of the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session. Hearings Held in Washington, DC, May 9, 10, 11, and 15, 1979, 119–20, 149, 159. 18 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant, 122–25, 160. 19 “Three Mile Island Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/three-mile-island-accident.aspx; James J. Duderstadt and Louis J. Hamilton, Nuclear Reactor Analysis (New York, 1976), 91–92; Walker, Three Mile Island, 71–72. 20 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 343–45. 21 Report of the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island (Washington, DC, 1979), 27–28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 134; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents. A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 344; Walker, Three Mile Island, 74. 22 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 131–32; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330. 23 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346; Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76–77. 24 Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 315; Report of the President’s Commission, 26–28. 25 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144. 26 Report of the President’s Commission, 28; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 175; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 346–47. 27 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 137; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 330–32, 348; Walker, Three Mile Island, 76. 28 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 172–73; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78. 29 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 347; Walker, Three Mile Island, 77. 30 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 169, 172. 31 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 176–79, 182–83; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 348–49; Walker, Three Mile Island, 78–79. 32 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 186–87; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 33 Bob Lang in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript, http://www.shoppbs.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/filmmore/transcript/transcript1.html. 34 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 183–84. 35 Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 144, 188. 36 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 350–51; Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Powerplant: Oversight Hearings, 190, 202, 204; Walker, Three Mile Island, 79. 37 Walker, Three Mile Island, 81–82. 38 Walker, Three Mile Island, 80–82; Dick Thornburgh, Where the Evidence Leads: An Autobiography (Pittsburgh, PA, 2003); “Dick Thornburgh,” Dick Thornburgh Papers, University of Pennsylvania, http://thornburgh.library.pitt.edu/biography.html. 39 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82; Mike Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 40 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs of the US House of Representatives, Ninety-Seventh Congress, First Session, March 1981 (Washington, DC, 1981), 105–6, 123, 127. 41 Report of the President’s Commission, 126. 42 Walker, Three Mile Island, 82–83; William Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 43 Walker, Three Mile Island, 86–87; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 110, 115; Report of the President’s Commission, 129. 44 Report of the President’s Commission, 131; Walker, Three Mile Island, 97–99; Donald Janson, “Radiation Released at the Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania,” New York Times, March 29, 1979, A1, D22. 45 Reporting of Information Concerning the Accident at Three Mile Island, 115–17; Scranton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; Walker, Three Mile Island, 108; Report of the President’s Commission, 135. 46 Walker, Three Mile Island, 109–13; Report of the President’s Commission, 134. 47 Report of the President’s Commission, 139; Ben A. Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, A1 and A8; Walker, Three Mile Island, 127–29. 48 Dick Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 49 Report of the President’s Commission, 140; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 77–81. 50 Walker, Three Mile Island, 115–18, 130; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 51 Report of the President’s Commission, 138; Walker, Three Mile Island, 123–24. 52 Walker, Three Mile Island, 130–36; Franklin, “Conflicting Reports Add to Tension”; Thornburgh in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 53 Walker, Three Mile Island, 137. 54 Richard D. Lyons, “Children Evacuated,” New York Times, March 31, 1979, 1; “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 55 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 68–70. 56 Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 70–72. 57 Report of the President’s Commission, 29; Walker, Three Mile Island, 140–45; Lyons, “Children Evacuated.” 58 Walker, Three Mile Island, 151–55. 59 Lyons, “Children Evacuated”; Bob Dvorchak and Harry Rosenthal, “AP Was There: Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Accident,” AP News, May 30, 2017, https://apnews.com/ca23009ea5b54f21a3fed04065cacc7e/AP-WAS-THERE:-Three-Mile-Island-nuclear-power-plant-accident; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39. 60 Marsha McHenry in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 61 Dvorchak and Rosenthal, “AP Was There”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 138–39; Ken Myers in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 62 Report of the President’s Commission, 143. 63 Walker, Three Mile Island, 155–70; Richard Thornburgh press conference in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 64 Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? The First Fifty Years (Fayetteville, AR, 1996), 53–57. 65 Gordon Edwards, “Reactor Accidents at Chalk River: The Human Fallout,” Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, http://www.ccnr.org/paulson_legacy.html. 66 Carter, Why Not the Best?, 54; Carter, A Full Life: Reflections at Ninety (New York, 2015), 64–65. 67 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 94–102. 68 Carter, A Full Life, 64–65; Jimmy Carter, “Nuclear Energy and World Order,” Address at the United Nations, May 13, 1976, http://www2.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00697/pdfa/00697-00150-7.pdf; Walker, Three Mile Island, 132–33. 69 Walker, Three Mile Island, 119–21, 145–48; Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 70 Pintek in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 71 Walker, Three Mile Island, 147–50, 153–55, 167–69. 72 Walker, Three Mile Island, 170. 73 Mike Gray in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 74 Richard D. Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant; Urges Cooperation in Crisis; Some Experts Voice Optimism,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1, A14. 75 Denton in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript. 76 Watson, Three Mile Island, 183–86. 77 Lyons, “Carter Visits Nuclear Plant”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, A1. 78 Steven Rattner, “Carter to Ask Tax on Oil and Release of Price Restraints,” New York Times, April 3, 1979, 1; Walker, Three Mile Island, 210. 79 Terence Smith, “President Names Panel to Assess Nuclear Mishap,” New York Times, April 12, 1979, A1; “The Kemeny Commission’s Duty,” New York Times, April 15, 1979; Seth Faison, “John Kemeny, 66, Computer Pioneer and Educator,” New York Times, December 27, 1992. 80 Ronald M. Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission,” Nuclear News, March 2004, 61–62; David Laprad, “From a Potato Farm, to the White House, to Signal Mountain,” Hamilton County Herald, March 26, 2010. 81 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission.” 82 Report of the President’s Commission, 11. 83 Report of the President’s Commission, 8, 17. 84 Report of the President’s Commission, 98. 85 Report of the President’s Commission, 14; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 92–94. 86 Report of the President’s Commission, 12; Walker, Three Mile Island, 231, 234–37; Zaretsky, Radiation Nation, 89. 87 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Walker, Three Mile Island, 209–25. 88 Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Peter T. Kilborn, “Babcock and Wilcox Worried,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, A1. 89 Eytchison, “Memories of the Kemeny Commission”; Lyons, “Bubble Nearly Gone.” 90 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 355–56; Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening, 316–17; Roger Mattson in “Meltdown at Three Mile Island,” American Experience Documentary, Enhanced Transcript; “Three Mile Island – Unit 2,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/info-finder/decommissioning/power-reactor/three-mile-island-unit-2.html. 91 “Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 1,” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission; “Three Mile Island Unit 1 to Shut Down by September 30, 2019,” Exelon Newsroom, May 8, 2019, https://www.exeloncorp.com/newsroom/three-mile-island-unit-1-to-shut-down-by-september-30-2019; Taylor Romine, “The Famous Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant Is Closing,” CNN, September 19, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/19/us/nuclear-three-mile-island-closing/index.html; Diane Cardwell and Jonathan Soble, “Westinghouse Files for Bankruptcy, in Blow to Nuclear Power,” New York Times, March 29, 2017. Chapter V. THE STAR OF APOCALYPSE: CHERNOBYL 1. Iu. S. Osipov, “A. P. Aleksandrov i Akademiia nauk,” in A. P. Aleksandrov, Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow, 2003), 111–17. 2. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Perspektivy ėnergetiki,” Izvestiia, April 10, 1979, 2–3. 3. Gennadii Gerasimov, “Uroki Garrisburge,” Sovetskaia kultura, April 17, 1979. Cf. “K avarii v Garrisburge,” Pravda, April 2, 1954, 5; “V pogone za pribyliami,” Pravda Ukrainy, April 3, 1979; “Skonchalsia diplomat i zhurnalist-mezhdunarodnik Gennadii Gerasimov,” RIA Novosti July 17, 2010, https://ria.ru/20100917/276562069.html. 4. “Vystuplenie tov. L. I. Brezhneva na Plenume TsK KPSS,” Pravda, November 28, 1979, 1–2; Paul R. Josephson, Red Atom: Russia’s Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, PA, 2005), 46. 5. Anatolii Aleksandrov, “Nauchno-tekhnicheskii progress i atomnaia ėnergetika,” Problemy mira i sotsializma, 1979, no. 6: 15–20; E. O. Adamov, V. K. Ulasevich, and A. D. Zhirnov, “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii nauk 69, no. 10 (1999): 914–28; Josephson, Red Atom, 22–25. 6. N. Dollezha l and Iu. Koriakin, “Iadernaia ėnergetika: dostizheniia, problemy,” Kommunist, 1979, no. 14: 69; cf. N. Dollezhal and Iu. Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” Problems in Economics 23 (June 1980): 3–20; Josephson, Red Atom, 43–44. 7. Dollezhal and Koriakin, “Nuclear Energy: Achievements and Problems,” 6; Joan T. Debardeleben, “Esoteric Policy Debate: Nuclear Safety Issues in the Soviet Union and German Democratic Republic,” British Journal of Political Science 15, no. 2 (April 1985): 227–53; Nikolai Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira (zapiski konstruktora) (Moscow, 2010), 194–96. 8. Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 916–17; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven, CT, 1996), 184–89. 9. Sonja D. Schmid, Producing Power: The Pre-Chernobyl History of the Soviet Nuclear Industry (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 97, 99, 102–3; Josephson, Red Atom, 26–28; “ Pervaia v mire AĖS,” Fiziko-ėnergeticheskii institut im. A. I. Leipunskogo, https://www.ippe.ru/history/1ae; Adamov et al., “Patriarkh reaktorostroeniia,” 917–18. 10 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 155–57, 221–22; Alvin M. Weinberg and Eugene P. Wigner, The Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors (Chicago, 1958). 11 Schmid, Producing Power, 100; A Companion to Global Environmental History, ed. J. R. McNeill and Erin Stewart Mauldin (New York, 2012), 308. 12 Schmid, Producing Power, 103–8; Josephson, Red Atom, 28–32, 37–43. 13 Schmid, Producing Power, 127; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 160–61, 225–26. 14 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161–62; Thomas Filburn and Stephan Bullard, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima: Curse of the Nuclear Genie (Cham, 2016), 46–48. 15 Schmid, Producing Power, 110–11; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 224–25. 16 Schmid, Producing Power, 114, 120; Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161. 17 Dollezhal, U istokov rukotvornogo mira, 161; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014), 357–58. 18 Sonja D. Schmid, “From “Inherently Safe” to “Proliferation Resistant”: New Perspectives on Reactor Designs, Nuclear Technology 207, no. 9 (2021): 1312–28. 19 Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2020), 27, 31–33. 20 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 32–34; Schmid, Producing Power, 116. 21 Schmid, Producing Power, 114–15; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358. 22 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 358–461. 23 Lina Zernova, “Leningradskii Chernobyl’,” Bellona, April 4, 2016, https://bellona.ru/2016/04/04/laes75/; Vitalii Borets, “Kak gotovilsia vzryv Chernobylia,” Pripiat.com Sait goroda Pripiat, http://pripyat.com/articles/kak-gotovilsya-vzryv-chernobylya-vospominaniya-vibortsa.html; “Avariia na bloke no. 1 Leningradskoi AĖS (SSSR), sviazannaia s razrusheniem tekhnologicheskogo kanala,” Radiatsionnaia bezopasnost’ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Federatsii, MChS Rossii, http://rb.mchs.gov.ru/mchs/radiation_accidents/m_other_accidents/1975_god/Avarija_na_bloke_1_Leningradskoj_AJES_SS. 24 M. Borisov, “Chto meshaet professionalizmu,” Isvestiia, February 27, 1984, 2. 25 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 24–26; Adam Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World’s Greatest Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2019), 7–24. 26 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 76–78. 27 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 76–77; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 77–78; Yurii Trehub in Yurii Shcherbak, Chernobyl’: Dokumental’noe povestvovanie (Moscow, 1991). 28 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 362; Zhores Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York and London, 1990), 14–19. 29 Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 13; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 75. 30 Igor Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 366; Nikolai Kapran, Chernobyl’: mest’ mirnogo atoma (Kyiv, 2005), 312–13. 31 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 64, 69–70; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 69–70; Kazachkov in Shcherbak, Chernobyl’, 34. 32 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363–64. 33 Razim Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” in Chernobyl’ desiat’ let spustia: neizbezhnost’ ili sluchainost’ (Moscow, 1995), 381–82. 34 Anatolii Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo (Moscow, 2003), 31. 35 Kazachkov and Trehub in Shcherbak, Chernoby l’, 367, 370; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 363. 36 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 78–81. 37 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 30. 38 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 31; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 82–84; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 364–65. 39 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 40 Borys Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS—o rokovom ėksperimente i doprosakh KGB,” KishkiNA, July 14, 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPRyciXh07k. 41 “Sequence of Events—Chernobyl Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/appendices/chernobyl-accident-appendix-1-sequence-of-events.aspx; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 366–67. 42 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 8, 49. 43 Davletbaev, “Posledniaia smena,” 371. 44 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 50–54; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 105–9. 45 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 46 Diatlov, Chernobyl’: Kak ėto bylo, 53. 47 Stoliarchuk in “Vyzhivshii na ChAĖS.” 48 Svetlana Alexievich, Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclea r Disaster (New York, 2005), 5–8; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 87–110, 144–49. 49 Brokhovich, Slavskii E. P. Vospominaniia, 53. 50 Valerii Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS i atomnaia ėnergetika SSSR,” Skepsis: Nauchno-prosvetitel’skii zhurnal, https://scepsis.net/library/id_3203.html. 51 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; A. N. Makukhin, “Srochnoe donesenie,” April 26, 1986; Chernobyl’: Dokumenty. The National Security Archive, The George Washington University, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-26.pdf. 52 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 128–32. 53 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 132–42, 150–55. 54 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 153–63. 55 William Taubman, Gorbachev: His Life and Times (New York, 2017), 169–70, 238. 56 Minutes of the Politburo Meeting of July 3, 1986, in V Politbiuro TsK KPSS: Po zapisiam Anatoliia Cherniaeva, Vadima Medvedeva, Georgiia Shakhnazarova, 1985–1991 (Moscow, 2006), 61–66; Iu. A. Izraėl’, “O posledstviiakh avarii na Chernobyl’skoi AĖS,” April 27, 1986, National Security Archive, https://constitutions.ru/?p=23420; https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-27.Report.pdf. 57 Vypiska iz protokola no. 7 zasedaniia Politbiuro, April 28, 1986, Informatsiia ob avarii na Chernobyl’skoi atomnoi ėlektrostantsii 26 aprelia 1986 g., Gorbachev Foundation Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-04-28.Politburo.pdf; Text of the official announcement in “Avarii na Chenobyl’skoi AĖS ispolniaetsia 30 let,” Mezhdunarodnaia panorama, April 25, 2016; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 172–74. 58 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 1–3; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 170–72. 59 Kate Brown, Manual for Survival: An Environmental History of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York, 2019), 33–37. 60 Luther Whitington, “Chernobyl Reactor Still Burning,” UPI Archives, April 29, 1986, https://www.upi.com/Archives/1986/04/29/Chernobyl-reactor-still-burning/9981572611428/. 61 Kost’ Bondarenko, “Shcherbitsky Live. Chto nuzhno znat’ o znamenitom lidere sovetskoi Ukrainy,” Strana.UA, February 17, 2018, https://strana.ua/articles/istorii/124635-shcherbitskij-live-chto-nuzhno-znat-o-znamenitom-lidere-sovetskoj-ukrainy-kotoromu-sehodnja-by-ispolnilos-100-let.html; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 182–84; Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB. Suspil’ni nastroï. ChAES u postavariinyi period. Zbirnyk dokumentiv pro katastrofu na Chornobyl’s’kii AES, comp. Oleh Bazhan, Volodymyr Birchak, and Hennadii Boriak (Kyiv, 2019), 47. 62 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 165; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 185–86; Igor’ Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon.’ 20 let nazad Moskvu moglo nakryt’ radioaktivnoe oblako,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 21, 2006. 63 Katie Canales, “Photos show what daily life is really like inside Cherno­byl’s exclusion zone, one of the most polluted areas in the world,” Business Insider, April 20, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/what-daily-life-inside-chernobyls-exclusion-zone-is-really-like-2019-4#the-chernobyl-exclusion-zone-is-now-the-officially-designated-exclusion-zone-in-ukraine-5. 64 “Protokol no. 3 zasedaniia operativnoi gruppy Politbiuro,” May 1, 1986, Chernobyl: Dokumenty. National Security Archive, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-01.Minutes.pdf; V. I. Andriianov and V. G. Chirskov, Boris Shcherbina (Moscow, 2009). 65 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 197, 201, 204–7. 66 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 215; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 208–10. 67 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 196–97, 210–12. 68 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 208; Elokov, “Chernobyl’skii ‘Tsiklon’ ”; Vasilii Semashko, “Osazhdalis’ li ‘chernobyl’skie oblaka’ na Belarus’?” Belorusskie novosti, April 23, 2007, https://naviny.by/rubrics/society/2007/04/23/ic_articles_116_150633. 69 Iulii Andreev, “Neschast’ia akademika Legasova,” Lebed: Nezavisimyi bostonskii al’manakh, October 2, 2005, http://lebed.com/2005/art4331.htm. 70 Legasov, “Avariia na ChAĖS”; “Ot Fantomasa do Makkeny: kinokritik Denis Gorelov—o liubimykh zarubezhnykh fil’makh sovetskikh kinozritelei,” Seldon News, July 29, 2019; Rafael’ Arutiunian, “Kitaiskii sindrom,” Skepsis, https://scepsis.net/library/id_710.html. 71 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/news/newsid_4936000/4936186.stm; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 191–95. 72 Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 239–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 249–66; Iu. M. Krupka and S. H. Plankova, “Zakon Ukraïny ‘Pro status i sotsial’nyi zakhyst hromadian, iaki postrazhdaly vnaslidok Chornobyl’s’koï katastrofy, 1991,’ ” Iurydychna entsyklopediia, ed. Iu. S. Shemchuchenko (Kyiv, 1998), 2; Adriana Petryna, Life Exposed: Biological Citizens and Chernobyl (Princeton, 2003), 107–14, 130–48. 73 “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 74 Plokhy, Chernobyl, 196–97; 228–29; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 236–38; Nikolai Ryzhkov to the Central Committee, May 14, 1986, National Security Archive, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/r09c6d-gecie/1986.05.14%20Ryzhkov%20Memorandum%20on%20Chernobyl.pdf. “Chernobyl’skaia katastrofa v dokumentakh Politbiuro TsK KPSS,” Rodina, 1992, no. 1: 84–85; Minutes of the Meeting of the Politburo Operational Group, May 10, 1986, National Security Archive, 2, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/rus/text_files/Perestroika/1986-05-10.Politburo.pdf; Brown, Manual for Survival, 102–10. 75 Alla Iaroshinskaia, Chernobyl’ 20 let spustia: prestuplenie bez nakazaniia (Moscow, 2006), 448; Higginbotham, Midnight in C hernobyl, 270–74; Taubman, Gorbachev, 241–42. 76 Anatolii Aleksandrov, Autobiography, in Fiziki o sebe, ed. V. Ia. Frenkel’ (Leningrad, 1990), 277–83, here 282. 77 V Politbiuro TsK KPSS, 62. 78 Svetlana Samodelova, “Kak ubivali akademika Legasova, kotoryi provel sobstvennoe rassledovanie Chernobyl’skoi katastrofy,” Moskovskii komsomolets, April 25, 2017; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 275–77, 321–26. 79 Oleksii Breus in “Rozsekrechena istoriia. Choornobyl: shcho vstanovylo rozsliduvannia katastrofy?” Suspilne movlennia, April 28, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2qulMBzjmI&fbclid=IwAR2Qqd7E9a7J66NqsIVUoQwUK0r0wJtseHOmmxkl1xu368wLYBKKYk8o8kY; Igor Gegel, “Sudebnoe ėkho tekhnogennykh katastrof v pechati,” Mediaskop 2011, no. 2, http://www.mediascope.ru/en/node/834. 80 Chornobyl’s’ke dos’ie KGB, 216–17, 237; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 314–20. 81 Chernobylskaia avariia: Doklad Mezhdunarodnoi konsul’tativnoi gruppy po iadernoi bezopasnosti, INSAG-7, dopolnenie k INSAG-1 (Vienna, 1993), 29–31; Higginbotham, Midnight in Chernobyl, 346–49. 82 “Mikhail Gorbachev ob avarii na Chernobyle,” BBC, April 24, 2006; Taubman, Gorbachev, 242. 83 Jane I. Dawson, Econationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania and Ukraine (Durham, NC, 1996), 59–60; Plokhy, Chernobyl, 285–330. 84 Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014), 295–387. 85 “Nuclear Power in Ukraine,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/ukraine.aspx; “World Nuclear Industry Status Report,” https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/; “RBMK Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/appendices/rbmk-reactors.aspx; Aria Bendix, “Russia still has 10 Chernobyl-style reactors that scientists say aren’t necessarily safe,” Business Insider, June 4, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/could-chernobyl-happen-again-russia-reactors-2019-6. 86 Kim Hjelmgaard, “Chernobyl Impact Is Breathtakingly Grim,” USA Today, April 17, 2016; Paulina Dedaj, “Chernobyl’s $1.7B Nuclear Confinement Shelter Revealed after Taking 9 Years to Complete,” Fox News, July 3, 2019, https://www.foxnews.com/world/chernobyl-nuclear-confinement-shelter-revealed. 87 Mary Mycio, Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl (Washington, DC, 2005), 217–42; David R. Marples, “The Decade of Despair,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 52, no. 3 (May–June 1996): 20–31; Judith Miller, “Chernobyl—Here’s What I Saw, Heard and Felt When I Visited the Site Last Year,” Fox News, May 2, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/opinion/chernobyl-site-judith-miller.amp?cmpid=prn_newsstand. 88 Brown, Manual for Survival, 240–48; Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, and Thomas E. Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–817, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html. 89 Keiji Suzuki, Norisato Mitsutake, Vladimir Saenko, and Shunichi Yamashita, “Radiation signatures in childhood thyroid cancers after the Chernobyl accident: Possible roles of radiation in carcinogenesis,” Cancer Science 106, no. 2 (February 2015): 127–33. 90 Brown, Manual for Survival, 227–76. 91 Brown, Manual for Survival, 249–64; Germán Orizaola, “Chernobyl Has Become a Refuge for Wildlife 33 Years After the Nuclear Accident,” The World, May 13, 2019, https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-05-13/chernobyl-has-become-refuge-wildlife-33-years-after-nuclear-accident; “Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident,” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/; Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents,” 808; “Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis,” Union of Concerned Scientists, April 22, 2011; “The Chernobyl Catastrophe: Consequences on Human Health,” Greenpeace 2006; Charles Hawley and Stefan Schmitt, “Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy, “ Spiegel International, April 18, 2006. Chapter VI. NUCLEAR TSUNAMI: FUKUSHIMA 1. Gerald M. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1. 2. Clyde Haberman, “5 Missiles, Discharged Shortly Before Reagan Visit, Miss the Target,” New York Times, May 5, 1986, A1; Susan Chira, “Tokyo Subway Traffic Disrupted by a Series of Small Explosions,” New York Times, May 6, 1986, A1. 3. Boyd, “Leaders in Tokyo Set to Denounce Acts of Terrorism: Nuclear Safety.” 4. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake, Documents Show,” Japan Times, December 20, 2017. 5. U.S. Department of State Bull etin, no. 2112 (July 1986): 4–5; Economic Summits, 1975–1986: Declarations (Rome, 1987): 145–46; “Statement on the Implications of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident,” Tokyo, May 5, 1986, G-7 Information Center, Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/1986tokyo/chernobyl.html. 6. “Japan Downplayed Chernobyl Concerns at G-7 for Energy Policy’s Sake”; “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; “IAEA Warned Japan Over Nuclear Quake Risk: WikiLeaks,” Indian Express, March 17, 2011. 7. Mayako Shimamoto, “Abolition of Ja pan’s Nuclear Power Plants?: Analysis from a Historical Perspective on Early Cold War, 1944–1955,” in Japan Viewed from Interdisciplinary Perspectives: History and Prospects, ed. Yoneyuki Sugita (Lanham, MD, 2015), 264–66; John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies: United States Security and Alliance Policy Toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, CA, 2005), 150–86. 8. Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies, 182–83; “Atomic Energy Basic Act,” Act No. 186 of December 19, 1955, Japanese Law Translation, http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=1&re=01&dn=1&x=0&y=0&co=01&ia=03&ja=04&ky=%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95&page=3; Mari Yamaguchi, “Yasuhiro Nakasone: Japanese Prime Minister at Height of Country’s Economic Growth,” Independent, December 21, 2019. 9. Kennedy Maize, “A Short History of Nuclear Power in Japan,” Power, March 14, 2011, https://www.powermag.com/blog/a-short-history-of-nuclear-power-in-japan/. 10 Nobumasa Akiyama, “America’s Nuclear Nonproliferation Order and Japan-US Relations,” Japan and the World, Japan Digital Library (March 2017), 3–5, http://www2.jiia.or.jp/en/digital_library/world.php; “Tokai no. 2 Power Station,” The Japan Atomic Power Company, http://www.japc.co.jp/english/power_stations/tokai2.html. 11 “The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html. 12 Kiyonobu Yamashita, “History of Nuclear Technology Development in Japan,” AIP Conference Proceedings 1659, 020003 (2015): 6–7, https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4916842; James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters: From the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York and London, 2014), 380–83. 13 The Fukushima Daiichi Accident: Description and Context of the Accident, Technical Volume 1/5 (Vienna, 2015), 59–64; TEPCO, Tokyo Electric Power Company Holdings, History, https://www7.tepco.co.jp/about/corporate/history-e.html; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York and London, 2014), 40–41. 14 Takafumi Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, Harvard University, August 7, 2013, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1698290. 15 Yoshida, “Interview: Former Member of ‘Nuclear Village’ Calls for Local Initiative to Rebuild Fukushima”; “Action Alert: Japanese Activists Ask for Support,” November 23, 1990, World International Service on Energy, https://web.archive.org/web/20120326134237/http://www.klimaatkeuze.nl/wise/monitor/342/3418. 16 “TEPCO Chairman, President Announce Resignations Over Nuclear Coverups,” Japan Times, September 2, 2002; Masanori Makita, Naotaka Ito, and Mirai Nagira, “Ex-TEPCO Chairman Sorry for Nuke Accident but Says He Was Not in Control of Utility in 2011,” The Mainichi, October 30, 2018; Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 388. 17 “Operator of Fukushima Nuke Plant Admitted to Faking Repair Records,” Herald Sun, March 20, 2011. 18 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 378–79. 19 Lochbaum et al, Fukushima, 52–54; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, May 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516986; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 387–91; “Putting Tsunami Countermeasures on Hold at Fukushima Nuke Plant ‘Natural’: ex-TEPCO VP,” The Mainichi, October 20, 2018. 20 M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan, Earthquake Hazards Program, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/official20110311054624120_30/executive#executive. 21 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 1–3; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 377, 390; “Police Countermeasures and Damage Situation Associated with 2011 Tohoku District,” National Police Agency of Japan Emergency Disaster ­Countermeasures Headquarters, https://www.npa.go.jp/news/other/earth­-quake2011/pdf/higaijokyo_e.pdf. 22 Ryusho Kadota, On the Brink: The Inside Story of Fukushima Daiichi (Kumamoto: Kurodahan Press, 2014), 7–16. 23 Kadota, On the Brink, 7–16; Mahaff ey, Atomic Accidents, 388–90; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3–5. 24 The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission Report (Tokyo, 2012), chap. 2, 1–2; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 391–92. 25 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 3, 10–12; Airi Ryu and Najmedin Meshkati, “Onagawa: The Japanese Nuclear Power Plant That Didn’t Melt Down on 3/11,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, March 10, 2014. 26 Kadota, On the Brink, 17–33. 27 Kadota, On the Brink, 33–48; Tatsuyuki Kobori, “Report: Fukushi ma Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disaster Digital Archive, December 28, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1532037. 28 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–17, 22; Kadota, On the Brink, 43. 29 “Tokyo: Earthquake During Parliament Session,” March 11, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGrddjwY8zM; “What Went Wrong: Fukushima Flashback a Month after Crisis Started,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 4, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516215; Naoto Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare: Leading Japan through the Fukushima Disaster to a Nuclear-Free Future (Ithaca, NY, 2017), 28–29. 30 “Kan: Activist, Politico, Mah-jongg Lover,” Yomiuri Shimbun, June 5, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215002/http:/news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Asia/Story/A1Story20100605-220351.html. 31 Hideaki Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap: 5 da ys in the Prime Minister’s Office,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516701; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 2, 30–31. 32 “Statement by Prime Minister Naoto Kan on Tohoku district—off the Pacific Ocean Earthquake,” Friday, March 11 at 4:55 p.m., 2011 [Provisional Translation], Speeches and Statements by the Prime Minister, Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, https://japan.kantei.go.jp/kan/statement/201103/11kishahappyo_e.html. 33 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 16–18. 34 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 35 “What Went Wrong.” 36 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 37 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24; “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 9, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 38 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 41–42; “What Went Wrong.” 39 “What Went Wrong.” 40 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori, “Report: Fukushima Plant Chief Kept His Cool in Crisis”; Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 43–45; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 24. 41 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 25. 42 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “What Went Wrong.” 43 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 44 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 48; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die,’ ” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, November 13, 2011, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1531834. 45 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response,” Asahi Shimbun, February 29, 2012, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516636. 46 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Report Says Kan’s Meddling Disrupted Fukushima Response.” 47 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 52; “What Went Wrong”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 48 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 31–33, 57, 60; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 395–96. 49 “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12 2011—Japanese nuclear plant blast),” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psAuFr8Xeqs. 50 “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Fukushima reactor 1 explosion (March 12, 2011). 51 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 59. 52 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 55–57; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396; “Fukushima Daiichi Accident,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-daiichi-accident.aspx. 53 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 380–84. 54 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 55 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 60–61; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Nuke Plant Manager Ignores Bosses, Pumps in Seawater after Order to Halt,” Asahi Shimbun, May 27, 2011, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516396. 56 Toshihiro Okuyama, Hideaki Kimura, and Takashi Sugimoto, “Inside Fukushima: How Workers Tried but Failed to Avert a Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, October 14, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517417. 57 Okuyama et al., “Inside Fukushima”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 58 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 72–73; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 396–97; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 59 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 7, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517276. 60 “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident.” 61 “Diet Panel Blasts Kan for Poor Approach to Last Year’s Nuclear Disaster,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 10, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517072; Hideaki Kimura, Takaaki Yorimitsu, and Tomomi Miyazaki, “Plaintiffs Seek Preservation of TEPCO Teleconference Videos,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, June 28, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517135. 62 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 80–84; Yoichi Funabashi, Meltdown: Inside the Fukushima Nuclear Crisis (Washington, DC, 2021), 136–40; “Video Shows Disorganized Response to Fukushima Accident”; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; “Ex-Fukushima Nuclear Plant Chief Denies ‘Pullout’ in Video,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, August 12, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517286; “TEPCO Chairman Blames Politicians, Colleagues for Fukushima Response.” 63 Funabashi, Meltdown, 140–43; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 64 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap;” Funabashi, Meltdown, 145. 65 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 3, 14. 66 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 86–87; Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap.” 67 Funabashi, Meltdown, 145–46. 68 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 74–75; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397. 69 Lochbaum et al., Fukushima, 75–76; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die’ ”; “Japan Earthquake: Explosion at Fukushima Nuclear Plant,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OO_w8tCn9gU; Tatsuyuki Kobori, Jin Nishikawa, and Naoya Kon, “Remembering 3/11: Fukushima Plant’s ‘Fateful Day’ Was March 15,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, March 8, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1516688. 70 Kimura, “The Prometheus Trap”; Kobori et al., “Remembering 3/11.” 71 Kan, My Nuclear Nightmare, 95–99; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98; “What Went Wrong.” 72 Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 397–98. 73 “Fukushima Plant Chief Defied TEPCO Headquarters to Protect Workers,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517505. 74 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html. 75 Takashi Sugimoto and Hideaki Kimura, “TEPCO Failed to Respond to Dire Warning of Radioactive Water Leaks at Fukushima,” Asahi Shimbun, Japan Disasters Digital Archive, December 1, 2012, http://jdarchive.org/en/item/1517504; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 76 “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident”; “Nuke Plant Director: ‘I Thought Several Times that I would Die.’ ” 77 “Fukushima Nuclear Chief Masao Yoshida Dies,” BBC News, July 10, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102; https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23251102. 78 Geoff Brumfiel, “Fukushima Reaches Cold Shutdown, but Milestone is More Symbolic than Real,” Nature, December 16, 2011; “Mid-and-Long-Term Roadmap towards the Decommissioning of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Units 1-4,” TEPCO, December 21, 2011 [Provisional Translation], http://www.tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/betu11_e/images/111221e10.pdf; https://www.oecd-nea.org/news/2011/NEWS-04.html; “Timeline for the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident.” 79 “2.4 trillion Yen in Fukushima Crisis Compensation Costs to be Tacked Onto Power Bills,” The Mainichi, December 10, 2016. 80 Georg Steinhauser, Alexander Brandl, Alexander and Thomas Johnson, “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents: A Review of the Environmental Impacts,” Science of the Total Environment 470–71 (2014): 800–17, here 803; Brian Dunning, “Fukushima vs Chernobyl vs Three Mile Island,” Skeptoid Podcast #397, January 14, 2014, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4397; “Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact 2002 Update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On,” Nuclear Energy Agency, https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/c0e.html; A. Hasegawa et al., “Health Effects of Radiation and Other Health Problems in the Aftermath of Nuclear Accidents, with an Emphasis on Fukushima,” The Lancet 386, no. 9992 (August 2015): 479–88; Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu, Nikolaos Evangeliou, Timothy Alexander Mousseau, Junwen Wu, and Ahmad Termizi Ramli, “An Overview of Current Knowledge Concerning the Health and Environmental Consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) Accident,” Environment International 85 (December 2015): 213–28, https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/10140/1/(ITEM_10140)_steve_thomas_2013.pdf. 81 Steinhauser et al., “Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima Nuclear Accidents”; Fuminori Tamba, “The Evacuation of Residents after the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” in Fukushima: A Political and Economic Analysis of a Nuclear Disaster, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida (Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press, 2013), 89–108. 82 Jane Braxton Little, “Fukushima Residents Return Despite Radiation,” Scientific American, January 16, 2019; Michael Penn, “‘We don’t know when it will end’: 10 years after Fukushima,” Al Jazeera, March 9, 2021. 83 Jennifer Jett and Ben Dooley, “Fukushima Wastewater Will Be Released Into the Ocean, Japan Says,” New York Times, April 12, 2021; Dennis Normile, “Japan Plans to Release Fukushima’s Wastewater into the Ocean,” Science, April 13, 2021. 84 “ENSI Report on Fukushima III: Lessons Learned,” Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate, https://www.ensi.ch/en/ensi-report-on-fukushima-iii-lessons-learned/; “Organizational Issues of the Parties Involved in the Accident,” The National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission, https://warp.da.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/3856371/naiic.go.jp/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/NAIIC_Eng_Chapter5_web.pdf. 85 Magdalena Osumi, “Former TEPCO Executives Found Not Guilty of Criminal Negligence in Fukushima Nuclear Disaster,” Japan Times, September 19, 2019; “High Court Orders TEPCO to Pay More in Damages to Fukushima Evacuees,” The Mainichi, March 13, 2020; “TEPCO ordered to pay minimal damages to Fukushima evacuees; Japan gov’t liability denied,” The Mainichi, December 18, 2019; Motoko Rich, “Japan and Utility Are Found Negligent Again in Fukushima Meltdowns,” New York Times, October 10, 2017. 86 “Liability for Nuclear Damage,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/liability-for-nuclear-damage.aspx. 87 Miranda A. Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident and Implications for Japan,” in Fukushima, ed. Miranda A. Schreus and Fumikazu Yoshida, 1–20, here 16–20; David Elliott, Fukushima: Impacts and Implications (New York, 2013), 16–30. 88 “Nuclear Power in Japan,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-g-n/japan-nuclear-power.aspx; Steve Kidd, “Japan—is there a future in nuclear?” Nuclear Engineering International, July 4, 2018, https://www.neimagazine.com/opinion/opinionjapan-is-there-a-future-in-nuclear-6231610/; Ken Silverstein, “Japan Circling Back To Nuclear Power After Fukushima Disaster,” Forbes, September 8, 2017; Florentine Koppenborg, “Nuclear Restart Politics: How the ‘Nuclear Village’ Lost Policy Implementation Power,” Social Science Japan Journal 24, no. 1 (Winter 2021): 115–35. 89 Schreus, “The International Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Accident,” 7–10; Fumikazu Yoshida, “Future Perspectives,” in Fukushima, ed. Schreus and Yoshida, 113–16; Elliott, Fukushima, 32–37. 90 Abby Rogers, “The 20 Countries with The Most Nuclear Reactors,” Business Insider, October 11, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/the-countries-with-the-most-nuclear-reactors-2011-10#11-china-10; James Griffiths, “China’s gambling on a nuclear future, but is it destined to lose?” CNN Business, September 13, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/13/business/china-nuclear-climate-intl-hnk/index.html; “Nuclear Power in China,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx. 91 Mycle Schneider, Antony Froggatt et al., The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013 (Paris and London, July 2013), 6; Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Sean McDonagh, Fukushima: The Death Knell for Nuclear Energy? (Dublin, 2012). Afterword: WHAT COMES NEXT? 1. Ayesha Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation,” Reuters, February 9, 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nuclear-nrc/u-s-approves-first-new-nuclear-plant-in-a-generation-idUSTRE8182J720120209; Meghan Anzelc, “Gregory Jaczko, Ph.D. Physics, Commissioner, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,” American Physical Society, https://www.aps.org/units/fgsa/careers/non-traditional/jaczko.cfm; David Lochbaum, Edwin Lyman, Susan Q. Stranahan, and the Union of Concerned Scientists, Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster (New York, 2014), 89–96, 172–77. 2. Rascoe, “U.S. Approves First New Nuclear Plant in a Generation”; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 3 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog3.html; “Vogtle Electric Generating Plant, Unit 4 (Under Construction),” United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col-holder/vog4.html; Abbie Bennett, “Southern CEO maintains Vogtle Unit 3 will start up in 2022, despite latest delay,” S&P Global Market Intelligence, November 4, 2021. 3. “Our Mission,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/our-association/who-we-are/mission.aspx; “The Harmony Programme,” World Nuclear Association, https://world-nuclear.org/harmony; “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx. 4. Gregory Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator (New York, 2019), 163, 165. 5. “Outline History of Nuclear Energy,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclear-energy.aspx; Thomas Rose and Trevor Sweeting, “Severe Nuclear Accidents and Learning Effects,” IntechOpen, November 5, 2018, https://www.intechopen.com/books/statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics/severe-nuclear-accidents-and-learning-effects. 6. James Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents: A History of Nuclear Meltdowns and Disasters from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima (New York, 2014). 7. “International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES),” International Atomic Energy Agency, https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/international-nuclear-and-radiological-event-scale; Nuclear accidents—INES scale 1957–2011, Statista Research Department, May 12, 2011, https://www.statista.com/statistics/273002/the-biggest-nuclear-accidents-worldwide-rated-by-ines-scale/. 8. International Nuclear Law in the Post-Chernobyl Period: A Joint Report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 2006). 9. J. Schofield, “Nuclear Sharing and Pakistan, North Korea and Iran,” in Strategic Nuclear Sharing, Global Issues Series (London, 2014). 10 Jeffrey Cassandra and , “Big Money, Nuclear Subsidies, and Systemic Corruption,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, February 12, 2021. 11 Dan Yurman and David Dalton, “China Keen to Match Pace Set by Russia in Overseas Construction,” NucNET, The Independent Nuclear News Agency, January 23, 2020, https://www.nucnet.org/news/china-keen-to-match-pace-set-by-russia-in-overseas-construction-1-4-2020. 12 “Nuclear Power in the World Today,” World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx; Ivan Nechepurenko and Andrew Higgins, “Coming to a Country Near You: A Russian Nuclear Power Plant,” New York Times, March 21, 2020; Matthew Sparks, “Chernobyl radiation spike probably from Russian tanks disturbing dust,” New Scientist, February 25, 2022. 13 Bill Gates, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster: The Solutions We Have and the Breakthroughs We Need (New York, 2021), 118–19; Mahaffey, Atomic Accidents, 409. 14 Jaczko, Confessions of a Rogue Nuclear Regulator, 167. kgmrcjfre8oqvttn686acfh5u5pigqq User:PhantomTech/invisible chars.js 2 127552 519334 2022-07-31T04:47:24Z PhantomTech 27808 Created page with "$( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp {' + 'content: "\2022";' + '}' + '</style>' ); });" javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp {' + 'content: "\2022";' + '}' + '</style>' ); }); 7uzu202qic2bz9u0bukv8ajjlg2rm4w 519336 519334 2022-07-31T05:00:52Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + '}' + '</style>' ); }); naeeotdidu7bidbfcyz0acsmj1kfr0c 519337 519336 2022-07-31T05:03:56Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); }); em4kgdl1gvo8ogpklpdt7ribtnbrx91 519338 519337 2022-07-31T05:11:47Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); var pres = $('.diff-addedline div') for (var i = 0; i < pres.length; i++) { pres[i].html(pres[i].html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) } $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); i1y1n60dojtuwpsdhkj69bupu9u78kl 519339 519338 2022-07-31T05:19:15Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); 5sfgm0p0jdxtanxinqmmj14el1tast5 519340 519339 2022-07-31T05:21:20Z PhantomTech 27808 I'm using the guess and check development strategy javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); 2obn8d40n2pwesdrrsfyav7ajahsf17 519342 519340 2022-07-31T05:23:27Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-deletedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-context div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); 8jhqux3bpobzic4uvzl03hx59csbrss 519343 519342 2022-07-31T05:26:35Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); // $('.diff-deletedline div').each(function(){ // $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) // }); $('.diff-context div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); k84q8f5p5apfdjycl55ltp1cauyk7pp 519344 519343 2022-07-31T05:29:53Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::parent {' + 'font-family: monospace;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diffchange-inline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-deletedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-context div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); 06yh9nk92had4tmtb53eqdzwt627m5v 519345 519344 2022-07-31T06:00:35Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + 'p {' + 'font-family: u0000;' + '}' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diffchange-inline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-deletedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-context div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); dzr9jy9jgu3t27o8fb2re35v91n5byu 519346 519345 2022-07-31T06:02:00Z PhantomTech 27808 javascript text/javascript $( document ).ready( function () { $('head').append( '<style>' + '.invis-char-sp::before {' + 'content: "\u2022";' + 'position: absolute;' + 'opacity: 30%;' + '}' + '</style>' ); $('.diffchange-inline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-addedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-deletedline div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $('.diff-context div').each(function(){ $(this).html($(this).html().replace(/ /g, '<span class="invis-char-sp"> </span>')) }); $("invis-char-sp").parents().css("font-family", "monospace"); }); gtubpf4i6g9zld983edvh9ymbamrrmk Help:IPA/English 12 127553 519371 2022-07-31T11:58:03Z 2402:800:6313:9C46:7CFE:E433:D44E:F349 Created page with "Kxk" wikitext text/x-wiki Kxk 6q7adnc90qoc0yujgbvju8ve45ftcwf